____---

First PUblished August, 1973

Reprinted April, 1978
Reprinted April,1982
Reprinted March,1986
Reprinted June, 1990

Reprinted January, 1994

Reprinted June,.:1995
Reprinted January, 1998
Reprinted September, 2000 (Incorporates the amendments)

Reprinted April,2002
Reprinted December, 2003
First Revision June, 2004
Reprinted November, 2004
Reprinted December, 2005
Reprinted February, 2007
Reprinted February, 2008 (Incorporates the Errata)
No.1 dated 31.10.2007)
Reprinted October, 2009
Reprinted July, 2011
Reprinted December, 2012
Reprinted May, 2015
Reprinted July, 2017
Second Revision June, 2022
 IRC:SP:13-2022

..
GUIDELINES FOR THE
DESIGN OF SM,ALL BRIDGES
AND CULVERTS

(Second Revision)

Published by:

INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS

Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
New Delhi-110 022

JUNE, 2022

Price : ~ 800/-
(Plus Packing & Postage)
IRC:SP:13-2022

IRC:SP:13-2022
Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges and Culverts

Author's Name
Indian Roads Congress

Published by
Indian Roads Congress

Publisher's Address
Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K.Puram,NewDelhi-110022

Printer's Details
Aravali Printers & Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110 020

Edition Details
Second Revision, June, 2022

ISBN: 978-81-952755-2-6

(All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication shall be reproduced,

translated or transmitted in any form or by any means without the
permission of the Indian Roads Congress)

600 Copies

ii
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

PREFACE

Special Publication No.13 "Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges and Culverts" was first
published in 1973, based on the paper entitled "Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges
and Culverts" by Shri Goverdhan Lal, Additional Director General (Retd.) (Roads), Ministry of
Road Transport & Highways, Government of India. It is sincerely acknowledged that this Special
Publication has been serving as a text book and as one of main sources of knowledge to bridge
engineers specially with regard to discharge calculations.

The first revision of this Special Publication was taken up in 1994 under the Chairmanship of
Shri C. R. Alimchandani. The work was continued by the reconstituted Committee of General
Design Features (B-2) in 2000. The revised draft was prepared by Mr. C.v. Kand who was
helped by Sf Shri K.S. Jangde, S.M. Sabnis, A.S. Khare and S.P. Bodhe of earlier Committee.
The draft was discussed by the reconstituted B-2 Committee and was given the final shape
by a Sub committee comprising Dr. B.P. Bagish, Sf Shri A.D. Narain, G.S. Ta,unk, Ashok Basa
and S.K. Nirmal. As per directions of the Council and BSS Committee, the draft document was
further reviewed by Shri G.Sharan, Secretary IRC and Convener B-2 Committee and was finally
published in 2004.

The present revision has been taken up by IRC General Design Features (Bridge & Grade
Separated Structures) Committee (B-1) in the year 2018. The draft of this revised version has
been prepared by a Sub-committee of the B-1 Committee comprising Shri G. Sharan, (Chairman),
Dr. B.P. Bagish, Shri Ashok Basa, Shri H.C. Arora, Shri Dinesh Kumar and Shri P.v. Mayur. The
draft was approved by B-1 Committee in the meeting held on 15th Feb., 2020 and authorized
the Convener to incorporate any comments received from Members. The document has been
finalized by Sf Shri N.K. Sinha, Convener, G. Sharan and P.v. Mayur and presented to !Re.

The Composition of General Design Feature (Bridges and Separated Structures Committee
(B-1) is as given below:

Sinha, N.K. Convener

Singh, B.N. Co-Convener
Mayur, P.v. Member Secretary

Members

Arora, H.C. Dr. Roy, B.C.

Basa, Ashok Garg, Sanjay
Bhowmick, Alok Kumar, Ashok
Chand, Khushal Kumar, Dinesh
Chandak, P.R. Marwah, M.P.

"",.

iii
IRC:SP:13-2022

Col. Banerjee, S. Mittal, K.K

Dr. Bagish, B.P. Rastogi, O.K.
Dr. Dash, S.R. Sharan, G.
.'
Ohodhapkar,A.N. Sinha, B.K.
Dr. Goel, Rajeev Verma, G.L.
Dr. Kanhere, O.K.

Corresponding Members

Dr. Rao, M.v.B. Prof. Majumdar, S.K.

Patel, Suresh

Ex-Officio Members

President, IRC OG(RO) & SS MORTH

(Joshi, C.P.) (Pandey, I.K.)

Secretary General, IRC

(Nirmal, S.K.)

The draft document was considered and approved by the Bridges Specifications and Standards
Committee (BSS) in its meeting held on 27thOctober, 2020 with a few suggestions. The draft
was modified as per suggestions of BSS Committee, subsequently; the draft was approved by
the Executive Committee in its meeting held on 20thFebruary, 2021. The draft was discussed
and approved by the Council of the IRC in its 221stmeeting held on 20thFebruary, 2021 at New
Delhi.
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CONTENTS
Page
List of Plates vi
.'
Personnel of the Bridges Specifications & Standards Committee vii
Introduction ix
Chaptert General Aspects 1
Chapter 2 Site Selection & Inventory 3
Chapter 3 Collection of Design Data 5
Chapter 4 Empirical and Rational Formulae for Peak Run-off from Catchment 7
Chapter 5 Estimating Flood Discharge from the Conveyance
Factor and Slope of the Stream 19
Chapter 6 Design Discharge 23
Chapter 7 Alluvial Streams - Lacey's Equations 25
Chapter 8 Linear Waterway 27
Chapter 9 Normal Scour Depth of Streams 29
Chapter 10 Maximum Scour Depth 35
Chapter 11 Depth of Open Foundations for Bridges 37
Chapter 12 'Span and Vertical Clearance 39
Chapter 13 Geometric Standards, Specifications and Quality Control 41
Chapter 14 Structural Details of Small Bridges and Culverts 49
Chapter 15 Elements of the Hydraulics of Flow through Bridges 53
Chapter 16 Afflux 59
Chapter 17 Worked out Examples on Discharge Passed by Existing Bridges
from Flood Marks 65
Chapter 18 Overtopping of the Banks 71
Chapter 19 Pipe and Box Culverts "13
Chapter 20 Protection Work and Maintenance 81
Chapter 21 Raft Foundations 83
Chapter 22 HP Culverts in Black Cotton Soils 85
Chapter 23 Box Cell Structures 87

REFERENCES 88
APPENDICES
APPENDIX-A Filling Behind Abutments, Wing and Return Walls 89

v .~
v=
IRC:SP:13-2022

LIST OF PLATES

Plate No.
1. Chart for Time of Concentration

2. Run-off Chart for Small Catchments

3. Hydraulic Mean Depth R (METRES)

4. Typical Method of Determination of Weighted Mean Diameter of Particles (dm)

5. Abutment and Wing Wall Sections for Culverts

6. Details of segmental Masonry Arch Bridges without Footpaths - Effective Span 6.0 m
and 9.0 m

7. Typical Details of Floor Protection Works for Box Cell Structures - General Arrangement

8. RCC Pipe Culvert with Single Pipe of 1.2 Metre Dia and Concrete Cradle Bedding for
Heights of Fill Varying from 4.0 m - 8.0 m

9. RCC Pipe Culvert with Single Pipe of 1.2 Metre Dia and First-class Bedding for Heights
of Fill Varying from 0.6 m - 4.0 m

10. RCC Pipe Culvert with Two Pipes of 1.2 Metre Dia and Concrete Cradle Bedding for
Heights of Fill Varying from 4.0 m - 8.0 m

11. RCC Pipe Culvert with Two Pipes of 1.2 Metre Dia and First-class Bedding for Heights
of Fill Varying from 0.6 m - 4.0 m

12. Circular and Rectangular Pipe Flowing Full

vi
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

PERSONNEL OF THE BRIDGES SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS

COMMITTEE (As on 27.10.2020)

1. Pandey. l.k. Director General (Road Development) & Special

(Convenor) .' Secretary to Govt. of India, Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways, New Delhi
2. Balakrishna, Y. Additional Director General, Ministry of Road
(Co-Convenor) Transport and Highways, New Delhi
3. Kumar, Sanjeev Chief Engineer (S & R) Ministry of Road Transport
(Member Secretary) and Highways, New Delhi

Members

4. Bagish, Dr. B.P. Chief Engineer (Retd.), Road Construction

Department, Bihar
5. Banerjee, A.K. Member (Technical) (Retd.), National Highway
Authority of India
6. Basa, Ashok Managing Director, CEM Consultant (P) Ltd.
7. Bhide, D.A. Vice President (Design), MRMPL
8. Bhowmick, Alok Managing Director, B&S Engineering Consultants Pvt.
Ltd. U.P.
9. Chakrapani, R.V Mananging Director, Aarvee Associate
r 10. Director General, BRO (Anil Kumar, Chief Engineer) Border Road Organization
11. Gairola, ColPradeep GM (Project), BRIDCUL, Dehradun
12. Garg, Sanjay Chief Engineer, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,
New Delhi
13. Ghohal, A. Principal Advisor, STUP Consultants (P) Ltd., Kolkata
14. Gupta, Dr. Supratic Assistant Professor, liT Delhi
15. Heggade, VN. Sr. Vice President; Gammon India Ltd., Mumbai
16. HOD, Bridge Divison, (G.K. Sahu), CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi
CSIR-CRRI
17. Jaigopal, R.K. MD, Struct Geotech Research Laboratories (P) Ltd., Bangalore
18. Jatkar, Mohan Advisor, Gammon India Ltd.
19. Kataria, Ranjan Executive Director (Technical), Delhi Metro
20. Koshi, Ninan DG (RD) & AS (Retd.), Ministry of Surface Transport,
New Delhi
21. Maheshwari, Dr. B.K. Professor, liT Roorkee
22. Managing Director, RSRDC (M.G. Maheshwari) RSRDC
23. Managing Director, UPSBC (Rajan Mittal) UPSBC, Lucknow
24. Manisekar, Dr. R. Sr. Scientist, CSIR-SERC, Chennai
25. Mishra, Dr. Sudhir Professor, liT Kanpur

vii
IRC:SP: 13-2022

Secretary General, IRC

26; Nirmal, SK
Member (Project), National Highway Authority of India
27. Pandey, RK
(NHAI), New Delhi
Addl. Director General (Retd.), Ministry of Road
28. Pafankar, V.L
Transport and Highways, New Delhi
Superintending Engineer, PWD Delhi
29. Prasad, Mathura
DG(RD) & SS (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and
30. Puri, S.K.
Highways, New Delhi
Engineer-in-Chief (R&B) State Roads, CRN, PPP and
31. Rao, P. Ravinder
ROC, Telangana
DG(RD)&SS (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and
32. Sharan, G.
Highways, New Delhi
Engineer-in-Chief, Military Engineer Service (MES),
33. Sharma AVSM,
Lt. Gen. Suresh New Delhi
Managing Director, MIs Sugam Technocrats Pvt. Ltd.,
34. Sharma, R.S.
New Delhi
Chief Engineer, Ministry of Road Transport and
35. Sinha, B.K.
Highways, New Delhi
DG(RD)&SS (Retd.), Ministry of Road Transport and
36. Sinha, NK
Highways, New Delhi
Chief Design Engineer, L&T, Chennai
37. Subbhiya, Ravindra
Managing Director, Tandon Consultants (P) Ltd.,
38. Tandon, Prof. Mahesh
New Delhi

Vishwanathan, T Consultant, Delhi

39.
Corresponding Members
Director, Freyssinet Prestressed Concrete Co. Ltd,
1. Manjure, P.Y.
Mumbai

Sinha, Prof. Ravi Professor, liT Mumbai

2,
Chairman & Managing Director, Construma
3, Subbarao, Dr. Harshvardhan
Consultancy (P) Ltd. Mumbai

Ex-Offcio Members

President, (Joshi, C.P.)

1.
Secretary (Roads), PWD Maharashtra

Director General (Pandey, I.K.)

2. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi
(Road Development) &
Special Secretary to
Govt. of India

Secretary General, IRC

(Nirmal, S.K.)

viii
 IRC:SP:13-2022

INTRODUCTION

Small bridges and culverts are essential elements of highways. Forthe implementation of massive
road development programmes, it is necessary to update the changes with regard to various
codes of practice of Indian Roads Congress, so as to standardise the design methodology of
such structures and to reduce the time spent on project preparation and construction. With this
objective in view, the Special Publication No.13 "Guidelines for the Design of Small Bridges and
Culverts" has been updated taking into account a number of major changes in the provisions
therein. Important features are brought out below:

(i) Adoption of Limit State Design instead of Working Stress method

(ii) Design of concrete small bridges and culverts as per IRC:112

(iii) Enhanced Design life of culverts and small bridges

(iv) Return periods of floods for design of culverts and small bridges

(v) Adoption of Multi.;lanebridges and culverts

(vi) Withdrawal of standard drawings included in the First Revision, as these are based
on obsolete codes.

(vii) Precast construction for accelerated construction.

 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL ASPECTS
"

1.1. General: Provision of culverts and small bridges on roads and highways depends upon
the type of region and terrain. The location, size and other details of such structures should be
decided judiciously to cater for the requirements of discharge and balancing of water level on
either side of road embankment. Number of culverts in 1 km length of road in India varies from
one (flat country) to three (undulating regions) whereas one small bridge (upto 30 m length)
is found within 1 to 4 km length of the road. Number of culverts in hilly/undulating terrain is
generally more than in plain region.

1.2. Definitions

1.2.1. Bridge: A bridge is a structure having a total length above 6 m for carrying traffic or other
moving loads across a channel, depression, road or railway track or any other obstruction.

1.2.2. Minor Bridge: A minor bridge is a bridge having a total length of upto 60 m.

1.2.3. Small Bridge: A small bridge is a bridge where the overall length of the bridge between the
inner faces of dirt walls is upto 30 m and individual span is not more than '10m.

1.2.4. Culvert: Culvert is a structure having a total length of upto 6 m between the outer faces of
walls measured at right angles. Cross drainage structures with pipes will be termed as culvert,
irrespective of length.

1.3. Types of Small Bridges And Culverts

The small bridges and culverts can be of following types:

a) RCC Hume Pipes

b) RCC slab on masonry/concrete abutment and piers
c) Stone slab on masonry/concrete abutment and piers
d) RCC box cell structure
e) RCC/masonry arches on masonry/concrete abutment and piers

Stone slabs can be used upto 2 m span when good quality stones having 200 mm thickness are
available.

1A<Design Philosophy

1.4.1. General

Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of constructability,
safety, serviceability with due regard to issue of economy, aesthetics and sustainability. Provision

1
IRC:SP:13-2022

of IRC:112 shall be followed for design of concrete structures. Size of opening of culverts shall be
fixed in a manner which provides sufficient space for inspection and maintenance and to avoid
clogging. The limit states specified herein are intended to provide for a constructible, serviceable
bridge, capable of safely carrying design loads for a specified lifetime as given in IRC:5. Small
bridges and culverts need not be checked for seismic effects.

1.4.2 Limit States

1.4.2.1. Small bridges and Culverts are as important in the infrastructure as a major bridge.
Each structural component of the small bridge/culvert shall therefore satisfy the re-
quirements of design as spelt out in various IRC codes and standards as applicable.
1.4.2.2. Serviceability Limit State (SLS): The serviceability limit state shall be considered as
per IRC:112.
1.4.2.3. Ultimate Strength Limit State (ULS): Ultimate Strength limit state shall be considered
as per IRC:112.
1.4.2.4. Accidental Limit States: The accidental limit state shall be considered as per IRC:112.

1.4.3 Riding Quality

In order to improve the riding quality, number of expansion joints should be minimized. It is
preferable to go for Integral structures/continuous structures.

1.5. Standard Designs

1.5.1. Standard designs & drawings for slab bridges and RCC Boxes published by Ministry
of Road Transport & Highways are presently under revision because of change in design
philosophy from working stress method to limit state design besides incorporating changes in the
codal provisions. Hence the revised drawings of slab bridges and RCC Box sections, whenever
published, shall be applicable for adoption.

1.5.2. Mean while parameters of loadings for design of small bridges and culverts are furnished
below:

1.5.3. H.P. Culverts: RCC pipe culverts having minimum 1200 mm diameter of type NP4
conforming to IS:458. PSC pipes of NP4 type conforming to IS:784 may also be used for H.P.
culverts.

1.5.4. Provision of Bridge and Culvert with Respect to Catchment Area: It is generally found that
when catchment area is upto 1 sq. km (100 hectares) a culvert is required and for catchment
area more than 1 sq. km (100 hectares), a small bridge will be necessary.

2
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 2

SITE SELECTION & INVENTORY

.'
2.1. Selection of Site: Normally selection of site for culverts and small bridges is guided by
road alignment. However, where there is choice, select a site:

(i) Which is situated on a straight reach of stream, sufficiently down stream of bends;

(ii) Which is sufficiently away from the confluence of large tributaries as to be beyond their
disturbing influence;

(iii) Which has well defined banks;

(iv) Which make approach roads feasible on the straight; and

(v) Which offers a square crossing.

2.2. Existing Drainage Structures: If, there is an existing road or railway bridge or culvert
over the same stream within 500 m from the selected site, the best means of ascertaining the
maximum discharge is to calculate it from data collected by personal inspection of the existing
structure. Detailed inspection and local inquiry will provide very useful information, namely, marks
indicating the maximum flood level, the afflux, the tendency to scour, the probable maximum
discharge, the likelihood of collection of brushwood during floods, and many other particulars.
It should be seEmwhether the existing structure is too large or too small or whether it has other
defects. The size and other parameters of existing structures must be recorded. Also, whether
the road has been overtopped must be enquired and recorded.

