CHAPTER 4

Flow in Pipes
4.1 Introduction
This chapter is concerned with internal pipe and duct flows, which are
probably the most common problems encountered in engineering fluid
mechanics. Such flows are very sensitive to the Reynolds number and
change from laminar to transitional to turbulent flow as the Reynolds
number increases.

4.2 Laminar and Turbulent flows

The Reynolds experiment on internal flow, water is made to flow through
a glass pipe as shown in Fig. (4.1). At the inlet of the pipe, a dye is injected
into the flow.
►Laminar flow
When the outlet valve is only slightly open (low velocity), the dye will
move through the glass pipe intact, the flow is parallel, smooth, high
viscosity (Newton's viscosity law), and steady. [Figs. (4.1a, 4.2a, and
4.3a)]

►Transition flow
Further opening of the valve (medial velocity), the flow is waver and
unstable [Fig. (4.1b)].

►Turbulent flow
Further opening of the valve (high velocity), the flow is irregular molecular
motion, fluctuation, and low-viscosity [Figs. (4.1c, 4.2b, and 4.3b)].
 Dye injector

Law velocity

Water Valve
(a)
Laminar flow

Medial velocity

(b)
Transition flow

High velocity

(c)
turbulent flow

Fig. 4.1 Reynolds experiment

(a) Laminar flow (b) Turbulent flow

Fig. 4.2 water flowing from a tap

 Fig. 4.3bFig.Hot
4.3b gases from a

cigarette made visible by

smoke particles. The smoke
Fig. 4.3a first moves in laminar flow at
Fig. 4.3a Laminar flow around an the bottom and then in
automobile in a test wind tunnel. [Link 2] turbulent flow above. [Link2]
► Reynolds number
It was found by Reynolds that the criterion for the transition from laminar
to turbulent flow in a pipe is the Reynolds number.
ud ud
Re = = (Non-dimensional quantity) …(4.1)

Where:
 
 = kinematic viscosity = ( / ) m2/s
 = absolute or dynamic viscosity = N.s/m2 or kg/(m.s)
u = (Q/A) average velocity in the pipe
d = diameter of the pipe.
{Laminar} 2300 > Re > 4000 {Turbulent}

4.3 Pipe-entrance conditions

An internal flow is constrained by the bounding walls, and the viscous
effects will grow the entire flow. Figure 4.4 shows an internal flow in a
long duct. There is an entrance region where a nearly inviscid upstream
flow converges and enters the tube. Viscous boundary layers grow
downstream.
The distance from the entrance to just where the boundary layer develops to the
tube center is called the inlet or entrance length, Le. The tube flow is then
entirely viscous and the called fully developed flow (the velocity profile is
constant, the wall shear is constant, and the pressure drops linearly with x.

For the value of Le, there are the following equations:

Boundary Developed
Laminar flow Growing Inviscid core layers merge velocity
boundary flow
layers profile u(r)

Le r
 0.06 Re …(4.2) x
d u(r,x)

Entrance length Le Fully developed

Turbulent flow (developing profile region) flow region

Le 1
 4.4 Re 6 …(4.3)
d Fig. 4.4 Developing velocity profiles in the
entrance of a duct flow.
 Choose the right answer
1- In flow through a straight, smooth pipe, the diameter Reynolds
number for transition to turbulence is generally taken to be
(a) 1500,
(b) 2300,
(c) 4000,
(d) 250,000,
(e) 500,000

2- For flow of water at 20°C through a straight, smooth pipe at 0.06

m3/h, the pipe diameter for which transition to turbulence occurs is
approximately
(a) 1.0 cm,
(b) 1.5 cm,
(c) 2.0 cm,
(d) 2.5 cm,
(e) 3.0 cm
4.4 head loss in a pipe (due to friction):
• The continuity relation
Total head
Q = A1u1 = A2u2 u12 / 2g E.G.L hf

• The steady-flow energy equation H.G.L

u22 / 2g
2 2 p1 / 
p1 u1 p2 u 2 p2 / 
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hlosses
 2g  2g
Q (1) (2)
Assume that the flow is fully
developed, and correct later for
entrance effects. The pipe is L
constant area (Fig. 4.5), u1 = u2
(from continuity). The friction
head loss hf is Fig. 4.5 Head loss in a pipe

p
hlosses = h f = …(4.4)

