3 - Actual Cycles

3.
Actual Cycles
•Comparison of Air-Standard and Actual Cycles
•Time Loss Factor
•Heat Loss Factor
•Exhaust Blowdown
•Loss due to Rubbing Friction
•Actual and Fuel-air Cycles of CI Engines
Reference: Chapter 5, Ganesan, V.(2004) Internal Combustion Engines,

McGraw- Hill, New York.
Background reading: Chapter 2-3, Ganesan (2004)
1
Comparison of Air-Standard and
Actual Cycles
The differences are mainly due to
(i) The working substance being mixture of air and
fuel vapour combined with the products of
combustion left from the previous cycles.
(ii) The variation of specific heats with
temperature.
(iii)The change in chemical composition of the
working substance.
(iv)The change in composition, temperature and
actual amount of fresh charge because of the
residual gas.
2
Actual Cycles (cont’)
(v) The progressive combustion rather than the

instantaneous combustion. air standard cycle -
heat losss can occur
(vi)The heat transfer to and from the working

medium.
(vii)The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e.
loss of work on the expansion stroke due to
early opening of the exhaust valve.
(viii)Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual
engines.chemical reaction occur at actual cycle in engine operation and efficiency
3
Actual Cycles
Out of all above factors, major influence is
exercised by
(i) Time loss factor i.e. loss due to time
required for mixing of fuel and air and also
biofuel mixing with air to become homogenous not
for combustion.
enough time
(ii) Heat loss factor i.e. loss of heat from gases

to cylinder walls.
(iii)Exhaust blowdown factor i.e. loss of work
on the expansion stroke due to early opening
of the exhaust valve.
4
1.Time Loss Factor
•In air-standard cycles the heat addition is
assumed to be an instantaneous process whereas
in an actual cycle it is over a definite period of
time.
•The time required for the combustion is about
30 to 40o between the initiation of the ignition
and the end of combustion. There will be a time
loss during this period and is called time loss
factor.
5
1.Time Loss Factor
Figure 1 The Effect of Time Losses shown on p-V diagram

6
1.Time Loss Factor
•This time taken for the burning depends upon
the flame velocity which in turn depends upon
the type of fuel and the fuel-air ratio and also on
the shape and size of the combustion chamber.
•In order that the peak pressure is not reached

too late in the expansion stroke, the time at
which the combustion starts is varied by varying
the ignition timing or ignition advance.
7
1.Time Loss Factor
Figure 2 Ignition at TDC, Advance 0o.

8
1.Time Loss Factor
Figure 3 Combustion Completed at TDC, Advance 35o.

9
1.Time Loss Factor
Figure 4 Optimal Advance 15-30o.

10
1.Time Loss Factor
Table 1 Cycle performance for various ignition
timing for r=6
Cycle Ignition Max cycle mep Efficiency Actual η
Advance pressure η Fuel-air η
o bar bar %
Fuel-air 0o 44 10.20 32.2 1
actual 0o 23 7.50 24.1 0.75
actual 17o 34 8.35 26.3 0.81
actual 35o 41 7.60 23.9 0.74

knocking occur
work engine will not stop Immedialy
11
1.Time Loss Factor
12
Figure 5 Diagram showing power loss due to ignition advance.
1.Time Loss Factor
•It should be noted that it is necessary to use a
too much air than fuel
lean mixture to eliminate wastage of fuel, while
a rich mixture is required to utilize all the
oxygen.
•Slightly leaner mixture would give maximum

efficiency but too lean a mixture will burn
slowly increasing the time losses or will not burn
at all causing total wastage of fuel.
13
1.Time Loss Factor
•In a rich mixture a part of the fuel will not get
necessary oxygen and will be completely lost.
•Also the flame speed in mixture more than 10%

richer is low, thereby, increasing the time losses
and lowering the efficiency.
•Even of this unused fuel and oxygen eventually

combine during the exhaust stroke and burn, the
energy which is released at such a late stage
cannot be utilized.
14
2.Heat Loss Factor
•During the combustion processes and the
subsequent expansion stroke the heat flows from
the cylinder gases through the cylinder walls and
cylinder head into the water jacket or cooling
fins.
•Some heat enters the piston head and flows