2.3. Inventory should also include taking notes on channel conditions from which the silt factor
and the co-efficient of rugosity can be computed.

3
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 3

COLLECTION OF DESIGN DATA

3.1. In additio~ to the information obtained by inventory of an existing structure, the design data
described in the following paragraphs have to be collected. What is specified herein is sufficient
only for small bridges and culverts. For larger structures, detailed instructions contained in IRC:5
the Standard Specifications & Code of Practice for Bridges - General Features of Design and
IRC:SP:54 Project Preparation Manual for Bridges should be followed.

3.2. Catchment Area: When the catchment, as seen from the "tapa" (G.T.) sheet, is less than
1.25 sq. km in area, a traverse should be made along the watershed. Larger catchments can be
read from the 1 cm = 500 m tapa maps of the Survey of India by marking the watershed in pencil
and reading the included area by placing a piece of transparent square paper over it.

Catchment area can be delineated using tapa-sheets of appropriate scale developed by Survey
of India. For flat areas where ground elevation difference is very less, catchment area and other
physiographic parameters can be estimated by using digital elevation model (OEM) and GIS
tools. Catchment area may also be calculated by software's like BHUVAN developed by ISRO
or by Google Earth. images in any GIS software or 3-Dimensional CAD formats, which can be
used to delineate even small catchment areas.

3.3. Cross-Sections: For a sizable stream, at least three cross-sections should be taken at
right angles to the river alignment, namely, one at the selected site, one upstream and another
downstream of the site, all to the horizontal scale of not less than 1 cm to 10m or 1/1000 and
with an exaggerated vertical scale of not less than 1 cm to 1 mar 1/100. Approximate distances,
upstream and downstream of the selected site of crossing at which cross-sections should be
taken are given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1

Catchment Area Distance (u/s and dIs of the crossing) at

Which Cross-Sections Should Be Taken

1. Upto 3.0 sq.km 100 m

2. From 3.0 to 15 sq.km 300 m

3. Over 15 sq. km 500m

The cross-section at the proposed site of the crossing should show level at close intervals and
indicate outcrops of rocks, pools, etc. Often an existing road or a cart track crosses the stream
at the site selected for the bridge. In such a case, the cross-section should not be taken along
the centerline of the road or the track as that will not represent the natural shape and size of the
channel. The cross-section should be taken at a short distance on downstream of the selected
site.
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

3.4. In the case of very small streams (catchments of 40 hectares or less) one cross section may
db but it should be carefully plotted so as to represent truly the normal size and shape of the
channel on a straight reach.

3.5. Hig"hest Flood Level: The highest flood level should be ascertained by judicial local
observation, supplemented by local enquiry, and marked on the cross-sections. Design HFL
corresponding to design flood of a given return period can be found from stage-discharge Curve.

3.6. Longitudinal Section: The longitudinal section should extend upstream and downstream
of the proposed site for the distances indicated in Table 3.1 and should show levels of the bed,
the low water level and the highest flood level.

3.7. Velocity Observation: Attempts should be made to observe the velocity during an actual
flood and, if that flood is smaller than the Design peak flood, the observed velocity should be
suitably increased. The velocity thus obtained is a good check on the accuracy of that calculated
theoretically. Simplest way is to use a float to find surface velocity (Vs). Mean flow velocity is 0.8
Vs.

3.8. Trial Pit Sections:

3.8.1. Where the rock or some firm undisturbed soil stratum is not likely to be far below the
"alluvial bed of the stream, a trial pit should be dug down to such rock or firms oil. But if there is
no rock or undisturbed firm soil for a great depth below the stream bed level, then the trial pit may
be taken down roughly 2 to 3 meters below the lowest bed level. The location of each trial pit
should be shown in the cross-section of the proposed site. The trial pit section should be plotted
to show the kind of soils passed through. However, depth of trial pit in soils shall be minimum
2 m for culverts and 3 m for small bridges.

For more detailed investigation procedure given in IRC:78 may be referred to.

3.8.2. For Pipe culverts, one trial pit is sufficient. The result should be inserted on the cross-
section.

3.9. Return Period or Frequency of Peak Run-Off

Return periods or frequency of peak run-off for design of small bridges and culverts shall be
considered as under:

(i) Small bridges - 100 years

(ii) Culverts - 50 years

3.10, ISO·Pluvial Maps: ISO-pluvial maps prepared jointly by CWC, RDSO, IMD & MoRTH and
published by CWC for different regions titled "Flood Estimation Report" give 24 hr. rainfall value
of different return periods e.g., 25, 50 and 100 yr. return period. Table-4.1 can be used to convert
24 hr. rainfall of given frequency (to be read from Iso-Pluvial maps) to rainfall corresponding to
time of concentration to be determined for the given catchment.

6
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 4

EMPIRICAL AND RATIONAL FORMULAE FOR PEAK RUN-OFF

FROM CATCHMENT
..
4.1. Although records of rainfall exist to some extent, actual records of floods are seldom
available in such sufficiency as to enable the engineer accurately to infer the worst flood conditions
for which provision should be made in designing a bridge. Therefore, recourse has to be taken to
theoretical computations. In this Article some of the most popular empirical formulae are
mentioned.

4.2. Dickens Formula

Q = CM3/4 ...... (4.1)

Where

Q = the peak run-off in m3/s and M is the catchment area in sq. km

C = 11 - 14 where the annual rainfall is 600 - 1200 mm
= 14 - 19 where the annual rainfall is more than 1200 mm
= 22 in Western Ghats

4.3. Ryve's Formula:

This formula was devised for erstwhile Madras Presidency.

Q = CM2/3 ...... (4.2)

Where

Q = Run-off in m3/s and M is the catchment area in sq. km

C = 6.8 for areas within 25 km of the coast
= 8.5 for areas between 25 km and 160 km of the coast
= 10.0 for limited areas near the hills

4.4. Ingli's Formula:

3
This empirical formula was devised for erstwhile Bombay Presidency
125 M )
Q= ( ~ ...... (4.3)

Where
d
e Q = maximum flOodldischarge in m3/s
rt
0
M = the area of the catchment in sq.km

7 ~,
",.
IRC:SP:13-2022

4.5. These empirical formulae involve only one factor viz. the area of the catchment and all the
other factors that affect the run-off have to be taken care of in selecting an appropriate value of
the co-efficient. This is extreme simplification of the problem and cannot be expected to yield
accurate results.
.'
4.6. A correct value of C can only be derived for a given region from an extensive analytical study
of the measured flood discharges vis-a-vis catchment areas of streams in the region. Any value
of C will be valid only for the region for which it has been determined in this way. Each basin
has its own singularities affecting run-off. Since actual flood records are seldom available, the
formulae leave much to the judgment of the engineer. Also, since the formulae do not consider
rainfall, they are unreliable. Many other similar empirical formulae are in use but none of them
encompasses all possible conditions of terrain and climate.

4.7. Rational Formulae for Peak Run-Off from Catchment

4.7.1. In recent years, hydrological studies have been made and theories set forth which
comprehend the effect of the characteristics of the catchment on run-off. Attempts also have
been made to establish relationships between rainfall and run-off under various circumstances.
Some elementary account of the rationale of these theories is given in the following paragraphs.

4.7.2. Main factors:

Th~size of the flood depends on the following major factors.

Rainfall

(1) Intensity

(2) Distribution in time and space

(3) Duration

Nature of Catchment

(1) Area

(2) Shape

(3) Slope

(4) Permeability of the soil and vegetable cover

(5) Initial state of wetness

4.7.3. Relation Between the Intensity and Duration of A Storm: Suppose in an individual storm,
F cm of rain falls in T hours, then over the whole interval of time T, the mean intensity I will
be FIT cm per hour. Now, within the duration T, imagine a smaller time interval t (Fig. 4.1).
Since the intensity is not uniform through-out, the mean intensity reckoned over the time interval

8
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

t (placed suitably within T) will be higher than the mean intensity i.e., I taken over the whole
period. Mean intensity Le., I = FIT in cmlhr is less than Ie which is the critical intensity of rainfall
in cmlhr corresponding to time of concentration, te in hrs.

It is also known that the mean intensity of a storm of shorter duration can be higher than that of
a prolonged one.

In other words, the intensity of a storm is some inverse function of its duration. It has been
reasonably well established that
T+c
t+c .. , ... (4.4a)

Where c is a constant

x
DURATION OP STORM
Fia- ....

Analysis of rainfall statistics has shown that for all but extreme cases, c = 1 when time is measured
in hours and precipitation in cm.
T+l
t+l ...... (4.4b)

. I (T+l)
or 1= -
t+l ...... (4.4c)

Also

i = ~ (T+l)
T t+l ...... (4.4d)

Thus, ifthe total precipitation F and duration T of a storm are known then the intensity corresponding
to t, which is a time interval within the duration of the storm can be estimated.

_..+
9
IRC:SP:13-2022

4.7.4. For an appreciation of the physical significance of this relationship, some typical cases are
considered below:

Take ap intense but brief storm which drops (say) 5 cm of rain in 20 minutes. The average
intensity comes to 15 cm per hour. For a short interval t of, say 6 minutes, within the duration of
the storm the intensity can be as high as

.
1 = -TF (T+l)
-t+l = -0.33
5 (0.33+1) = 18.2 cm per hour
0.1+1 (4.5)

Storms of very short duration and 6 minute intensities within them (and, in general, all such
high but momentary intensities of rainfall) have little significance in connection with the design
of culverts except in built-up areas where the concentration time can be very short (see para
4.7.5.1) due to the rapidity of flow from pavements and roofs.

Next consider a region where storms are of medium size and duration. Suppose 15 cm of rainfalls
in 3 hours. The average intensity works out to 5 cm per hour. But in time interval of one hour
within the storm the intensity can be as much as

-15 -- = 10 cm per hour

(3+1)
3 1+1 ...... (4.6)

For the purpose of designing waterway of bridge such a storm is said to be equivalent of a" one
hour rainfall of 10 cm".

Lastly, consider a very wet region of prolonged storms, where a storm drops, say, 18 cm of rain
in 6 hours. In a time interval of one hour within the storm the intensity can be as high as

-18 (6+1)
-- = 10.5 em per hour
6 1+1 ...... (4.7)

Thus, such a storm is equivalent of a "one hour storm of 10.5 ern",

4.7.5. "One-Hour Rainfall" for a Region for Designing Waterway of Bridges/Culverts: Since a
bridge should be designed for peak run-off resulting from the severest storm (in the region) that
occurs once in 100 years, following procedure may be adopted for design of waterway. Let the
total precipitation of that storm be F cm and duration T hours. Consider a time interval of one hour
somewhere within the duration of the storm. The precipitation in that hour could be as high as

= F (T + 1)
T 1+ 1

or

10
 IRC:SP:13-2022

Hence the design of the bridge will be based on a "one-hour rainfall of say 'ocm",where

I = ~ (1 +
o 2
'!')cm
T (4.8)
.'
Suppose Fig. 4.1 represents the severest storm experienced in a region. If t represents one
hour, then the shaded area ADBC will represent '0'
It is convenient and common that the storm potential of a region for a given period of years
'0
should be characterized by specifying the "one-hour rainfall" of the region for the purpose of
designing the waterways of bridges in that region.

,o has to be determined from F and T of the severest storm. That storm may not necessarily be
'0
the most prolonged storm. The correct procedure for finding is to take a number of really heavy
and prolonged storms and work out/from F and T of each of them. The maximum of the values
s of thus found should be accepted as "one hour rainfall" of the region for designing bridges.
r
,o of a region does not have to be found for each design problem. It is a characteristic of the
whole region and applies to a pretty vast area subject to the same weather conditions. of a '0
region should be found once for all and should be known to the local engineers.
)
Heaviest rain fall in mm/hour in current years for a particular place may be obtained from
Meteorological Department of the Government of India.

'0
Start with and then modify it to suit the concentration time (see next para) of the catchment
n area in each specific case. This will now be explained.

Since Design flood for bridges is 100year and that of culvert is 25 to 50 year, rainfall corresponding
to those return periods only should be used for estimating design peak flood. Design rainfall can
')
be found from Intensity-duration curves for different return periods provided such curve are
available from IMD for the region in which bridge/culvert is located. However, such curves are
rarely available. Iso-Pluvial maps, as mentioned in para 3.10, can also be used to convert 24
a hour rainfall to rainfall corresponding to time of concentration to be determined for the given
catchment.
e
ir 4.7.5.1. Time of concentration (tj: The time taken by the run-off from the farthest point on the
periphery of the catchment (called the critical point) to" reach the site of the culvert is called the
"concentration time". In considering the intensity of precipitation it was said that the shorter the
duration considered the higher the intensity will be. Thus, safety would seem to lie in designing
for a high intensity corresponding to a very small interval of time. But this interval should not
be shorter than the concentration time of the catchment under consideration, as otherwise the
flow from distant parts of the catchment will not be able to reach the bridge in time to make its
contribution in raising the peak discharge. Therefore, when examining a particular catchment,
IRC:SP: 13-2022

only the intensity corresponding to the duration equal to the concentration period (tc) of the
'catchment, needs to be considered.

4.7.5.2. Estimating the concentration time of a catchment (t): The concentration time depends
on (1) fhe distance from the critical point to the structure; and (2) the average velocity of flow. The
slope, the roughness of the drainage channel and the depth of flow govern the later. Complicated
formulae exist for deriving the time of concentration from the characteristics of the catchment.
For our purpose, however, the following simple relationship (11) will do

tC = ( 087x-L3)0.385
• H ...... (4.9)

tc= the concentration time in hours

L = the distance from the critical point to. the structure in km.
H = the fall in level from the critical point to the structure in m.

Land H can be found from the survey plans of the catchment area and t calculated from Equation
(4.9).

Plate 1 contains graphs from which tc can be directly read for known values of Land H.

-'1..7.6. The Critical or Design Intensity: The critical intensity for a catchment is that maximum
intensity which can occur in a time interval equal to the concentration time tc of the catchment
during the severest storm (in the region) of a given frequency Ic'

Since each catchment has its own te it will have its own Ie.

If we put t = tein the basic equation (4.4d) and write Iefor the resulting intensity, We get

1 = ~T (T+l)
tc+1
C ...... (4.10a)

Combination this with equation (4.8), we get

1-1(-2)tc+1
C - 0
...... (4.10b)

4.7.7. Calculation of Run-Off: A precipitation of Ie cm per hour over an area of A hectares,

, will
give rise to run-off

Where

Q = 0.028 A Iem3/s

To account for losses due to absorption etc. introduce a co-efficient P.

12
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

e Then

Q = 0.028 P A t, ...(4.11)
s
e Where ..
d
t.
Q = run-off in m3/s
A = area of catchment in hectares
Ie = critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hour
I) P = co-efficient of run-off for the catchment characteristics
The principal factors governing P are: (i) porosity of the soil, (ii) area, shape and size of the
catchment, (iii) vegetation cover, (iv) surface storage viz. existence of lakes and marshes, and(v)
initial state of wetness of the soil. Catchments vary so much with regard to these characteristics
that it is evidently impossible to do more than generalize on the values of P. Judgment and
experience must be used in fixing P. Also see Table 4.1 for guidance.
n
Table 4.1 Maximum Value of P in the Formula Q = 0.028 PAle
Steep, bare rock and also city pavements 0.90
n Rock, steep but wooded 0.80
1t Plateaus, lightly covered 0.70
Clayey soils, stiff and bare 0.60
Clayey soils, lightly covered 0.50
Loam, lightly cultivated or covered 0.40
Loam, largely cultivated 0.30
Sandy soil, light growth 0.20
Sandy soil, covered heavy bush 0.10

4.7.8. Relation Between Intensity and Spread of Storm: Rainfall recording stations are points
in the space and therefore the intensities recorded there are point intensities. Imagine an area
around a recording station. The intensity will be highest at the center and will gradually diminish
ill
as we go farther away from the center, till at the fringes of the area covered by the storm,
III
intensity will be zero. The larger the area considered the smaller would be the mean intensity. It
is, therefore, logical to say that the mean intensity is some inverse function of the size of the area.

If I is the maximum point intensity at the center of the storm then the mean intensity reckoned
over an area "a" is some fraction "f" of I. The fraction f depends on the area "a" and the relation
is represented by the curve in Fig. 4.2 which has been constructed from statistical analysis.

In hydrological theories it is assumed that the spread of the storm is equal to the area of the
catchment. Therefore in Fig. 4.2 the area "a" is taken to be the same as the area of the catchment.
IRC:SP: 13-2022

The effect of this assumption can lead to errors which, on analysis have been found to be limited
10 about 12 per cent [5]

4.7.9. The Run-Off Formula: Introducing the factor f in the Equation 4.11 we get,

Q = 0.028 P f Ale ...(4.12)

Q = 0.028 P fA 10(_2 1 ).
tc+ ...(4.13)

1.0

0.9 \
0.8
\ I

J
I
0.7
\ ~
-
<, ~
0.6

0.5
o 1.0000 20000 30000 40000·
CATCHMENT
AREAINHECTARES-

Fil. 4.1 'r carve

Q = (0.028Alo 2 f P) = A I )\
tc+1 0 ...(4.14)

Where
)\= 0.056 fP
tc+1 ...(4.14a)

In the equation (4.14a), 10 measures the role played by the clouds of the region and A that of the
catchment in producing the peak run-off.

14
 IRC:SP:13-2022

It should be clear from the foregoing discussion that the components of A, are function of A, L
and H of the catchment.

4.7.10. Steps for Calculating the Run-Off

.. )

Step 1: Note down A in hectares, L in km and H in metre from the survey maps of the area.

Step 2: Estimate 10 for the region, preferably from rainfall records failing that from local
knowledge.

1 =~(1 +_1 )
o 2 T

Where F is rainfall in cm dropped by the severe st storm in T hours.

Step 3:See Plate 1 and read values of tc, P, and ffor known values of L, H and A

Then calculate

0.OS6jP

Step 4: Calculate Q=A/i.

4.7.11. Example: Calculate the run-off for designing a bridge across a stream.

Given Catchment: L = 5 km; H = 30 metre; A = 10 sq. km= 1000 hectare. Loamy soil largely
cultivated.

Rainfall: The severest storm that is known to have occurred in 20 years resulted in 15 cm of rain
in 2.5 hours.

Solution:

1=- F (T--+ 1) = -,-IS ( 2.S + 1 ) = 10.S em per hour

.) OTt +1 2.S 1+ 1
From Plate 1, tc = 1.7 hours; f = 0.97; P = 0.30

0.OS6 fP 0.OS6 x 0.97 x 0.30

A. = --- = =0.006
tc + 1 1.7 + 1
Q = A 10 A. = 1000 x 10.S x 0.006 = 63.6 m3/s
e

15
 IRC:SP:13-2022

4.7.12. Run-Off Curves for Small Catchment Areas (Plate 2): Suppose the catchment areas A in
hectares and the average slope S of the main drainage channel are known. Assuming that the
length of the catchment is 3 times its width, then both Land H [as defined in para (4.7.5.2)], can
be expressed in terms of A and S and then tc calculated from equation (4.9).

Also, for small areas, f may be taken equal to one, then vide para 4.7.9.

0.056)
Q=PloA ( 1
tc +
For '0 = 1 cm, the equation becomes,

Q = PA (0.056.)
tc+1 ...(4.15)

Hence Q can be calculated for various values of P, A and S. This has been done and curves
plotted in Plate 2.

Plate 2 can be used for small culverts with basins upto 1500 hectares or 15 sq. km. The value
of run-off read from Plate 2 are of "One Hour rainfall", Io , of one cm. These values have to be
multiplied by the '0 of the region. An example will illustrate the use of this Plate.
v
4.7.13. Example: The basin of a stream is loamy soil largely cultivated, and the area of the
catchment is 10 sq. km. The average slope of the stream is 10 per cent. Calculate the run-off (/0'
the one-hour rainfall of the region is 2.5 cm).

Use Plate 2. For largely cultivated loamy soil P = 0.3 vide the Table set in Plate 2.

Enter the diagram at A = 10 sq. km = 1000 hectares; move vertically up to intersect the slope line
of 10 per cent. Then, move horizontally to intersect the 00 line join the intersection with P = 0.3
and extend to the run-off (q) scale and read.

q = 10.2 m /s
3

Multiply with ,0,

Q = 10.2x2.5 = 25.5 m3/s

4.7.14. Conclusion: The use of empirical formulae should be done with due diligence. The
average designer who cannot rely so much on his intuition and judgment should go by the
rational procedure outlined above.

The data required for the rational treatment, viz., A, Land H can be easily read from the survey
'0
plans. As regards it should be realized that this does not have to be calculated for each design
problem. This is the storm characteristic of the whole region, with pretty vast area, and should
be known to the local engineers.

16
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

Complicated formulae, of which there is abundance, have been purposely avoided in this Article.
Indeed, for a terse treatment, the factors involved are so many and their interplay so complicated
that recourse need be taken to such treatment only when very important structures are involved
and accurate data can be collected. For small bridges, the simple formulae given here will give
sufficiently accurate results.

17 ..
;I>
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 5

ESTIMATING FLOOD DISCHARGE FROM THE CONVEYANCE

FACTOR AND SLOPE OF THE STREAM
."

5.1. In a stream with rigid boundaries (bed and banks) the shape and the size of the cross-
section is significantly the same during a flood as after its subsidence. If the HFL is plotted and
the bed slope is measured, it is simple to calculate the discharge.

5.2. But a stream flowing in alluvium, will have a larger cross-sectional area when in flood than
that which may be surveyed and plotted after the flood has subsided. During the flood the velocity
is high and, therefore, an alluvial stream scours its bed, but when the flood subsides, the velocity
diminishes and the bed progressively silts up again. From this it follows that before we start
estimating the flood conveying capacity of the stream from the plotted cross-section, we should
ascertain the depth of scour and plot on the cross-section the average scoured bed line that is
likely to prevail during the high flood.

5.3. The best thing to do is to inspect the scour holes in the vicinity of the site, look at the size
and the degree of incoherence of the grains of the bed material, have an idea of the probable
velocity of flow during the flood, study the trial bore section and then judge what should be taken
as the probable average scoured bed line.

5.4. Calculation of Velocity: Plot the probable scoured bed line. Measure the cross-sectional
area A in m2 an~ the wetted perimeter P in m. Then calculate the hydraulic mean depth, R by the
formula.

R= ~(inm)
p ..... (5.1 )

Next, measure the bed slope S from the plotted longitudinal section of the stream. Velocity can
then be easily calculated from one of the many formulae. To mention one, viz., the Manning's
formula:

..... (5.2)

Where

V = Mean velocity of flow (the velocity in mls considered uniform throughout the cross-section)
(to be undone)
R= the hydraulic mean depth
S= the energy slope which may be taken equal to the bed slope, measured over a reasonably
long reach, say 500 m or more

n= the rugosity co-efficient

19
IRC:SP: 13-2022

For values of n, see Table 5.1. Judgment and experience are necessary in selecting a proper
value of n for a given stream.

Table 5.1 Rugosity Co-efficient, n

Surface Perfect Good Fair Bad

Natural Streams 0.025 0.0275 0.03 0.033

(1) Clean, straight bank, full stage, no rifts or deep pools
(2) Same as (1), but some weeds and stones .0.03 0.033 0.035 0.04
(3) Winding, some pools and shoals, clean 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
(4) Same as (3), lower stages, more ineffective slope and ·0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055
sections
(5) Same as (3), some weeds and stones 0.033 0.035 0.04 0.045
I

(6) Same as (4), stoney sections 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06

(7) Sluggish river reaches, rather weedy or with very 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
deep pools
,(8) Very weedy reaches 0.075 0.1 0.125 0.15

5.5. Calculation of Discharge

Q =A.V. .. ...(5.3)
AR 2/3 Sl/2
Q=
n ..... (5.4)
Q = ASl/2 ..... (5.5)

AR2/3
Where, A = --
n
'A is a function of the size, shape and roughness of the stream and is called its conveyance factor.
Thus, the discharge carrying capacity of a stream depends on its conveyance factor and slope.

5.6. When the cross-section is not plotted to the natural scale (the same scale horizontally and
vertically), the wetted perimeter cannot be scaled off directly from the section and has to be
calculated. Divide up the wetted line into a convenient number of parts, AB, BC and CD, etc. (Fig.
5.1). Consider one such part, say PQ, let PR and QR be its horizontal and vertical projections.

Then PQ = .jPR2 + QR2 Now, PR can be measured on the horizontal scale of the given cross-
section and QR on the vertical. PQ can then be calculated. Similarly, the length of each part is
calculated. Their sum gives the wetted perimeter.

20
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

H.F.L

1cm=1m 1crn=1m
.'

1 em= 10m

Fig. 5.1

5.7. If the shape of the cross-section is irregular as happens when a stream rises above its
banks and shallow overflows are created (Fig. 5.2) it is necessary to subdivide the channel into
two or three sub-sections. Then Rand n are found for each sub-section and their velocities and
discharges computed separately.

H.F.L

SUB SECTION-1 SUB SECTION·3

Fig. 5.2

Where further elaboration is justified, corrections for velocity distribution, change of slope, etc.
may be applied. Books on Hydraulics give standard methods for this purpose.

5.S. Velocity Curves: To save time in computation, curves have been plotted in Plate 3. Given
R, Sand n, velocity can be read from this plate.

5.9. Better Measure Than Calculate Velocity: It is preferable to observe the velocity during a
high flood. When it is not possible to wait for the occurrence of high flood, the velocity may be
observed in a moderate flood and used as a check on the theoretical calculations of velocity.
In making velocity observations, the selected reach should be straight, uniform and reasonably
long.

5.10. The flood discharge should be calculated at each of the three cross-sections, which
as already explained in para 3.3 should be plotted for all except very small structures. If the
difference in the three discharges, thus, calculated is more than 10 per cent the discrepancy has
to be investigated.
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 6

DESIGN DISCHARGE

6.1. Estimated Flood Discharge from Flood Marks on an Existing Structure

6.1.1. Having collected the necessary information from inspection as mentioned in para 2.2, the
discharge passed by an existing structure can be calculated by applying an appropriate formula.
In Article 15 some formulae for calculating discharges from flood marks on existing bridges are
discussed. Worked out examples have been included in Article 17.

6.1.2. Distinct water mark on bridge piers and other structures can be easily found immediately
following the flood. Sometimes these marks can be identified years afterwards but it is advisable
to survey them as soon after the flood is possible. Turbulence, standing wave and slashing
may have caused a spread in the flood marks but the belt of this spread is mostly narrow and
a reasonably correct profile of the surface line can be traced on the sides of piers and faces of
abutments. This is perhaps the most reliable way of estimating a flood discharge because in
the formulae discussed in Article-15 the co-efficient involved have been accurately found by
experiments.

6.2. Fixing Design Discharge

6.2.1. The Recommended Rule: Flood discharges can be estimated in three different ways as
explained in Para 4.1 to 6.1.2. The values obtained should be compared. The highest of these
values should be adopted as the design discharge Q, provided it does not exceed the next
highest discharge by more than 50 per cent. If it does, restrict it to that limit. That is 1.5 times of
second highest.

6.2.2. Sound Economy: The designer is not expected to aim at designing a structure of such
copious dimensions that it should pass a flood of any possible magnitude that can occur during
the lifetime of the structure. Sound economy requires that the structure should be able to easily
pass floods of a specified frequency and that extraordinary and rare floods should pass without
causing excessive damage to the structure or the road.

6.2.3. The necessity for this elaborate procedure for fixing Q arises for sizeable structures. As
regards small culverts, Q may betaken as the discharge determined from the run-off formulae.

23
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 7

ALLUVIAL STREAMS LACEY'S EQUATIONS

.'

7.1. The section of a stream, having rigid boundaries, is the same during the flood and after its
subsidence. But this is not so in the case of streams flowing within, partially or wholly, erodible
boundaries. In the latter case, a probable flood section has to be evolved from the theoretical
premises for the purpose of designing a bridge; it is seldom possible to measure the cross-
section during the high flood.

7.2. Wholly Erodible Section. Lacey's Theory: Streams flowing in alluvium are wide and
shallow and meander a great deal. The surface width and the normal scoured depth of such
streams have to be calculated theoretically from concepts which are not wholly rational. The
theory that has gained wide popularity in India is "Lacey's Theory of Flow in IncoherentAliuvium".
The salient points of that theory, relevant to the present subject, are outlined here.

7.3. A stream, whose bed and banks are composed of loose granular material, that has been
deposited by the stream and can be picked-up and transported again by the current during
flood, is said to flow through incoherent alluvium and may be briefly referred to as an alluvial
stream. Such a stream tends to scour or silt up till it has acquired such a cross-section and (more
particularly) such a slope that the resulting velocity is "non-silting and non-scouring". When this
happens, the stream becomes stable and tends to maintain the acquired shape and size of
its cross-section and the acquired slope. It is then said: "to have come to regime" and can be
regarded as stable.

7.4. Lacey's Equation: When an alluvial stream carrying known discharge, Q has come to
regime, it has a regime wetted perimeter P, a regime slope S, and regime hydraulic mean depth
R, in consequence, it will have a fixed area of cross-section A and a fixed velocity V. For these
regime characteristics of an alluvial channel, Lacey suggests[181the following relationships. It
should be noted that the only independent entities involved are Q and Ksf' The Ksf is called silt
factor and its value depends on the size of the grains of the alluvium. Its value is given by the
formula:

Ksf = 1.76 Jd:: ...(7.1 a)

where dm is the weighted mean diameter of the particles in mm. Table 7.1 gives values of KSf for
different bed materials.

(Typical method of determination of weighted mean diameter of particles (dm) as given in

Appendix-2 of IRC:5 is reproduced in Plate 4).

(a) Regime Cross-Section

p:: 4.8Q y. ...(7.1 b)

IRC:SP: 13-2022

(This may vary from 4.5Q1/2 to 6.3Q1/2 according to local conditions)

0.473 Q1/3
It == 1/3
Ks[ ...(7.1c)
0.0003[5/3
S == 1/6
Ks[ ...(7.1d)

(a) Regime Velocity and Slope

V == 0.44 Q1/6 K!~3 ...(7.1e)

2.3Q5/6
A == 1/3
Ks[ ...(7.1f)

Table 7.1 Silt Factor KSf in Lacey's Equations = 1.76 ~

Type of bed material dm KSf

Coarse silt 0.04 0.35

Silt/fine sand 0.081 to 0.158 0.5 to 0.6
Medium sand 0.233 to 0.505 0.8 to 1.25
Coarse sand 0.725 1.5
Fine bajri and sand 0.988 1.75
Heavy sand 1.29 to 2.00 2.0 to 2.42

1.S. The Regime Width and Depth: Provided a stream is truly regime, it is destined to come
to regime according to Lacey. It will then be stable and have a section and slope conforming to
his equations. For wide alluvial streams the stable width W can be taken equal to the wetted
perimeter P of Equation (7.1a).

That is

w = P = 4.8 QY:. (applicable for wide stream only) ..... (7.2a)

Also, the normal depth of scour D on a straight and unobstructed part of a wide stream maybe
taken as equal to the hydraulic mean radius R in Equation (7.1 c). Hence,
D == 0.473 Q1/3
Ksf .1/3 ..... (7.2b)

26
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 8

LINEAR WATERWAY
"

8.1. The General Rule for Alluvial Streams: The linear waterway of a bridge/culverts across a
wholly alluvial stream should normally be kept equal to the width required for stability, viz., that
given by Equation (7.2a).

8.2. Unstable Meandering Streams: A large alluvial stream, meandering over a wide belt, may
have several active channels separated by land or shallow sections of nearly stagnant water.
The actual (aggregate) width of such streams may be much in excess of the regime width
required for stability. In bridging such a stream it is necessary to provide training works that will
contract the stream. The cost of the latter, both initial and recurring, has to be taken into account
infixing the linear waterway.
f)
8.3. In the ultimate analysis it may be found in some such cases, that it is cheaper to adopt a
linearwaterway for the bridge/culverts somewhat in excess of the regime width given by Equation
(7.2a). But as far as possible, this should be avoided. When the adopted linear waterway exceeds
the regime width it does not follow that the depth will become less than the regime depth D given
by Equation (7.2b). Hence, such an increase in the length of the bridge/culverts does not lead
to any countervailinq saving in the depth of foundations. On the contrary, an excessive linear
waterway can be detrimental in so far as it increases the action against the training works.

8.4. Contraction To Be Avoided: The linear waterway of the bridge/culverts across an alluvial
stream should not be less than the regime width of the stream. Any design that envisages
contraction of the stream beyond the regime width, necessarily has to provide for much deeper
foundation. Much of the saving in cost expected from decreasing the length of the bridge/culverts
may be eaten up by the concomitant increase in the depth of the substructure and the size of
training works. Hence, except where the section of the stream is rigid, it is generally troublesome
and also futile from economy consideration to attempt contracting the waterway.
:0
..I
'U S.S. Streams Not Wholly Alluvial: When the banks of a stream are high, well defined and rigid
(rocky or some other natural hard soil that cannot be affected by the prevailing current) but the
bed is alluvial, the linear waterway of the bridge/culverts should be made equal to the actual
surface width of the stream, measured from edge to edge of water along the HFL on the plotted
cross-section. Such streams are later referred to as quasi-alluvial.

8.6. Streams With Rigid Boundaries: In wholly rigid streams the rule of para 8.5 applies, but
some reduction in the linear waterway may, across some streams with moderate velocities, be
possible and may be resorted to, if in the final analysis it leads to tangible savings in the cost of
the bridge.
i)
8.7.As regards streams that overflow their banks and create very wide surface widths with shallow
side sections, judgment has to be used in fixing the linear waterway of the bridge. The bridge/
culverts should span the active channel and detrimental afflux avoided. See also Article 18.

27
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 9

NORMAL SCOUR DEPTH OF STREAMS

.'