through the piston rings into the cylinder wall or
is carried away by the engine lubricating oil
which splashes on the underside of the piston.
15
2.Heat Loss Factor
thermal efficiency
lower
16
Figure 6 Time loss, Heat Loss and Exhaust Loss in CFR Engines.
3.Exhaust Blowdown
•If the exhaust valve is opened at the bottom
dead centre (BDC), the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure (~7 bar) during
the early part of the exhaust stroke.
•If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part

of the expansion stroke is lost.
•The best compromise is to open the exhaust

valve 40o to 70o before BDC thereby reducing
the cylinder pressure to halfway (~ 3.5 bar)
before the exhaust stroke begins. 17
3.Exhaust Blowdown
18
Figure 7 Effect of exhaust valve opening time on blowdown.
4.Pumping Loss
The different of work done in expelling the
exhaust gases and the work done by the fresh
charge during suction stroke is called the
pumping work.
•The pumping loss increase at part throttle

because throttling reduces the suction pressure.
Pumping loss also increases with speed.
•The pumping loss affect the volumetric

efficiency of the engine.
19
Volumetric Efficiency
The volumetric efficiency is affected by many
variable, some of the important ones are.
•The density of the fresh charge.

• Low temperature and high pressure
increases air density.
•The exhaust gas left in the clearance volume.
•The design of the intake and exhaust manifold.
•The timing of the intake and exhaust valves
20
Valve Timing
(a) low speed engine (b) high speed engine

21
Figure 8 Valve timing diagram of 4-stroke engine.
Exhaust Stroke
•During the exhaust stroke the piston forces the
burned gases out at high velocity.
•If the closing of the exhaust valve is delayed

beyond TDC, the inertia of the exhaust gases
tends to scavenge the cylinder better by carrying
out a greater mass of the gas left in the clearance
volume, and result in increased volumetric
efficiency.
distributor is to control ignition timing to obtain good efficiency
22
Valve Overlap
It should be noted that it is quite possible for
both the intake and exhaust valves to remain
open, or partially open, at the same time. This is
termed the valve overlap.
•The overlap must not be excessive enough to

allow the burned gases to be sucked into the
intake manifold, or the fresh charge to escape
through the exhaust valve.
23
5.Loss Due to Rubbing Friction
•These losses are due to friction between the
piston and the cylinder wall, friction in various
bearings, and also the energy spent in operating
the auxiliary equipment such as cooling water
pump, ignition system fan etc.
•The piston ring friction, bearing friction and the

auxiliary friction increase with engine speed.
24
6.Actual and Fuel-Air Cycle of CI
Engine
•In diesel cycle the losses are less than in the
Otto cycle. The main loss is due to incomplete
combustion in which the efficiency ratio between
the actual efficiency and the fuel-air cycle
efficiency is about 85% in the diesel engine.
•In fuel-air cycle the combustion is supposed to

be completed at the end of the constant pressure
burning whereas in actual after burning
continues up to half of the expansion stroke.
25
Actual Diesel Cycle
Figure 9 Actual Diesel Cycle vs equivalent fuel combustion limited

26
pressure cycle for two-stroke diesel engine.

3 - Actual Cycles

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Reference: Chapter 5, Ganesan, V.(2004) Internal Combustion Engines,

(v) The progressive combustion rather than the

(vi)The heat transfer to and from the working

(ii) Heat loss factor i.e. loss of heat from gases

Figure 1 The Effect of Time Losses shown on p-V diagram

•In order that the peak pressure is not reached

Figure 2 Ignition at TDC, Advance 0o.

Figure 3 Combustion Completed at TDC, Advance 35o.

Figure 4 Optimal Advance 15-30o.

Fuel-air 0o 44 10.20 32.2 1

actual 0o 23 7.50 24.1 0.75

actual 17o 34 8.35 26.3 0.81

actual 35o 41 7.60 23.9 0.74

•Slightly leaner mixture would give maximum

•Also the flame speed in mixture more than 10%

•Even of this unused fuel and oxygen eventually

•Some heat enters the piston head and flows

•If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part

•The best compromise is to open the exhaust

•The pumping loss increase at part throttle

•The pumping loss affect the volumetric

•The density of the fresh charge.

(a) low speed engine (b) high speed engine

•If the closing of the exhaust valve is delayed

•The overlap must not be excessive enough to

•The piston ring friction, bearing friction and the

•In fuel-air cycle the combustion is supposed to

Figure 9 Actual Diesel Cycle vs equivalent fuel combustion limited

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