9.1. Alluvial Streams

9.1.1. What is the significance of the Normal Scour Depth, if a constant discharge were passed
through a straight stable reach of an alluvial stream for an indefinite time, the boundary of its
cross-section should ultimately become cosine curve.
This will happen when regime conditions come to exist. The depth in the middle of the stream
would then be the normal regime depth.
In nature, however, the flood discharge in a stream does not have indefinite duration. For this
reason, the magnitude and duration of the flood discharge carried by it would govern the shape
of the flood section of any natural stream. Some observers have found that curves representing
the natural stream sections during sustained floods have sharper curvature in the middle than
that of an ellipse. In consequence, it is believed that Lacey's normal depth is an under estimate
when applied to natural streams subject to sustained floods. However, pending further research,
Lacey's equations may be applied.
9.1.2. As discussed later in Chapter 11, the depth of foundations is fixed in relation to the
maximum depthof scour, which in turn is inferred from the normal depth of scour. The normal
depth of scour for alluvial streams is given by Equation (7.2b), so long as the bridge/culverts
does not contract the stream beyond the regime width W given by Equation (7.2a).
9.1.3. If the linear waterway of the bridge for some special reason, is kept less than the regime
width of the stream, then the normal scour depth under the bridge will be greater than the regime
depth of the stream (Fig. 9.1).
Where

W = the regime width of the stream

L = the designed waterway; when the bridge is assumed to cause contraction, L is less than W
o = The normal scour depth when L = W
01 = The mean depth of scour under the bridge with L less than W
According to Clause 106.9.3.1 of IRC:5

...(9.1)

Where
Db = discharge in m3/s per m width
IRC:SP: 13-2022

kSI = silt factor for material obtained upto deepest anticipated scour.
= 1. 76 ~, dm being the weighted mean diameter of particles in mm.
= mean
.'
depth of scour in m.

~-----------------------VV"----------------------~
~--------------L--------------~
H.F.L
--- --
-:s: =- ---
--
--

FACE OF ABUTMENT

Fig. 9.1

The value of Db shall be total design discharge divided by the effective linear waterway between
abutments or guide bunds.

These formulae take into account the effect of contraction and, therefore, no further modification
arc needed. When the bed is protected by apron and curtain wall, the scour considerations will
be different as discussed in Article 20.

9.2. QuasiEAliuvial Streams

9.2.1. Some Streams are Not Wholly Alluvial: A stream may flow between banks which are rigid
in so far as they successfully resist erosion, but its bed may be composed of loose granular
material which the current can pick-up and transport. Such a stream may be called quasi-alluvial
to distinguish it, on the one hand, from a stream with wholly rigid boundaries and, on the other,
from a wholly alluvial stream. Since such a stream is not free to erode its banks and flatten
out the boundaries of its cross-section as a wholly alluvial stream does, it does not acquire the
regime cross-section which Lacey's equations prescribe.

9.2.2. It is not essential that the banks should be of rock to be in erodible. Natural mixtures of
sand and clay may, under the influence of elements, produce material hard enough to defy
erosion by the prevailing velocity in the stream.

Across a stream section, the natural width of which is nowhere near that prescribed by Lacey's
theory, it is expected to find that the banks, even though not rocky are not friable enough to be
treated as incoherent alluvium for the application of Lacey's Theory. Such cases have, therefore,
got to be discriminated from the wholly alluvial streams and treated on a different footing.

30
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

9.2.3. In any such case the width Wof the section, being fixed between the rigid banks, can be
measured. But the normal scour depth D corresponding to the design discharge Q has to be
estimated theoretically as it cannot be measured during the occurrence of high flood.

9.2.4. When the Stream Width is Large Compared to Depth: In Chapter-5, for calculating the
discharge of the stream from its plotted cross-section, the probable scoured bed line (para 5.3)
was drawn.

When the stream scours down to that line it should be capable of passing the discharge calculated
there, say q m3/s. But the discharge adopted for design, Q, may be anything upto 50 percent
more than q (see para 6.2.1). Therefore, the scour bed line will have to be lowered further.
Suppose the normal scour depth for Q is D and that for q is d, then,

Q)3/5
D = d (- ...(9.2)
q

Since d is known, D can be calculated. This relationship depends on the assumption that the
n width of the stream is large as compared, with its depth, and therefore, the wetted perimeter
is approximately equal to the width and is not materially affected by variations in depth. It also
assumes that the slope remains unaltered.
n
ill Q = area x velocity
= (PR) C R2/3 S1/2

= K R5/3 ...(9.3)

jd where K is a constant.
:.tr
Hence, R varies as Q3/5. Since in such streams R is very nearly equal to the depth, therefore, D
al
varies as Q3/5. Hence, the equation (9.2).

From the above relationship it follows that if Q is 1 50 per cent of q, D will be equal to 127 percent of d.
Ie
9.2.5. Alternatively, the normal depth of scour of wide streams may be calculated as under. If the
width of the stream is large as compared with its depth, then W may be taken as P and D as R.
of
fy Q = area x velocity
= (PR) V = (WD) V, where V is the mean velocity .....(9.4)
i'S Mean Velocity = (1/2)" 0.5 x Maximum Velocity
)e
e,
Q
D
'NV

Now W is the known fixed width of the stream. If the velocity V has actually been observed (para 5.9),
then 0 can be calculated from the above equation.

31
 IRC:SP:13-2022

9.2.6. Suppose the velocity has not been actually measured during a flood, but the slope S is
known.

Q = area x velocity
.'

=
(RP) R/3 81/2
n

= Wr}/2 013
n .... (9.5)

Knowing Q, Wand S, 0 can be calculated from this equation.

For quickness, velocity curves in Plate 3 can be used. Assume a value of R and fix a suitable
value of the rugosity co-efficient n appropriate for the stream. Corresponding to these values
and the known slope, read the velocity from Plate 3. Now calculate the discharge (= VRW). If
this equals the design discharge Q, then the assumed value of R is correct. Otherwise, assume
another value of R and repeat. When the correct value of R has been found, take 0 equal to R.
(See the worked-out Example in Article-16).

9.2.7. The procedure described above can be applied if either the slope of the stream or the
"':lctual observed velocity is known. If either of these are not known, the following procedure for
approximate calculation of the normal scour depth can be applied.

Suppose the wetted perimeter of the stream is P and its hydraulic mean depth R. If Q is its
discharge, then,
Q = area x velocity

= (PR) [CR2/3 S1/2] .... (9.6a)

Now, if this stream, carrying the discharge Q, had been wholly alluvial, with a wetted perimeter
P1, and hydraulic mean depth R1 for regime conditions, then,
Q = ....(9.6b)

Also, for a wholly alluvial stream Lacey's Theory would give:

II
PI = 4.8 Q 2 .... (9.6c)

O.473Q1/3
RI =----
II
Ksj 3
.... (9.6d)

32
 IRC:SP:13-2022

Equating values of Q in (9.6a) and (9.6b), and rearranging we get

.... (9.6e)

Now substituting values of P1 and R1from equations (9.6c) and (9.6d) in (9.6e), we get

1.21 QO.63
R =
K 0.33 pO.60
sf .... (9.6f)

If the width W of the stream is large compared with its depth 0, then writing W for P and 0 for R
in equation (9.6f).

1.21QO.63
D
K 0.33 W 0.60
sf ..... (9.7)

Thus, if the design discharge Q, the natural width W, and the silt factor KSfare known, the normal
scour depth 0 can be calculated from Equation (9.7).
v

The above reasoning assumes that the slope at the section in the actual case under consideration
is the same as the slope of the hypothetical (Lacey's) regime section, carrying the same discharge.
This is not improbable where the stream is old and its bed material is really incoherent alluvium.
But if there is any doubt about this, the actual slope must be measured and the procedure given
in para 9.2.6 applied.

9.2.8. When The Stream is Not Very Wide: If the width of the stream is not very large as compared
with its depth, then the methods given above will not give accurate enough results. In such a
case draw the probable scoured bed line on the plotted cross-section, measure the area and the
wetted perimeter and calculate R.

Corresponding to this value of R and the known values of Sand n, read velocity from Plate 3. If
the product of this velocity and the area equals the design discharge, the assumed scoured bed
line is correct. Otherwise, assume another line and repeat the process. Then measure O.

9.2.9. Effect of Contraction on Normal Scour Depth: If, for some special reason, the
linear waterway L of a bridge across a quasi-alluvial stream is kept less than the natural
unobstructed width W of the stream (Fig. 9.1), then the normal scour depth under the bridge
D'will be greater than the depth 0 ascertained above for the unobstructed stream. Covered by
the relationship:
2 1/3
Dr = 1.34 f!:L)
\Ksf
.... (9.8)

Because Db' of L case will be more than Db' of W case.

.f>
33
IRC:SP: 13-2022

9.3. Scour In Clay and Bouldary Strata: There are no rational methods for assessment of
scour in clay or bouldary strata. Guidelines for calculating silt factor for bed materials consisting
of clay and boulders as given in IRC:5 may be adopted and are reproduced in par as 9.3.1 and
9.3.2. .'

9.3.1. Scour in clay: Scour in clay is generally less than scour in sand. Normally in field we get a
mixture of sand and clay at many places. For the purpose of assessment following definition of
sand and clay can be given.

Sand Where <P is equal to or more than 15° even if c (Cohesion of soil) is more than 0.2
kg/cm2

(Silt factor KSf will be calculated as per provisions of para 7.4 or Table 7.1).

Clay - Where <P is less than 15°& c (Cohesion of soil) is more than 0.2 kg/cm2

Scour in sand of above definition can be calculated by the formulae given earlier. In clay instead
of silt factor (Ksf) clay factor (Ksfc) is adopted -

Ksfc = F (1+rc)

,Where
,
c = Cohesion in kg/cm2and

F = 1.5 <P for <P ~ 10° < 15° ... (9.9)

= 2.0 for <P < 5°

Scour depth (dsm) = 1.34 (Db2/ KSfC) 1/3

Db=discharge per unit width

9.3.2. Bouldary strata: There is no rational method to assess scour in bouldary strata of boulders
or pebbles. In the absence of any formula KSf may be determined as per IRC:5 and adopted. If,
say, mean size of particles is db

Then, KSf= 1.76 (db)1(/2 D 2 }1/3

Scour depth = 1.34 b ... (9.10)
Ksf
It is, however, better to investigate depth of foundations adopted in past for similar foundation
and decide depth on the basis of precedence. Protection work around foundations in the form
of curtain wall and apron or garland blocks should be provided, when the foundation is laid on
bouldary strata.

34
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 10

MAXIMUM SCOUR DEPTH

.'
10.1. In considering bed scour, we are concerned with alluvial and quasi-alluvial streams only
and not with streams which have rigid beds.

10.2. In natural streams, the scouring action of the current is not uniform all along the bed width.
It is not so even in straight reaches. Particularly at the bends as also round obstructions to the
flow, e.g., the piers of the bridge, there is deeper scour than normal. In the following paragraphs,
rules for calculating the maximum scour depth are given. It will be seen that the maximum scour
depth is taken as a multiple of the normal scour depth according to the circumstances of the
case.

10.3. In order to estimate the maximum scour depth, it is necessary first to calculate the normal
scour depth. The latter has already been discussed in detail. To summarise what has been said
earlier, the normal scour depth will be calculated as under:

(i) Alluvial Streams: Provided the linear waterway of the bridge is not less than the regime width
of the stream, the normal scour depth 0 is the regime depth as calculated from Equation (7.2b).

(ii) Streams with Rigid Banks but Erodible Bed: Provided the linear waterway of the bridge is
not less than the natural unobstructed surface width of the stream, the normal scour depth d is
calculated as explained in Chapter 9.

10.4. Rules for Finding Maximum Scour Depth: The rules for calculating the maximum scour
depth from the normal scour depth are:

Rule (1): For average conditions on a straight reach of the stream and when the bridge is a
single span structure, i.e., it has no piers obstructing the flow, the maximum scour depth should
be taken as 1.27 times the normal scour depth,

Rule (2): For bad sites on curves or where diagonal current exist or the bridge is multi-span
structure, the maximum scour depth should be taken as 2 times the normal scour depth, modified
for the effect of contraction when necessary.

10.5. The finally adopted value of maximum scour depth must not be less than the depth (below
HFL) of the deepest scour hole that may be found by inspection to exist at or near the site of the
bridge. 4

The following example will illustrate the application of the rules in para 10.4 above.

10.6. Example, A bridge is proposed across an alluvial stream (KSf= 1.2) carrying a discharge of
50 m3/s.Calculate the depth of maximum scour when the bridge consists of (a)3 spans of 6 m
and (b) 3 spans of 8 m

..
35
IRC:SP:13-2022

Regime surface width of the stream

.
W = 4.8 Q 1/2= 4.8 x 50 1/2= 33.94 m

Regime depth

0.473x501/3
0= 0.473 = = 1.64m
K 1/3 (1.2)113
sf

Maximum scour depth

(a) when span (3x6 m), Db the discharge per metre width is
50/18, i.e., 2.778 cumecs
dsm = 1 .34 (2.778 11
2 =
.2)1/3 2.49 m

(i) Maximum depth of scour for pier

= 2 d sm= 2x2.49 = 4.98 m

(ii) Maximum depth of scour for abutment

'v
,
= 1.27 dsm = 1.27x2.49 = 3. 16 m

(b) When span is 3 x 8 m, Db the discharge per metre width is

50/24, i.e., 2.083 cumecs

dsm = =
1.34 (2.0832/1 .2)1/3 2.055 m

(i) Maximum depth of scour for pier

= 2 dsm= 2x2.055 = 4.11 m

(ii) Maximum depth of scour for abutment

= 1.27 dsm = 1.27x2.055 = 2.61 m

10.7. For small bridges across alluvial channel having multiple spans, the foundation levels for
abutments should be kept the same as that of pier for following reasons:

(i) ln case of small spans, the scour hole around pier could extend up to abutment.

(ii) Abutment foundation at higher level may create a surcharge effect over the foundation of
adjacent pier.

(iii) In case of outflanking of the bridge the abutment in any case has to be designed for scour
all around condition.
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 11

DEPTH OF OPEN FOUNDATIONS FOR BRIDGES

.'
11.1.The following rules should be kept in view while fixing the depth of bridge foundations:

Rule (1) In Soil. The embedment of foundations in soil shall be based on assessment of
anticipated scour. Foundations may be taken down to a comparatively shallow depth below
the bed surface provided good bearing stratum is available and foundation is protected against
scour. The minimum depth of open foundations shall be up to stratum having adequate bearing
capacity but not less than 2.0 m below the scour level or protected scour level.

Rule (2) In Rocks. When a substantial stratum of solid rock or other material not erodible at the
calculated maximum velocity is encountered at a level higher than or a little below that given by
Rule (1) above, the foundations shall be securely anchored into that material. This means about
0.6 m into hard rocks with an ultimate crushing strength of 10 MPa or above and 1.5 m in all
other cases.

Rule (3) All Beds. The pressure on the foundation material must be well within the safe bearing
capacity of the material.
v

These rules enable one to fix the level of the foundations of abutments and piers.

11.2. The above rules are applicable for open foundations only. For deep foundations like well,
and pile foundations, wherever adopted depending upon site requirements depth of foundations
shall be worked out as per IRC:78.

37
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 12

SPAN AND VERTICAL CLEARANCE

12.1. As a rule, the number of spans should be as small as possible, since piers obstruct flow.
Particularly, in mountainous regions, where torrential velocities prevail, it is better to span from
bank to bank using no piers if possible.

12.2. Length of Span: In small structures, where open foundations can be laid and solid
abutments and piers raised on them; it has been analyzed that the following approximate
relationships give economical designs.

For Masonry arch bridges S=2H

For ReC Slab Bridges S = 1.5 H

Where

S = Clear span length in metre.

H = Total height of abutment or pier from the bottom of its foundation to its top in metre. For
archedbridges it is measured from foundation to the intrados of the key stone.

12.3. Vertical Clearance: After fixing the depth of foundations Of, the vertical clearance is added
to it to get H. The minimum vertical clearance shall be provided as per Table 12.1.

Table 12.1

Discharge in m3/s Minimum Vertical Clearance in mm

Upto 0.30 150

upto 3.0 450
Above 3 and upto 30 600
Above 30 and upto 300 900

For openings of culverts having arched decking, the clearance below the crown of the intrados
of arch shall not be less than 1/10 of the maximum depth of water plus 1/3 of the rise of arch
intrados.

Further to keep the free board of approaches not less than 1750 mm, the vertical clearance in
slab/box cell bridges may be increased suitably.

In designing culverts for roads across flat regions where streams are wide and shallow (mostly
undefined dips in the ground surface), and in consequence the natural velocities of flow are very
low, the provision of clearance serves no purpose. Indeed, it is proper to design such culverts

39
IRC:SP: 13-2022

on the assumption that the water at the inlet end will pond up and submerge the inlet to a
.
predetermined extent. This will be discussed in Article 19.

In case of structure over artificial channels or canals, etc. the minimum vertical clearance should
be taken, 600 mm above the Full Supply Level. No part of berings shall be at a height less than
500 mm above the design highest flood level, taking into account afflux.

12.4. The Number of Spans:

12.4.1. If the required linear waterway L is less than the economical span length it has to be
provided in one single span.

12.4.2. When L is more than the economical span length (S) the number of spans (N) required
is tentatively found from the following relation:

L= NS

12.4.3. Since N must be a whole number (preferably odd) S has to be modified suitably. In doing
so it is permissible to adopt varying span lengths in one structure to keep as close as possible to
the requirements of economy and to cause the least obstructions to the flow.

12.5. To facilitate inspection and carrying out repairs, the minimum vent height of culverts should
normally be 1500 mm. The vent size of irrigation culverts may be decided considering the actual
requirements and site condition. For pipe culverts the minimum diameter of pipes should be 1.20 m.

12.6. If a large number of small bridges and culverts are required to be provided in a project, it
is important that the span lengths or box sections should be standardized, so that the repetitive
use of false work or use of precast method of construction may be appropriately adopted such
design would make substantial reduction in overall construction period of the project.

40
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 13
GEOMETRIC STANDARDS, SPECIFICATIONS
.'
AND QUALITY CONTROL

13.1. Details of small bridges and culverts of probable spans and heights conforming to latest
IRC codes and guidelines are incorporated with a view to cut short the time in preparation of
estimates and design of culverts and attain uniform standards and quality control in the work.

13.2. Geometric Standards

13.2.1. IRe Standards: Standards contained in IRC:73 and IRC:86 is adopted for Geometric
Standards. The overall widths adopted for culverts and small bridges for 2-lane carriageway are
as follows.

NH and SH 12 m Minimum
MDR 8.4 m

13.2.2. Design Loads For 2-lane Roadway: Design loading for culverts and small bridges should
be as below:

Village Road and ODR (Rural Roads) 2-lanes IRC Class A or 70R whichever gives
worst effect

NH, SH and MDR Depending upon the carriageway width refer

IRC:6

13.2.3. Width of Roadway: The width of a culvert and small bridge (along the direction of flow)
should be such that the distance between the outer faces of the parapets will equal (he full
designed width of the formation of the road. Any proposed widening of the road formation in the
near future should also be taken into account in fixing the width of the structure. In case of high
banks, the length of culvert should be judiciously decided to avoid high face walls.

13.2.4. In small bridges, the width (parallel to the flow of the stream) should be sufficient give a
minimum clear carriageway of 4.25 m for a single-lane bridge and 7.5 m for a two-lane bridge
between the inner faces of the kerbs or wheel guards. Extra provision should be made for
footpaths etc., if any are required. Width of bridges and culverts shall be at least equal to width
of road way in the section.

13.2.5. Siting of Structures and Gradients: Culverts and small bridges must be sited on the
straight alignment of roads. If the Nalla is crossing the road at angles other than right angle,
either skew culverts and small bridges should be provided or, if economical, the Nalla should be
suitably trained. The gradient of road may be provided on the bridges and CUlverts. If the bridges
are situated at change of gradient (hump), the profile of vertical curve should be given in wearing
coat. Alternatively, the profile could be given in the deck itself. It shall be ensured that the bearing
surface of deck slab on the abutment/pier cap shall be horizontal.

41
 IRC:SP:13-2022

13.3. Design:

13.3.1. Road TopLevel: For maintaining the geometric standards of the road, culverts and small!
bridges should be constructed simultaneously or prior to the earthwork for road as otherwise
there would be the following disadvantages.

(1) Practically, every culvert and small bridge becomes a hump on the road and geometric of
the road is affected.

(2) Duplicate work of consolidation of approaches giving rise to extra cost.

13.3.2. Minimum Span and Clearance: From the consideration of maintenance of culverts, it is
desirable that the span of slab culvert is kept minimum 2 m and height 1.5 m and diameter of
pipes 1.2 m. Culverts of small span or diameter are found to get choked due to silting and also
cause difficulty in cleaning.

13.3.3. Pipe Culverts: Pipe culverts shall conform to IS category NP4. The cushion between the
top of the pipe and the road level shall not be less than 600 mm. First class bedding consisting of
compacted granular material can be used for height of fill upto 4 m and concrete cradle bedding
up to a maximum height of fill upto 8 m.

" Where cushion over the pipe is less than 600 mm throughout and/or partly over the culvert,
encasing of full-length pipes shall be done by minimum 200 mm thick M 20 concrete.

For small size culverts, RGG pipe culverts with single pipe or up to multiple pipes placed side by
side (with minimum clear distance of 600 mm) depending upon the discharge may be used as
far as possible, as they are likely to prove comparatively cheaper than slab culverts.

ReG pipes in two rows one above the other have also been used for small bridges on cost
considerations, especially for providing waterway in breached section of roads.

13.3.4. RCC Slab: RGG slab culverts and small bridges should be adopted where the founding
strata is rocky or of better bearing capacity. In case where adequate cushion is not available for
locating pipe culvert RGG slab culvert should be adopted. RGG slab culverts/bridges are also
useful for cattle crossing during dry weather.

13.3.5. RCC Box Cell Structures: In a situation where bearing capacity of soil is 8 to 12 t/rn",
ReG Box type culvert should be preferred.

13.3.6. Balancing Culverts: Balancing culvert are to be located at points on L section of the road
where down gradients meet. These balancing culverts balance the discharge from either side of
the road. Observation of the road alignment during rains also gives a good idea about location
of balancing culverts.

42
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

13.4. Numbering of Culverts and Small Bridges:

)11 For details reference may be made to "Recommended Practice for Numbering Bridges and
te Culverts", IRC:7 .
.'
13.5. General Design Aspects and Specifications: The type design of pipe culverts and
af RCC slab culverts and slab bridges given here are based on following general aspects. Coursed
rubble stone masonry for substructure and parapet walls is generally found to be economical
in comparison to mass concrete substructure. The masonry below or above the ground level
should be as per IRC:40. If bricks having minimum crushing strength of 7 MPa are available,
these can also be used for culverts,
is
::If 13.5.1. Parapet Wall and Railing: For culverts, where parapet walls are provided, they shall
~o be of plain concrete M15 grade or brick or stone masonry with 450 mm top width. In case of
pipe culverts no parapet walls are needed and guard stones would be adequate except for
culverts on hill roads. Guard stones provided shall be of size 200x200x600 mm. Railings as
Ie
:Jf given in Standard Drawings of MORT&H may also be provided for culverts and small bridges.
Railings or parapets shall have a minimum height above the adjacent roadway or footway safety
Ig
kerb surface of 1.1 m less one half the horizontal width of the top rail or top of the parapet.
Crash barriers may be provided when they are found functionally required. Crash barriers when
1, provided shall conform to provisions in IRC:5 and while adopting MORT&H standard drawings,
the desigh of deck slab shall be checked for provision of crash barriers.

)y 13.5.2. Wearing Coat: Normally, the wearing surfaces of the road carried over the culverts. For
IS low category road which do not have bituminous surfaces, concrete wearing coat of average 75
mm or bituminous wearing coat is provided. On the small bridges wearing coat is provided as
per IRC:5.
st
13.5.3. Approach Slab: Approach slab can be dispensed with in case of culverts, For Small
bridges approach slab as per IRC:5 shall be provided.
Ig
Jf 13.5.4. Deck Slab: Grade of concrete shall be as per IRC:112. M 25 concrete for moderate and
,0 M 30 concrete for severe conditions of exposure and high strength deformed bars conforming to
IS:1786 are specified for the deck slabs.

,2, 13.5.5. Expansion Joint: For small bridges, filler board type expansion joints as per IRC:SP:69
of 20 mm thickness are required to be provided.

Id 13.5.6. Pier/Abutment Cap/Coping: The minimum thickness of reinforced cap over solid PCCI
)f RCC substructure shall be 200 mm and that in case of masonry substructure shall not be less
In than 500 mm. The minimum grade of concrete shall be M 25 and M 30 for moderate and severe
conditions of exposure respectively. However, the coping over the returns may be of M 15 grade
and thickness not less than 100 mm.

43
IRC:SP:13-2022

13.5.7. Section of Pier Abutment and Returns: The abutment and pier sections should be so
designed as to withstand safely the worst combination of loads and forces as specified in the
IRC:6.

13.5.8. Top Width of Pier/Abutment: In respect of masonry and concrete piers/abutments

minimumwidth at top of pier and abutments for slab bridges just below the caps shall be as per
Table 13.1. Tar paper bearings shall be provided between abutmentlpeir cap and RCC slab for
spans upto 10m.

Table 13.1
Span (in m) Minimum Width at Top
of Abutment/Pier (mm)

2.0 500
3.0 500
4.0 1000
5.0 1000
6.0 1200
,, 8.0 1200
10.0 1200

If the velocity flow is more than 4.5 m/s and river carries abrasive particles, it is advisable to design
section of foundation and pier considering their effect. A sacrificial layer of brick/stonemasonry of
suitable thickness and height shall be provided irrespective of total height of substructure.

In the case of arch bridges, the top width of abutments and piers should be adequate to
accommodate skew decks and to resist the stresses imposed under the most unfavorable
conditions of loading.

13J5.D. Return Walls or Wing Walls: Wing walls are generally at 45° angle to the abutment and
are also called as splayed wing walls. Walls parallel to road are called as return walls.

Where embankment height exceeds 2 m, splayed return walls may be preferred. The length of
straight return should normally be 1.5times the height of the embankment. Where the foundations
of the wing walls can be stepped up, having regard to the soil profile, this should be done for the
sake of economy. Quite often short return walls meet the requirements of the site and should be
adopted.

The top width of wing walls and returns shall not be less than 450 mm.

i. Layout of wing walls for skew bridges/culverts shall be prepared keeping in view the
height and normal distance from the road to the wing wall

44
 IRG:SP: 13-2022

ii. Slope of top of wing wall to be such that height of wall matches with the slope of em-
bankment

13.5.10. Weep Holes and Drainage Spouts: Adequate number of weep holes at spacing not
exceeding 1 m In horizontal and vertical direction in staggered manner should be provided
to prevent any accumulation of water and building up of the hydrostatic pressure behind the
abutment and wing walls. The weep holes should be provided at about 150 mm above low water
level or ground level whichever is higher. Weep holes shall be provided with 100 mm dia AC
pipes for structures in plain/reinforced concrete, brick masonry and stone masonry. For brick and
stone masonry structures, rectangular weep holes of 80 mm wide and 150 mm height may also
be provided. Weep holes shall extend through the full width of the concrete/masonry with slope
of about 1 vertical to 20 horizontals towards the drainage face.

In case of stone masonry, the spacing of weep holes shall be adjusted to suit the height of the
course in which they are formed. The sides and bottom of the weep holes in the interior shall be
made up with stones having fairly plain surface.

For spans more than 5 m one drainage spout of 100 mm dia. in the center of the slab located on
either side of the deck shall be provided. The spacings of drainage spouts shall not exceed 10m.

In case of one side camber, the number of drainage spouts shall be doubled and location suitably
adjusted. ' ,

13.5.11. Foundetion Concrete: Foundation concrete shall not be less than M 15 grade. If the
foundation level is below water table, 10 per cent extra cement is to be added in concrete. The
minimum thickness of footing shall be 300 mm. For foundation resting on rock a leveling course
of atleast 150 mm thickness in M 15 grade of concrete shall be used.
o
e 13.5.12. Arches: The type of superstructure depends on the availability of the construction
materials and its cost. An evaluation of the relative economics of RGG slabs and masonry arches
should be made and the latter adopted where found more economical.
d
The masonry arches may be either of cement concrete blocks of M 15 or dressed stones or
bricks in 1:3 cement mortar. The crushing strength of concrete, stone or brick units shall not be
)f
less than 10.5 MPa. Where stone masonry is adopted for the arch ring, it shall be either coursed
s
rubble masonry or ashlar masonry.
e
e 13.5.13. Raft Foundation: Raft foundations are found to be quite suitable for small bridges and
culverts where the founding strata is soft and has SSG upto 10 Um2• The following aspects are
to be kept in consideration.

(1) Raft foundations are suitable for all types of structures other than pipe culverts.
16
(2) Protection needs to be provided in the form of apron.

45
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

(3) Cut-off should be done first, i.e., before the raft. Immediately, after the raft is complete,
aprons on U/s and D/s should be completed.

(4) Details of raft foundation are given in Article 21.

13.6. Quality Control

13.6.1. Although, the work of culverts and small bridges is simple it is necessary to have quality
control in the work of stone/brick masonry and concrete in deck slab, bar bending, etc. Reference
may be made to "Manual for Quality Control on Road & Bridge Works", IRC:SP:112.

13.6.2. Specifications should be in accordance with "Specification for Road and Bridge 'Works"
of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways published by Indian Roads Congress.

13.7. Setting Out of Culverts and Small Bridges: Setting out of culverts and small bridges
should be done from 4 masonry/ concrete pillars, two in the direction of road and two along the
stream, all placed along two center lines. The top of pillars in the direction of road should be at
the proposed top level of deck slab. Two lines, one along the direction of stream and the other
along the center line of road should be inscribed on one of the pillars and all distances should
-v be measured with respect to these lines. The pillars should be placed sufficiently away from the
,
zone of excavation.

13.8. Masonry Work

13.8.1. All masonry work shall conform to IRC:40. The mortar mix in case of cement sand shall
be 1:3, 1:4 or 1:5, whereas, in case of cement lime sand it shall be 1.0:0.5:4.5.

13.8.2. Brick proposed to be used shall be of minimum compressive strength of 7 MPa. However,
for rivers with velocity of 4.5 m/s and carrying highly abrasive particles, this shall be increased
to 10 MPa.

13.8.3. Brick and stone masonry shall conform to IRC:40.

13.9. Concrete

13.9.1. According to IRC: 112 the minimum grade of plain concrete is M 15 of concrete and that of
Rec is M 20. The size of reinforcing steel to be used for RCC slabs and the grading of aggregates
are specified in relevant codes and specifications. It is advisable to use power driven concrete
mixer. Similarly, vibrators should also be made available. Furthermore, precast concrete cover
blocks must be provided to ensure bottom cover to reinforcement. Water cement ratio must be
limited to 0.45 maximum. In case of use of Plasticiser w/c ratio can be restricted to 0.4. Size
coarse aggregate will be 20 mm for RCC and up to 40 mm for plain concrete. Wherever feasible,
precast construction may be adopted, which ensures quality and speed of construction.

46
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

13.10. Bar Bending: Lengths of bars and numbers are given in standard drawings. Cutting
of bars from available stock must be done carefully. Generally, tendency of cutting bars of
required lengths and discarding pieces of shorter lengths give rise to greater wastages. Normally
staggered overlaps to the extent of 25 per cent may be provided. Calculated quantities of steel
are increased suitably to account for overlaps, its length conforming to IRC:112. Steel chairs
should be provided for maintaining correct position of top bars.

II
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 14

STRUCTURAL DETAILS OF SMALL BRIDGES AND CULVERTS

14.1. Abutment and Wing Wall Sections: For RCC slab culverts designed for IRC single lane
of class 70 R loading or 2-lanes of IRC class A loading, the abutment, pier and wing wall sections
shall be designed as per IRC:112.

The base widths of the abutment and the pier depend on the bearing capacity of the soil. The
pressure at the toe of the abutment should be worked out to ensure that the soil is not over
stressed.

The pier sections should be made preferably circular in the case of skew crossings.

14.2. Filling behind the abutments, wing walls and return walls shall confirm to IRC:78 as
reproduced in Appendix "A".

14.3. Unreinforced Masonry Arches: Plate 6 shows the details of arch ring of segmental
masonry arch bridges without footpaths for spans 6 m and 9 m.

The section of abutment and pier for masonry arch bridges will have to be designed taking into
account the vertical reaction, horizontal reaction and the moment at springing due to dead load
and live load, Table 14.1 gives the details of horizontal reaction, vertical reaction and moment at
springing for arch bridges of span 6 m and 9 m and Table 14.2 gives the influence line ordinates
for horizontal reaction, vertical reaction and moment at springing for a unit load placed on the
arch ring.

Table 14.1 Vertical Reaction, Horizontal Reaction and Moment at Springing Due to Dead
Load of Arch Ring Masonry, Fill Material and Road Crust for One Meter of Arch Measured
Along the Transverse Direction (i.e., Perpendicular to the Direction of Traffic) for Right
Bridges

51. No. Effective Horizontal Reaction Vertical Reaction Moment at

Span{m) (Tonnes) (Tonnes) Springing
(Tonne Metres)
(1) 6 9.35 10.92 (+)0.30
(2) 9 17.40 21.00 (+)0.47

Notes: 1. Unit weight of arch ring masonry, fill materials and the road crust is assumed as
2.24 t/m".

2. Positive sign for moment indicates tension on the inside of arch ring.

49
IRC:SP:13-2022

Table 14.2 Influence Line Ordinates for Horizontal Reaction (H) Vertical Reaction at
Support (VA) and (VB) and Moment at Springing (MA) and (MB) for Unit Load, say 1 Tonne
Located along the Arch Axis at an Angle 9 Degrees from the Radius OC. Rise of Arch is
One Qu~.rterof Span (Fig. 14.1)

51. 8 Degree Hin VAin VBin MA 'MB

No. Tonnes Tonnes Tonnes (Tonnes-m) (Tonnes-m)
(a) Effective Span 6 m
(1) 0 0.93 0.500 0.500 (-)0.2213 (-)0.2213
(2) 5 0.91 0.577 0.423 (-)0.1388 (-)0.2775
(3) 15 0.75 0.725 0.275 (+)0.0713 (-)0.3075
(4) 25 0.52 0.849 0.152 (+)0.2513 (-)0.2588
(5) 35 0.25 0.940 0.061 (+)0.3413 (-)0.1388
(6) 45 0.05 0.989 0.012 (+)0.2438 (-)0.0338
(7) 53°8' 0 1.000 0 0 0
(b) Effective Span 9 m
(1) 0 0.93 0.500 0.500 (-)0.3318 (-)0.3318
(2) 5 0.91 0.577 0.423 (-)0.2081 (-)0.4163
(3) 15 0.75 0.725 0.275 (+)0.1069 (-)0.4612
(4) 25 0.52 0.849 0.152 (+)0.3769 (-)0.3881
, (5) 35 0.25 0.940 0.061 (+)0.5119 (-)0.2081
(6) 45 0.05 0.989 0.012 . (+)0.3656 (-)0.0506
(7) , 53°8' 0 1.000 0 0 0

Note: Positive sign for moment indicates tension on the inside of arch ring

14.4. RCC Slabs

14.4.1. The details of RCC slabs to be used for culverts and bridges at right crossings and skew
crossings shall be designed as per IRC:112.

UNIT LOAD
(1 TONNE)
C=CROWN

o
Pig. 14.1

50
 IRC:SP:13-2022

14.5. Box Cell Structures: The details for single cell box upto 8 m opening, for double cell upto
3 m opening of each cell and triple cell upto 3 m opening of each cell with and without earth
cushion for varying bearing capacity may be designed as per IRC:112.

14.6. RCC Pipe Culverts: The details of pipe culverts of 1.2 m dia, with single or double pipes
having cement concrete or granular materials in bed are given in Plates 8-11.

14.7. Drawings of Abutments: Drawings of Abutments and Wing Walls in PCC from 2 to 6 m
height can be chosen as per requirement (Refer plate 5).

51
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 15

ELEMENTS OF THE HYDRAULICS OF FLOW THROUGH BRIDGES

15.1. The formulae for discharge passing over broad crested weirs and drowned orifices have
been developed ab initio in this section. These formulae are very useful for computing flood
discharges from the flood marks left on the piers and abutments of existing bridges and calculating
afflux in designing new bridges. It is necessary to be familiar with the rationale of these formulae
to be able to apply them intelligently.

15.2. Broad Crested Weir Formulae Applied to Bridge Openings: In Fig. 15.1, X-X is the
water surface profile, and Z-Z the total energy line. At Section 1, the total energy.
u2
H =--+D
2g U
... (15.1)

At Section 2, let the velocity head AB be a fraction of H, i.e.,

v2
AB =--=nH
2g ..
... (15.2)
v

Equatlnq'total energies at Sections 1 and 2 ignoring the loss of head due to entry and friction
H = AC = AB+ BC = nH+ BC
:. BC = (I-n) H ... (15.3)

PIER
/

z -.-.-.- '--r-'--'- ....-'-'-'t-'~

A ._._._._._._._._
ENERGYUNE
X
U2'2g
'tl.H
z
u-
H
v
-- 8
X

I 1 BED 2
c
~

r
Fig. 15.1

The area of flow at Section 2,

a = BC x linear waterway

= (1-in) HL

53
IRC:SP:13-2022

Where L is the linear waterway. From Eq. (15.2) Velocity at Section 2

v = {2gn H)Y>
Therefore, the discharge through the bridge

Q=av
= (I-n) HL (2gn H) Y>

To account for losses in friction, a coefficient Cw may be introduced. Thus,

Q = Cw (I-n) HL (2gn H) Y>

...{15.4)

The depth BC adjusts itself so that the discharge passing through the section is maximum.
Therefore, differentiating

dQ =0
dn
~ ,,1/2- 3 =0
-;
,
2 2
1

1
Putting n= in Eq. (15.4) we get
3 3
Q= 1.706 c; LH'2
... (15.5a)
u2
Putting H ~ + n, withEq.(15.1)

Ul 3'2 ... (15.5b)

Q = 1.706 Cw L (Du + 1&)
1 2
Since AB is - H, therefore, BC is - H, or 66.7 per cent ofH.
3 3

On exit from the bridge, some of the velocity head is reconverted into potential head due to the
expansion of the section and the water surface is raised, so that Dd is somewhat greater than BC,
i.e., greater than 66.7 per cent of H. In fact, observations have proved that, in the limiting condition,

Dd can be 80 per cent of Du. Hence, the following rule:

"So long as the afflux (D,-Dd) is not less than ~ Dd, the weir formula applies, i.e., Q depends on
Du and is independent of Dd

54
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

The fact that the downstream depth Ddhas no effect on the discharge Q, nor on the upstream
depth DuWhen the afflux is not less than !
Ddis due to the formation of the "Standing Wave"

The coefficient Cw may be taken as under:-

..
(1) Narrow Bridge opening with or without floors 0.94
(2) Wide bridge opening with floors 0.96
(3) Wide bridge opening with no bed floors 0.98
15.3. The Orifice Formulae: When the downstream depth, Ddis more than 80 per cent of the
upstream depth Du' the weir formula does not hold good, i.e., the performance of the bridge
opening is no longer unaffected by Dd.

In Fig. 15.2, X-X is the water surface line and Z-Z the total energy line.

Apply Bernoulli's Equation to points 1 and 2, ignoring the loss of head (h) due to entry and friction.

u2 v2
D + - = DI +
u 2g 2g
or

2g 2g
Then
v= fig (D u - DI) + u2
2g
Put Du - D = h'
Then,
u2 1/2
v= ~(hl + 2g)
The discharge through the Section 2,
Q = a v
Substituting
e
..., Q = LDI..J2g ( h'. + -
U2 )1/2
1, 2g ... (15.6)
Now the fractional difference between Dand D4is small. Put Dd for D' in Eq. (15.6).

Q=LDd jii h'+

(
;g J1/2
2

... (15.7)
55
IRC:SP:13-2022

PIER

Z ENERGY LINE
0' u2/2t Z
X
- "---r-~~~~ WATER SURFACE
X
u- v-
Du

1 BED 2
Fig. 15.2

In the field it is easier to work in terms of h = Du- Ddinstead of h'. But h is less than n as on
emergence from the bridge the water surface rises, due to recovery of some velocity energy as
potential head. Suppose eu2/2g represents the velocity energy that is converted into potential
head.
eu2
Then hl=h+--
v ,
2g
Substituting in equation (15.7)

Q=LDdfiK(h + (e+1) ;g
2 II
r
Now introduce a co-efficient Coto account for losses of head through bridge, we get.

Q = C,fiK LDd ( h + (1+e);g

2
r
II

... (15.8)

For value of e and Co' see Figs. 15.3 and 15.4[10]

15.4. in Conclusion: Let us get clear on some important points

(1) In all these formulae Ddis not affected in any way by the existence of the bridge. It depends
only on the conveyance factor and slope of tail race. Ddhas,therefore, got to be actually measured
or calculated from area - slope data of the channel as explained already in Article 7.

(2) The Weir Formula applies only when a standing wave is formed, i.e., when the afflux
(h = Du- Dd)is not less than ~ Dd.
 IRC:SP:13-2022

1.1
-
1.0
-
0.9 ~
.' - .. - - -
0.8
. . - .- . . --
0.7
0.6
~
0.5 I
1'1
0.4

1
e
0.3
- -.- .
0.2
0.1
0.0
.-
L- SUM OF BRIDGE SPANS
W= UNOBSTRUCTED WOTH OF STREAM
AREA OF Fl.OW UNDER 7HE 8RIOGE
_ . _ .
A= UNOBSTRUCTED AREA OF nOoN OF THe STREAM
. ....
O.S 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
.!.or.!::.
A W ----
.... 1$.3 .r!.~ hydra"tiC'1I .rnowtll!;rouahbrid.~
F.leml1'nts
Th,,""nce rorm.iIoI_ffki~nc "e"

(3) The Orifice Formulae with the suggested values of Co and e should be applied when the
afflux is Iess than % Dd'

15.5. Examples have been worked out in Articles 16 and 17 to show how these formulae can be
used to calculate a flux and discharge under bridges.
.....
1.

II.
0.95
~
II'"
0.90

I
Co
0.85
L· $VM Of! BRIOGE SPANS
w- UNOBSTRUCTED WIDTH Of STREAM
.. AREA OF FLOW UNDER THE BRIDGE _.
now OF TIE =:
0.80
Ax UNOBSTRUCTED AREA OF
,~
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

"or Vi
• L

57
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 16
AFFLUX
"

16.1. The afflux at a bridge is the heading up of the water surface caused by it. It is measured by
the difference in levels of the water surfaces upstream and downstream of the bridge (Fig. 16.1).

PIER

./~-...__ _=-T----i- ----

h=Aftka

u- v-

BED

SECTION

I~
v

.!:L.- WI, v::=::±.

I.

_---1_.....___.L't..,_. _' _._ ~.

PlAN
'iI,l6.1

16.2. When the waterway area of the openings of a bridge is less than the unobstructed natural
waterway area ofthe stream, Le., when the bridge contracts the stream, afflux occurs. Contraction
of the stream is normally not done, but under some circumstances it is taken recourse to, if it
leads to ponderable economy. Also, in the case of some alluvial streams in plains the natural
stream width may be much in excess of that required for regime. When spanning such a stream,
it has to be contracted to, more or less, the width required for stability by providing training works.

16.3. Estimating afflux is necessary to see its effect on the 'clearance' under the bridge, on the
regime of the channel upstream of the bridge; and on the design of training works.

16.4. For calculating afflux, we must know (1), the discharge Q, (2) The unobstructed width of
the stream W, (3) the linear waterway of the bridge L, and (4) the average depth downstream of
the bridge Dd•

59
IRC:SP:13-2022

16.5. The Downstream Depth Dd is not Affected by the Bridge: it is controlled by the
conveyance factor and slope of the channel below the bridge. Also, the depth, that prevails at
the bridge site before the construction of the bridge, can be assumed to continue to prevail just
downstream of the bridge after its construction. Thus, Dd is the depth that prevails at the bridge
site before its construction. To estimate afflux, we must know Dd• In actual problems, Dd is either
given or can be calculated from the data supplied.

16.6. Example:A bridge, having a linear waterway of 25 m, spans a channel 33 m wide carrying
a discharge of 70 m3/s. Estimate the afflux when the downstream depth is 1 m.

o = 1 m: W = 33 m: L = 25m
d' ,

(h+o+e) ~)
L 25
= =0,757
W 33

Afflux Corresponding to this, Co= 0.867, e = 0.85, g = 9.8 rn/sec"

v
70=0.867x4.43x25x
J' .
1 h+---
1.85u2
2g ... (16.1)
:. h + 0.0944u2 = 0.53

Also, just upstream of the bridge

Q = W (Dd + h) u
70 = 33 (1 + h) u
h=_1Q_-1 ...(16.2)
33u

Subtracting for h from (16.2) in (16.1) and rearranging

u = 0.0617 u3 + 1.386 u = 1.68 m/sec

Substituting for u in (16.1)

h = 0.263 m

Alternatively, assume that h is more than ~ 0d

and apply the Weir formula

60
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

Q = 1.706 Cw LH 3/2

70 =1.706 x 0.94 x 25 x H 3/2

"H = 1.45m

H = DU+ u2/2g = DU(approx.)

Or Du= 1.45 m (approx.)

Now,

Q = W Duu

.'. 70 = 33 x 1.45 u

.'. u = 1.46; u2/2g = 0.1086 m

i.e.

1.45 = Du+ O. 1086

",
Du= 1.3414 m

'. h= Du-Dd= 1.3414 -1.0 = 0.3414 m

Adopt h = 0.3414 m. Since h is actually more than % Dd, therefore, the value of afflux arrived by
the Weir Formula is to be adopted.

16.7. Example: The unobstructed cross-sectional area of flow of a stream of 90 rn-and the width
of flow is 30 m. A bridge of 4 - spans of 6 m clear is proposed across it. Calculate the afflux when
the discharge is 280 m3/s.
90
w = 30 m; L = 24 m, Dd= 30 = 3.00 m

The depth before the construction of the bridge is the depth downstream of the bridge after its
construction. Hence, Dd= 3.00 m
L 24
-=-=0.8
W 30

By the Orifice Formula the discharge through the bridge

61
!"""'"_ .....
_------------------------------_

IRC:SP: 13-2022

.'
280~O.877 x 4.43 x24 x3.00x J h+ 1.72 f
280 =279.7
1 ..
Jh+ 1.72 -!!:--
2g

1.72 u2
h + ---------- = 1 ... (16.3)
2g

Now, the discharge just upstream of the bridge

280 = (3 + h) 30 u ... (16.4)

Putting for h from (16.4) in (16.3) and rearranging

u = 2.33 + .02195 u3

u = 2.81 m/sec
v

Pu'ttipg for u in (16.4)

h = 0.32 m < 1/4 Dd

16.8. Example: A bridge of 3 spans of 8 m each is proposed across a stream, whose unobstructed
width is 36 m, slope 1/2000 and discharge 400 m3/sec. Calculate the afflux (n=0.03) (Fig. 16.2).

,,
J L

Q-400cum/sec; s-1/2000; n-0.03

fl'i&- 16.2

We have first to find Dd,

Q = AV = (RP) V = RWV
Q 400
.', RV = -- = 11.11
W 36

Knowing n = 0.03; S = 1/2000, read velocity for various values of R from Plate 3 and select that
pair whose product is 11.11. Thus, we get.

62
 IRC:SP:13-2022

R = 5.1

V = 2.18
Take Dd= R = 5:'1 m

Now, W = 36 m, L = 24 M, Dd= 5.1 m

L 24
- = - = 0.67 Therefore, C = 0.865; e = 0.95
W 36 0

By the Orifice Formula, the discharge through the bridge

2 1/2
I2g"
Q = C o -../
~o L Dd h + (l+e) .!!_
2g

400 = 0.865 x.J2 x 9.8 x 24 x 5.1 [h + 1.95 ~

2
I
1/2

1/
0.975U212
v , 0.8528- [ h+ g .

or h+0.009u2 =0.7272 ... (16.5)

The dischargejust upstream of the bridge

400= 36(5.1 +h)u
11.11 ... (16.6)
i.e., h = ._- -5.1
u

Put value for h from (16.6) in (16.5) and rearrange

u-0.017 u3 = 1.90
:. u = 2.05 mlsec
Put this value ofu in (16.6), we get,
11.11
h = -5.1 =0.31 m
2.05

63
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 17

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES ON DISCHARGE PASSED BY

.'
EXISTING BRIDGES FROM FLOOD MARKS

17.1. Calculating Discharge by the Weir Formulae

Example: The unobstructed width of a stream is 40 m. The linear waterway of a bridge across
is 27 m. In a flood, the average depth of flow downstream of the bridge was 3.0 m and the afflux
was 0.9 m. Calculate the discharge (Fig. 17.1).
h 0.90
- = __ =0.30
Dd 3

u
-- ----- --
h=O.90rn

Du=3.90m

D.l"OOm
Fig. 11.1

Since h is more than 0.25 Dd' therefore, the Weir Formula will apply

w = 40 m; L = 27 m, h = 0.9 rn
Let the velocity of approach be u m/sec. The discharge at a section just upstream of the bridge.

Q = u x 3.9 x 40 = 156 u ..... (17.1a)

This discharge through the bridge by the Weir formula

Q = 1.706 x 0.98 x 27 x 3.9 + u2 _)3/2

(
'( u2 J3/2 19.6
= 45. 14 3.9 + ----- ,
19.6

Equating values of Q from (17.1a) and (17.1b)

156 u = 45.14 (3.9 + u 2 1/2

19.6) ..... (17.1b)

65
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

Rearranging

U2/3 - 0.0222 u2 = 1.70

or u = 2.45 m/sec

Putting the value of u in (17.1 a) or (17.1b) we get Q

Q = 156 x 2.45

= 382 m3/sec
Try the Orifice Formula

..£
W
= 27
40
= 0 .67
.'. Co= 0.865; e = 0.95

Discharge through the bridge by the Orifice Formula

,,
Q= 0.85 x 4.43 x 27 x 3 JO ..90+ .i:
1.95
19.6 ..... (17.1c)
= 305 JO.090+ O.lu2

Discharge just upstream of the bridge

Q =40x 3.9x u

= 156 u ..... (17.1d)

Equating values ofQ in (17.1c) and (17.1d)

305 J(O.90 + 0.1 u2) = 156 u

Simplifying

u = 2.36

Substituting for u in (17.1c) and (17. Id) we get Q

Q = 156 x 2.36 = 368.16 m3/sec

This result is about the same as given by the first method. In fact, the Orifice Formula, with the
recommended value of Co and e gives nearly correct results even where the conditions are
appropriate for the Weir Formula. But the converse is not true.

66
 IRC:SP:13-2022

17.2. Calculating Discharge by the Orifice Formula

Example: The unobstructed width of a stream is 30 m and the linear waterway of the bridge
across is 22 m. During a flood the average depth of flow downstream of the bridge was 1.6 m
and the afflux 6.10 m. Calculate the discharge (Fig. 17.2).

....... ---
~
--L_
h=O.10m
-
u ---.......__ ~ t
Du=1..70m
Dd=1.60m

Fig. 17.2

Given: W = 30 m, L = 22 m, h 0.1 m, Depth of flow =1.6 m. Let velocity of approach be u m/s. The
discharge at a section just upstream of the bridge will be

Q = u x 1.7x30 ..... (17.2a)

,
Contra~fion = _Q_ = l:_ = 22 = 0 73
. A W 30 .
Correspondingto this Co= 0.87 and e = 0.90

The discharge under the bridge, by the Orifice Formula

Q = Co j2i x L x D d h + (1 + e)
_ u211/2
l 2g

_ u2 11/2
= 0.87 x 4.43 x 22 x 1.6 [0.1 + 1.9
19.6
I;
= 135.66 [0.1 + 0.097 u2] 2
..... (17.2b)
Equating values ofQ in (l7.2a) and (l7.2b)

51 u = 135.66 [0.1 + 0.097u2] 1/2

u = 1.51 m/s

Substituting for u in (1 7.2a) and (1 7.2b) to get Q

Q = 1.51 x 1.7 x 30

= 77.01 cu. m/sec

67
IRC:SP:13-2022

17.3. The Border Line Cases: An example will now follow to illustrate what results are obtained
by applying the Weir Formula and Orifice Formulae to cases which are on the border line, i.e.,
where the afflux is just 'X Dd.
.'
17.4. Example: A stream whose unobstructed width is 35 m is spanned by a bridge whose linear
waterway is 30 m. During a flood the average downstream depth was 2.6 m and the afflux was
0.65 m. Calculate the discharge (Fig. 17.3).

- --f--
h=O.65m
- -

u
~

Du=3.25m
Dd=2.60m

Fig. 17.3

h 0.65
= = 0.25
Dd 2.6
Since h is lf4 D d' therefore, both the weir formula and Orifice formula should apply.

By the Weir Formula

If the velocity of approach is u, the discharge just upstream of the bridge.

Q= 35 x 3.25 x u= 113.75u ..... (17.3a)

The discharge through the bridge

Q =1.706 x 0.98 x 30 x (3.25 +

..... (17.3b)

Equating values ofQ from (17.3a) and (l7.3b)

1l3.75 u = 50.16(3.25 + 0.051 u2)312

68
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

u = 3.27 mls

Put for u in (17.3a) or (17.3b)

.' Q = 113.75 x 3.2 = 371.96 m3/s

By the Orifice Formula

Contraction = .E__
A
= 1:... = 30
w 35
= 0 .85
Ce = 0.90 e = 0.44
If u is the velocity of approach, the discharge just upstream of the bridge.

Q = 35 x 3.25 u = 113.75 u ...(17.3c)

The discharge under the bridge by the Orifice Formula

Q = 0.906 x 4.43 x 30 x 2.6 (0.65 + 0.0735 u2r~

= 310.98 (0.65 + 0.0735 u2)Y:!

Equating
, values of Q from (17.3c) and (17.3d) and squaring and rearranging
,
113.75 u = 310.98 x (0.65 + 0.0735 u2)Y:!

.'. u = 3.27 mls

Substituting for u in (1 7.3c) and (1 7.3d), we get Q

Q = 113.75 x 3.27 = 371.96 m3/s

69
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 18
OVERTOPPING OF THE BANKS

18.1. In plains vI/herethe ground slopes are gentle and the natural velocities of flow in streams
are low, the flood water may spill over one or both the banks of the stream at places.

18.2. Height of Approach Roads: Consider the case where main channel carries the bulk of the
discharge and a small fraction of it flows over the banks somewhere upstream of the bridge. If
the overflow strikes high ground at a short distance from the banks, it can be forced back into the
stream and made to pass through the bridge. This can be done by building the approach roads
of the bridge solid and high so that they intercept the overflow. In this arrangement, the linear
waterway of the bridge must be ample to handle the whole discharge without detrimental afflux.
Also, the top level of the approach road must be high enough to prevent overtopping. If the velocity
of the stream is V(m/s), the water surface level, where it strikes the road embankment, will be
1;6 (m) higher than HFL in the stream at the point, where the overflow starts. This arrangement
is, therefore, normally feasible where the stream velocity is not immoderately high.

18.3. Subsidiary or Relief Culverts: Sometimes, however, the overflow spreads far and away
from the banks. This is often the case in alluvial plains, where the ground level falls continuously
away from the banks of the stream. In such cases, it is impossible to force the overflow back into
the main stream. The correct thing to do is to pass the overflow through relief culverts at suitable
points in the road embankment. These culverts have to be carefully designed. They should not
be too small to cause detrimental ponding up of the overflow, resulting in damage to the road or
some property, nor, should they be so big as to attract the main current.

18.4. Dips and Breaching Sections in Approach Roads: It is sometimes feasible as well
as economical to provide permanent dips (or alternatively breaching sections) in the bridge
approaches to take excessive overflows in emergencies. The dips or breaching sections have to
be sited and designed so that the velocity of flow through them does not become erosive, cutting
deep channels and ultimately leading to the shifting of the main current. However, since the state
highways, National highways, and Expressways are to be designed as all-weather roads, dips
and breaching sections may be considered only for rural roads and major district roads.

18.5. Retrogression of Levels: Suppose water overflows a low bank somewhere upstream of the
bridge and after passing through a relief culvert, rejoins the main stream somewhere lower down.
When the flood in the main channel subsides, the ponded-up water at the inlet of the subsidiary
culvert gets a free fall. Under such conditions deep erosion can take place. A deep channel is
formed, beginning at the outfall in the mains stream and retrogressing towards the culvert. This
endangers the culvert. To provide against this, protection has to be designed downstream of the
culvert so as to dissipate the energy of the falling water on the same lines as is done on irrigation
falls. That is a suitable cistern and baffle wall should be added for dissipating the energy and the
issuing current should be stilled through a properly designed expanding flume.

71
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 19

PIPES AND BOX CULVERTS

"

19.1. Feasibility of Pipe and Box Culverts Flowing Full

19.1.1. Some regions along plain consist of vast flat without any deep and defined drainage
channels in it. When the rain falls, the surface water moves in some direction in a wide sheet
of nominal depth. So long as this movement of water is unobstructed, no damage may occur
to property or crops. But when a road embankment is thrown across the country intercepting
the natural flow, water ponds up on one side of it. Relief has then to be afforded from possible
damage from this ponding up by taking the water across the road through causeways or culverts.

19.1.2. In such flat regions the road runs across wide but shallow dips and, therefore, the most
straightforward way of handling the surface flow is to provide suitable dips (Le., causeways) in
the longitudinal profile of the road and let water pass over them.

19.1.3. There may, however, be cases where the above solution is not the best. Some of its
limitations may be cited. Too many causeways or dips detract from the usefulness of the road.
Also, the flow of water over numerous sections of the road, makes its proper maintenance
problematic and expensive. Again, consider the case of a wet cultivated or waterlogged country
(and flat plains are quite often swampy and waterlogged) where the embankment has necessarily
got to be taken ,high above the ground. Frequent dipping down from high road levels to the
ground produces a very undesirable road profile. And, even cement concrete slabs, in dips
across a waterlogged country, do not rest evenly on the mud underneath them. Thus, it will
appear that constructing culverts in such circumstances should be a better arrangement than
providing dips or small causeways.

19.1.4. After we have decided that a culvert has to be constructed on a road lying across some
such country, we proceed to calculate the discharge by using one of the run off formulae, having
due regard to the nature of terrain and the intensity of rainfall as already explained in Article-4.
But the natural velocity of flow cannot be estimated because (i) there is no defined cross-section
of the channel from which we may take the area of cross-section and wetted perimeter and (ii)
there is no measurable slope in the drainage line. Even where we would calculate or directly
observe the velocity, it may be so small thatwe could not aim at passing waterthrouqh the culvert
at that velocity, because the area of waterway required for the culvert (A+ ~) is prohibitively
large. In such cases the design has to be based on an increased velocity of flow through the
culvert and to create the velocity the design must provide for heading up at the inlet end of the
culvert. Economy, in design being the primary consideration, the correct practice, indeed is to
design a pipe or a box culvert on the assumption that water at the inlet end may head upto a
predetermined safe level above the top of the inlet opening. This surface level of the headed-up
water at the upstream end has to be so fixed that the road bank should not be overtopped, nor
any property in the flood plain damaged.
IRC:SP: 13-2022

Next, the level of the downstream water surface should be·noted down. This will depend on
the size of the slope of the leading out channel and is normally, the surface level of the natural
unobstructed flow at the site, that prevails before the road embankment is constructed.

After this we can calculate the required area of cross-section of the barrel of the culvert by
applying the principles of hydraulics discussed in this Article.

19.1.5. The procedure set out above is rational and considerable research has been carried out
on the flow of water through pipe and box culverts, flowing full.

19.1.6. In the past, use was extensively made of empirical formulae which gave the ventway
area required for a culvert to drain a given catchment area. Dun's Drainage Table is one of the
class and is purely empirical. This table is still widely used, as it saves the trouble of hydraulic
calculations.

But it is unfortunate that recourse is often taken rather indiscriminately to such short cuts, even
where other more accurate and rational procedure is possible and warranted by the expense
involved. Dun's Table or other in that class, should not be used until suitable correction factors
have been carefully evolved from extensive observations (in each particular region with its own
singularities of terrain and climate) of the adequacy or otherwise of the existing culverts vis-a-vis
their
-;
catchment area.

19.1.7. Considerations of economy require that small culverts, in contrast with relatively larger
structures,across defined channels, need not be designed normally to function with adequate
clearance for passing floating matter. The depth of a culvert should be small and it does not
matter if the opening stops appreciably below the formation level of the road. Indeed, it is correct
to leave it in that position and let it function even with its inlet submerged. This makes it possible
to design low abutments supporting an arch or a slab, or alternatively, to use hume pipes or
square box barrels.

19.1.8. High headwall should not be provided for retaining deep over-fills. Instead of this the
length of the culverts should be increased suitably so that the road embankment, with its natural
slopes, is accommodated without high retaining headwalls.

19.1.9. Where masonry abutments supporting arches or slabs are designed for culverts
functioning under "head", bed pavements must be provided. And, in all cases, including pipe
and box culverts, adequate provision must be made at the exit against erosion by designing
curtain walls. Where the exit is a free fall, a suitable cistern and baffle wall must be added for the
dissipation of energy and stilling of the ensuring current.

19.2. Hydraulics of the Pipe and Box Culverts Flowing Full

19.2.1. The Permissible Heading Up at the Inlet: It has been explained already that where a
defined channel does not exist and the natural velocity of flow is very low, it is economical to
design a culvert as consisting of a pipe or a number of pipes of circular or rectangular section
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

functioning with the inlet submerged. As the flood water starts heading up at the inlet,the velocity
through the barrel goes on increasing. This continues till the discharge passing through the culvert
equals the discharge coming towards the culvert. When this state of equilibrium is reached the
upstream water le~.eldoes not rise any higher.

For a given design discharge the extent of upstream heading up depends on the vent way of
the culvert. The latter has to be so chosen that the heading up should not go higher than a
predetermined safe level. The criterion for safety being that the road embankment should not be
overtopped, nor any property damaged by submergence. The fixing of this level is the first step
in the design.

19.2.2. Surface Level of The TailRace: It is essential that the HFL in the outfall channel near the
exit of the culvert should be known. This may be taken as the HFL prevailing at the proposed
site of the culvert before the construction of the road embankment with some allowance for the
concentration of flow caused by the construction of the culvert.

19.2.3. The Operating Head When the Culverts Flow Full: In this connection the cases that have
to be considered are illustrated in Fig. 19.1. In each case the inlet is submerged and the culvert
flows full. In case (a) the tail race water surface is below the crown of the exit and in case(b) it is
above that. The operating head in each case is marked "H". Thus, we see that: "When the culvert
flows full, the
, operating head, H, is the height of the upstream water level measured from the
surface level In the tail race or from the crown of the exit of the culvert whichever level is higher".

19.2.4. The Velocity Generated By "H": The operating head "H" is utilized in (i) supplying the
energy required to generate the velocity of flow through the culvert (ii) Forcing water through
the inlet of the culvert, and (iii) overcoming the frictional resistance offered by the inside wetted
surface of the culvert.

I ~
~--==~
----~----------- (8)

(b)
1
Fig. 19.1
IRC:SP:13-2022

If the velocity through the pipe is v, the head expended in generating is

.
r
g

As regards the head expended at the entry it is customary to express it as a fraction Keof the
velocity head ;~. Similarly, the head required for overcoming the friction of Kf of the ~,
From this it follows that:

...(19.1)

From this equation we can calculate the velocity v, which a given head H will generate in a pipe
flowing full, if we know Keand Kf"

19.2.5. Values of Keand Kf: Keprincipally depends on the shape of the inlet. The following values
are commonly used:

Ke= 0.08 for bevelled or

8ell - mouthed entry
= 0.505 for sharp edged entry ... (19.2)

As regards Kf it is a function of the Length L of the culvert, its hydraulic mean radius R, and the
co-efficient of rugosity n of its surface.

The following relationship exists between Kf and n:

14.85n2 L

... (19.3)

For Hume pipes or cement plastered masonry culverts of rectangular section, with the co-efficient
of rugosity n = 0.015, the above equation reduces to:
0.0334L
K"f =
... (19.4)

The graphs in Fig. 19.2 are based on Equation 19.4. For a culvert of known sectional area and
length, K, can be directly read from these graphs.

19.2.6. Values of KeAnd K, Modified Through Research: Considerable research has recently been
carried out on the head lost in flow through pipes. The results have unmistakably demonstrated
the following:-

The entry loss co-efficient Kedepends not only on the shape of the entry but also on the size"entry
and the roughness of its wetted surface. In general, Ke,increases with an increase in thee of the
inlet.

76
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

Also, Kf the friction loss co-efficient, is not independent of Ke' Attempts to make the entry efficient
repercuss adversely on the frictional resistance to flow offered by the wetted surface of the
barrel. In other words, if the entry conditions improve (Le., if Ke decreases), the friction of the
barrel increases ,Le., Kf increases). This phenomenon can be explained by thinking of the
velocity distribution inside the pipe. When the entry is square and sharp edged, high velocity
lines are concentrated nearer the axis of the barrel, while the bell-mouthed entry' gives uniform
distribution of velocity over the whole section of the barrel. From this it follows that the average
velocity being the same in both cases, the velocity near the wetted surface of the pipe will be
lower for square entry than for bellrnouthe dentry. Hence, the frictional resistance inside the
culvert is smaller when the entry is square than when it is bell-mouthed. Stream lining the entry
is, therefore, not an unmixed advantage.

'Kf'

K"",0.,
FOR C.C. PIPES

'(K. Is requiredto
find the head lost
against friction In
a conduit flowing

0.735 ,r-,:
full :.
h _ 1<. V·l2a
r- ~,
r-
,, 0.490
r-,, I..o~ " ~
I ,
~
I',
~f'~ r... r- 1\
~" 1'10.
'"
r-,,
r-
~-
0.400

t
K; ~ ~
~~ ['<~~~ ~~ ~ I'r-r-
~
~~
[' r-
~

"" ~ ""
~~~
~.

, ,"
0.200 . "-.0:r;;. tV
"."1I'
f'

~ I'
'" .,'.
i""
,'"
0.100
"
r-, "... "r-, , i'. "I, r-,l'.
I'

0.060
"r-, I'~ .
I"

'lit..
!
SIZE QE CONg_yrr
DCA
OFROUNOPp&s(m)-
'0
~ - -en
0 e ~ ~ t !:
,..
CIt

-- en--
SlOeS OF SQUARE seCTION 0 I\) I\)
fA yt
(mXM) ~ i? ~
~~ ~ !
0 o CIt 0 0 ~
0
~

Fig. 19.2

Consequently, it has been suggested that the values of Ke, and ~ should be as given in Table
19.1
IRC:SP:13-2022

Table 19.1 Values of Keand Kt'91

Entry and friction Circular Pipes Rectangular Culverts

.' Square Entry Bevelled Entry Square Entry Co-Eefficient Bevelled Entry
K'9 = 1.107 RO.5 0.1 0.572 RO.3 0.05
~= 0.00394L1R1.2 0.00394L1R1.2 0.0035 LlR125 0.0035L1R1.25

19.2.7. Design Calculations: We have said that

y2
H = (1 + K + Kf) -
e 2g
H )1/2
(
i.e. v = 4.43 1+ K + K
e f

Q=Ax4.43
H)
( + x, + .
1/2

1 Kf

Suppose we know the operating head H and the length of the barrel L, and assume that the
dlarneter of a round pipe or the side of a square box culvert is D.
From 0 calculate the cross-sectional area A and the hydraulic mean radius R of the culvert.

Now from Rand L compute Keand Kfusing appropriate functions from Table 19.1. Then, calculate
Q from Equation (19.5). If this equals the design discharge, the assumed size of the culvert is
correct. If not, assume a fresh value of 0 and repeat.

19.2.8. Design Chart (Plate 12): Equation (19~5) may be written as

Q = t...J2g H ..... (19.5) I

A
A = --------.--
(1+ K, + Kf) 12
..... (19.6)

It is obvious that all components of A. in Equation (19.6) are functions of the cross-section, length, I

roughness, and the shape of the inlet of the pipe. Therefore, A. represents the conveying capacity
of the pipe and may be called the 'Conveyance Factor'. The discharge, then depends on the
conveyance factor of the pipe and the operating head. In Plate12, curves have been constructed
from equation (19.6) from which Q can be directly read for any known values of A. and H.

Also, in the same Plate, Tables are included from which X can be taken for any known values
of (i) length, (ii) diameter in case of circular pipes or sides in case of rectangular pipes, and(iii)
conditions of entry, viz., sharp-edged or round. The material assumed is cement, concrete and
values of Keand Kf used in the computation are based on functions in Table 19.1.

78
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

The use of Plate12 renders the design procedure very simple and quick. Examples will now
follow to illustrate.

19.2.9. Example Data:

."

(1) Circular cement concrete pipe flowing full with bevelled entry
(2) Operating head = 1 m
(3) Length of the pipe = 25 m
(4) Diameter = 1 m

Find the discharge.

See, in Plate 12, the Table for circular pipes with rounded entry.

For L=25 m and D=1 m, the conveyance factor

A =0.618

Now refer to the curves in the same Plate. For A = 0.6 1 8 and H = 1 m

Q=2.72 m3 /sec
-,
19.2.10. Exempie: Design a culvert consisting of cement concrete circular pipes with bevelled
entry and flowing full, given: (Fig. 19.3).

Discharge =10m3/sec
R.L. of ground in metres =100.00
H.F.Lof tail race in metres =100.80
Permissible heading up at inlet R.L. =101.80
Length of culvert =20 m

--,~=R;;.L~.~10~1:=·80~I ~-+-
- R.L.100.80
1.8m
o
I l
.I
R.L.100.00
O.8m
I
I• 20m
Fie. 19.3

Since we shall try pipes of diameters exceeding 0.8 m, the culvert will function as sketched:

Assumed value of D = (1) 1 m; (2) 1.5 m;

79
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

Corresponding

H = 1'.8 - D = (1)0.8 m; (2) 0.3 m;

Discharge per pipe

From Plate 12, Q = (1) 2.54 m3/s; (2) 3.5 m3/s

Number of pipes

Require 10/Q = (1)3.93; (2)2.85

Say4 Say 3
Hence, 4 pipes of 1 metre diameter will suit, but 1.2 m dia pipes chosen

19.3. Improved Intake to. Increase Culvert Capacity

Culverts In dips and low height roads are often provided below ground. The portion of culvert
lying under ground eventually silt up and its conveying capacity is drastically reduced. Improved
intake design with proper design of inlet and outlet transitions connecting the culvert with the
channel like a siphon in canal cross-drainage works will increase the conveying capacity of
culvert. It is advisable to provide the inlet level of culverts at least 150 mm below lowest bed level
at the, section, so that water will always pass through the culvert.

19.4. Scour in Culverts

Where the bed is unprotected, scour depth in the abutments should be found as in the case of
bridges on alluvial fine and coarse soil to find the depth of foundation. When the bed is rigid as
in case of box culverts, curtain/cut-off walls must be provided both upstream and downstream
to protect against scour. Flexible stone pitching/stone gabions laid over geo-synthetic filter of
length 3 to 4 times estimated scour depth should be provided downstream to arrest erosion of
bed and banks where outlet velocity is high.

80
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 20

PROTECTION WORK AND MAINTENANCE

20.1. Floor Protection Works

In case structures founded on erodible soil are protected against scour by floor protection works,
the following is considered as sound practice.

20.1.1. For structures where adoption of shallow foundations becomes economical by restricting
the scour, floor protection may be provided. The floor protection will comprise of rigid flooring
with curtain walls and flexible apron so as to check scour, washing away or disturbance by
piping action, etc. Usually, performance of similar existing works is the best guide for finalizing
the design of new works. However, the following minimum specification for floor protection shall
be followed while designing new structures subject to the general stipulation that post protection
works velocity under the structures does not exceed 2 mls and the intensity of discharge is
limited to 2m3/m. In case it does not satisfies, design of floor protection work need to be done as
per IRC:89.

20.1.2. Suggested Specifications:

20.1.2.1>~xcavation for laying foundation and protection works should be carried out as per
speclflcatlons under proper supervision. Before laying the foundation and protection works the
excavated trenc~ should be thoroughly inspected by the Engineer-in-Charge to ensure that:

(a) There are no loose pockets, unfiled depressions left in the trench.

(b) The soil at the founding level is properly compacted to true lines and level.

(c) All concrete and other elements are laid in dry bed.

20.1.2.2. Rigid flooring: The rigid flooring should be provided under the bridge and it should
extend for a distance of at least 3 m on upstream side and 5 m on downstream side of the bridge.

However, in case the splayed wing walls of the structure are likely to be longer, the flooring
should extend up to the line connecting the end of wing walls on either side of the bridge.

The top of flooring should be kept 300 mm below the lowest bed level.

Flooring should consist of 150 mm thick flat stonelbricks on edge in cement mortar 1:3 laid over
300 mm thick cement concrete M 20 grade laid over a layer of 150 mm thick cement concrete
M 15 grade. Joints at suitable spacings (say 20 m) may be provided.

20.1.2.3. Curtain walls: The rigid flooring should be enclosed by curtain walls (tied to the wing
walls) with a minimum depth below floor level of 2 m on upstream side and 2.5 m on downstream
side. The curtain wall should be in cement concrete M 20 grade or brick/stone masonry in cement
mortar 1:3. The rigid flooring should be continued over the top width of curtain walls. In this

81
IRC:SP:13-2022

context, relevant provision in "Guidelines for design and construction of river training and control
works for road bridges", IRC: 89 is also referred.

20.1.2.4. Flexible apron: Flexible apron 1 m thick comprising of loose stone boulders(Weighing
not less than 40 kg) should be provided beyond the curtain walls for a minimum distance of 3 m
on upstream side and 6 m on downstream side. Where required size stones are not economically
available, cement concrete blocks or stones in wire crates may be used in place of isolated
stones. In this context, relevant provision in IRC:89 is also referred.

20.1.2.5. Wherever scour is restricted by provision offlooring/flexible apron, the work offlooringl
apron etc., should be simultaneously completed along with the work on foundations so that the
foundation work completed is not endangered.

20.2. Maintenance:

20.2.1. The bridge structures are more susceptible to damages during monsoon. It is generally
observed that following factors contribute mainly to damage.

(a) Choking of vents

(b) Wash outs of approaches
(c), , Dislodgement of wearing course and cushion
(d) Scour on DIS (downstream)
(e) Silting on U/S (upstream)
(f) Collection of debris on approaches in cutting

20.2.2. To minimize the occurrence of above phenomena, it is necessary to take adequate steps
as below:

(1) The vents should be thoroughly cleaned before every monsoon.

(2) The bridge vents should be cleared after the first monsoon flood as the flood carries
maximum debris with it.
(3) The approaches should be kept almost matching with existing bank, Le., cutting or
embankment should be minimum to avoid wash outs of approaches.
(4) Disposal of water through side gutters shall be properly planned so that it does not damage
the cross-drainage work proper.
(5) The wearing coat with cushion should be sufficiently stable and it should not get dislodged
during floods.
(6) In the event of approaches being in cutting there is a tendency of whirling of water at the
approaches. This leads to collection of debris in the approaches. After the floods recede,
huge heap of debris is found on the approaches. This should be quickly cleared.

82
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHAPTER 21

RAFT FOUNDATIONS

21.1. Raft foundation is preferred when the good foundable strata is not available within a
reasonable depth. Thus, the sandy layer or sand and silty foundations warrant provision of raft
foundation. While providing raft foundation, some important points should be kept in view.

21.1.1. Raft top should be kept 300 mm below the lowest bed level. This will ensure protection
to raft and also would avoid silting tendency on U/S and scouring tendency on DIS. The raft will
also not be subjected to stresses due to temperature variations.

21.1.2. U/S and DIS aprons should be provided in accordance with IRC:89 to protect the bridge
from scouring or undermining. The width of U/S and DIS aprons should be 1.5 dsm and 2.0 dsm
respectively (Fig. 21.1).

21.1.3. The depth of cut-off wall should be 30 cm below the scour level. The normals cour depth
is worked out by the formula dsm= 1 .34 x IDiJ1/3 (Refer Equation 9.1).
[K !
s

(Scour Depth
~
need not be increased by any factor as in case of open foundations as stipulated
in IRC:5):"

HFl

\
DIS UIS
\
\ , -
PIER

",'·t.
Fig. 21.1 Scour Depth and Apron Width for Raft

21.1.4. Longitudinal cut-off walls should be provided on U/S and DIS side and they should be
connected by cross cut off walls. Longitudinal cut-off walls safeguard the bridge from scour
where as the cross-cut-off walls keep the longitudinal cut-off walls in position and also protect
the bridge from scouring particularly due to out flanking.

21.1.5. The raft is generally as wide as the deck but in certain cases may be narrower than the
deck (Fig. 21.2).

83
IRC:SP:13-2022

21.1.6. Pressure relief holes may be provided in the raft to relieve the raft from possible uplift
pressure from below. The holes need to be carefully packed with graded filter material to prevent
outflow of soil particles of the foundation strata along with the flow of water (Fig. 21.3) .
.'
8500
7500

r\' V
IlIU:=K SUU!!I

~ .>
5000
v~

r· :. ••• '-:. ....

RAFT SLAB
• 4 ~
.. ~ _ .....- 0·. .i
RAFT SLAB NARROweR THAN DeCK WIDTH

o 0
o

PRESSURE REUEF HOLES ~ RAFT SLAB

84
 IRC:SP:13-2022

CHPATER 22

HP CULVERTS IN BLACK COTTON SOIL

.'
22.1. Generally, the black cotton (B.C.) soil is of expansive nature. As it comes in contact with
water, the montmorillonite group cells expand. This phenomenon leads to heavy pressure on
structure and the structure may develop cracks and fail. It is, therefore, necessary to safeguard
the structure from the ill-effects of the damaging nature of the soil. It is desirable to cut the
contact of expansive soil and the foundation structure. This can be achieved by providing a sandy
media all around the foundation. Such non-expansive layer not only cuts the all-around contact
between soil and foundation but also absorbs energy of swelling and shrinking of foundation soil
below the layer of sand and keeps the foundation safe.

22.2. Since expansive soils have low SBC, ground improvement is required. The same can be
done by introducing a granular layer of suitable thickness below the pipe which would help in
load dispersion to a wider area and thus reduce the stress on the soil below the granular layer.
Such layer, improves Safe Bearing Capacity (SBC) of the strata to a considerable extent and
safeguards the foundation from the adverse effects of the expansive soil also (Fig. 22.1).

......... FlOW

BOULDER WITH
I !!;;=~~~~;;';;;:=!S:::~~=~:;';;;::J
IlIII
COARSE SAND AND
STONE METAL

Fig. 22.1 Hume Pipe Culvert in BC Soil

t
85
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

CHAPTER 23
BOX CELL STRUCTURES
."
23.1. Where to Provide Box Structures: Box structures are hydraulically efficient structures
where thickness of walls and slab are small and there is least obstruction to flow. Box cell
structures are most suitable for soils having SBC 8-12 T/m2. Box cell structures are also provided
to keep the deck level lower. The box being a continuous structure, the thickness of top slab is
less than that of a simply supported span of same length. Also, expansion joints at the deck ends
are dispensed with.

When the river or Nalla has sandy bed and/or purely clayey strata, the independent foundations
are likely to be deeper and this may enhance the cost of culverts and small bridges. Under these
circumstances box culverts are found to be a better solution. Several such box cell structures
have shown a good in-service performance. Purely sandy sailor clayey strata may be at few
places but mixed soils are available in several cases. Where IjJ value of mixed soil is less than
15°, it may be treated as a clayey soil. Similarly, where safe bearing capacity of soil is found to
be less than 10 t/rns.box culverts are most suitable for such type of soils.

23.2. Foundation: Where there is a clayey stratum, top soil below box may be replaced by a
layer of qranular soil of suitable thickness like sandy murum and stone dust etc. or GSB

Where there is murum and mixed soil having IjJ more than 15°, there is no need of providing
sandy layer.

The box cell structures shall be designed as per IRC:112.

Box cell structures are to be provided with curtain walls and apron and these must be completed
before floods. The best practice is to lay foundations of curtain wall and apron first and then lay
box.

87
IRC:SP:13-2022

REFERENCES

(1) "Standard Specification and Code of Practice for Roads Bridges - Section I -General
Feafures of Design", IRC:5.

(2) "Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges - Section II - Loads and
Load Combinations", IRC:6.

(3) "Recommended Practice for Numbering Culverts, Bridges and Tunnels", IRC:7.

(4) "Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section IV - Brick, Stone
and Block Masonry", IRC:40.

(5) "Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section VII-Foundations&
Substructure", IRC:78.

(6) "Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and Control Works for Road
Bridges", IRC: 89.

(7) "Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges", IRC:112.

(8) -, "Manual for Quality Control in Road & Bridge Works", IRC:SP:112.

(9) "Project Preparation Manual for Bridges ", IRC: SP: 54.

88
 IRC:SP:13-2022

Appendix-A

FILLING BEHIND ABUTMENTS, WING AND RETURN WALLS

.'
1. FILLING MATERIALS
:;_,.

The type of materials to be used for filling behind abutments and other earth retaining
structures, should be selected with care. A general guide to the selection of soils is given in
Table 1.

TABLE I. GENERALGUIDE TO THE SELECTIONOF SOILS ON BASIS OF ANTICIPATEDEMBANKMENTPERFORMANCE

Soil group according to Visual Max. dry Optimum Anticipated

IS: 1498-1970 description density moisture embankment
range content performance
Most probable Possible (kg/m') range
(per cent)

GW.GP,GM, Granular 1850-2280 7-15 Good to Excellent

SW, HP materials

SB, SM, GM, Granular 1760-2160 9-18 Fair to Excellent

GC. SM, SC materials
with soil
,

SP Sand 1760-1850 19-25 Fair to Good

ML, MH, DL CL, SM, Sandy Silts 1760-2080 10-20 Fair to Good
SB, SC & Silts

2. LAYING AND COMPACTION

2.1. Laying of Filter Media for Drainage

The filter materials should be well packed to a thickness of not less than 600 mm with smaller
size towards the soil and bigger size towards the wall and provided over the entire surface behind
abutment, wings or return walls to the full height.

Filter materials need not be provided in case the abutment is of spill through type.

2.2. Density of Compaction

r:
Densities to be aimed at in compaction should be chosen with due regard to factors, such
as, the soil type, height of embankment, drainage conditions, position of the individual layers and
type of plant available for compaction.

Each compacted layer should be tested in the field for density and accepted before the
operations for next layer are begun.

89
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

3. EXTENT OF BACKFILL
The extent of backfill to be provided behind the abutment should be as illustrated in
Fig. I.

r--EXTENT OF FILL

APPROACH
EMBANKMENT

Fig. 1

4. PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN DURING CONSTRUCTION

4.1. The sequence of filling behind abutments, wing walls and return walls should be so
controlled that the assumptions made in the design are fulfilled and they should dearly be indicated
in the relevant drawings. For example, if the earth pressure in front of the abutment is assumed
in the design, the front filling should also be done.simultaneously alongwith the filling behind abutment,
layer by, and in case the filling behind abutment before placing the superstructure is considered not
desirable, the filling behind abutment should also be deferred to a later date. In case of tie beams
and friction slabs, special care should be taken in compacting the layer underneath and above them
so that no damage is done to them by mechanical equipment.

4.2. Special precautions should be taken to prevent any wedging action against structures,
and the slopes bounding the excavation for the structure should be stepped or strutted to prevent
such wedging action,

4.3. Adequate number of weep holes not exceeding onemetre spacing in both directions
should be provided to prevent any accumulation of water and building up of'hydrostatic pressure
behind the walls. The weep holes should be provided above the low water level.

90
 IRC:SP: 13-2022

PLATE-1

10000°
8000
-
.
"1 01 ~ aqcq tIC! q
0
,00000'" ,,
\
IIAX. VALUES OF P
1\ 1\ 1\ 1\ ~ :\ \ .\
SlEEP BAREROCK. CITY~AVEMENT OiQ
8000 , ROCKS IEEP BUT WOODED 0.80
500D \ \
, PlATEAUS LJGtm.Y COVERED 0.70
\ \.
4000 \ 3.._ \ \ ClAYEY SOH..S..IIIFF I BARE a,lD
3000 1\ \ 1\ 1\ \ \ _.:J»- UGHllY COVERED 0.50
\ \\ \ \ I.OAM LIGHTlY ®VERED OR CUL,T8VATED 0.«1
2000

1000 r\
~
\ \ \
!\ 1\
\
1\ 1\
~' \ \ ~,
~If~ fi~
11
1\
,, ~ I.ARGEL Y CULTIVATED
SANDY SOIL. UGHT GROW11f
SANDY SOIL COVERED. ttEAW BRUSH
0.30
0.20
0.10

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f~ I,~
~ t
\ . 1000
, 800
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IRC:SP: 13-2022
PLATE-4

TYPICAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF WEIGHTED

.' MEAN DIAMETER OF PARTICLES {dm>

Representative disturbed samples of bed materials shall be taken at every change of strata upto
the maximum anticipated scour depth. The sampling should start from 300 mm below the existing
bed. About 500 gms of each of the representative samples so collected shall be sieved by a set of
standard sieves and the weight of soil retained in each sieve is taken. The results thereof are then
tabulated. A typical test result is shown below (Table A & B).

TABLE A
Sieve Designation Sieve Opening Weight of SoH Per cent
(mm) retained (gm) retained
5.60mm 5.60 0 0
4.00mm 4.00 0 0
2.80mm 2.80 16.90 4.03
1.00mm 1.00 76.50 18.24
425 micron 0.425 79.20 18.88
,, 180 micron 0.180 150.40 35.86
75 micron 0.75 41.00 9.78
Pan- 55.40 13.21
, Total; 419.40 100.00

TABLE B
Sieve No. Average size Percentage of Column (2) x
(mm) weight retained column (3)
ll) l") ~.J) t't,
4.00t02.80mm 3.40 4.03 13.70
2.80 to 1.00 mm 1.90 18.24 34.66
1.00 to 425 micron 0.712 18.88 13.44
425 to 180 micron 0.302 35.86 10.83
180 to 75 micron 0.127 9.78 1.24
75 micron and below 0.0375 13.21 0.495
74.365

74.365
Weighted mean diameter ~ - --------------
100
= 0.74365 Say 0.74

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 IRC:SP: 13-2022
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