Darcy-Weisbach investigated that the dissipation of energy by fluid friction
results in a fall of piezometric head in the direction of flow, and if the pipe
is of uniform cross section. Darcy’s results suggest the formula :

p L u 2

hf = = f. . …(4.5)
 d 2g
This is the Darcy-Weisbach equation, valid for duct flows of any cross
section and for laminar and turbulent flow.
Where, the dimensionless parameter f is called the friction factor, and f is
function of wall-roughness height and Reynolds number

4.5 Laminar-Flow Solution

For the flow of viscous fluid (laminar flow) through circular pipe (Fig. 4.6),
the velocity distribution across a section, the ratio of maximum velocity to
average velocity, the shear stress distribution and drop of pressure for a given
length is to be determined.
 umax
um
C  A 
dr
p + dp p r
CV

R
D dx B Side view Shear stress velocity
of CV distribution distribution

Fig. 4.6 A circular pipe, shear stress and velocity distribution across section

The forces acting on the control volume (CV) are:

1- the pressure force on the face AB, p*r2
2- the pressure force on the face CD, (p+dp)*r2
3- the shear force on the surface of CV,  * 2.r.dx
Hence, the summation of all forces in the direction of flow must be zero i.e.,
(p+dp)*r2 – p *  r2 =  * 2.r.dx
  = (r/2).(dp/dx) …(4.6)
The shear stress across a section varies with r as (dp/dx) across a section is
constant. Hence shear stress distribution across a section is linear (Fig. 4.6).
From Newtonian flow,  = . (du/ar)
 (du/dr) = (r/2).(dp/dx)
Integrating this above equation (r), we get
 u = (r2/4).(dp/dx) + C
Where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the
boundary condition that at r = R, u = 0.0.
 The velocity profile or distribution is:

…(4.7)

From equation (4.7) the velocity is parabolic (Fig. 4.6).

The velocity is maximum, when r = 0.0 in equation (4.7). Thus maximum
velocity is obtained as
R 2 dp
u max = .( ) …(4.8)
4  dx
The discharge across the section is obtained by considering the flow through
a circular ring element (Fig. 4.6). The average velocity is:

Q 0 u * 2rdr
R

um = =
A R 2
R 2 dp
um = ( ) …(4.9)
8 dx
Dividing equation (4.8) by equation (4.9), for laminar flow, the ratio of
maximum velocity to average velocity is:
u max
= 2.0 …(4.10)
um
And the wall shear stress
du 2  .umax
w =  )r =R = …(4.11)
dr R
The pressure drop from equation (4.9) is
 dp 8 .u m
=
dx R2
Integrating the above equation (x), we get

8 .um
L
dp =  2
dx dx = L, um = u from Fig. 4.5
0 R
Where dp is the pressure drop, also from equations (4.4) and (4.5) the
loss of pressure head or friction losses is

dp L u2 32.u.L
= hf = f . = …(4.12)
 d 2g  .d 2
Finally, for laminar flow, the friction factor f (from above equation) is:

64
f = …(4.13)
Re
EXAMPLE 4.1
An oil with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and ν = 0.0002 m2/s flows upward through an inclined
pipe as shown in Fig. E4.1 (a) verify that the flow is up, (b) compute hf between
1 and 2, and compute (c) Q, (d) V, and (e) Red. Is the flow really laminar?

Solution
• z2 = L sin 40 = 6.43 m,  =. = 0.18 kg/m.s
Ps1 (HGL)1 = z1 + (p1/) = 39.62 m
ps2 (HGL)2 = z2 + (p2/) = 34.75 m
hence, the flow is from 1 to 2 Ans.
2 2
p1 u p u
(b) + 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h f Fig. E4.1
g 2 g g 2 g
hf = 4.9 m Ans.

(c, d) hf = f.(L/d).(u2/2g), Assume flow is laminar f = 64 / Re = 64. / .u.d

u = 2.7 m/s, and Q = A.u = 0.00076 m3/s
(e) Re = .u.d /  = 810 < 2300  flow is laminar Ans.
u = 2.7 m/s, and Q = A.u = 0.00076 m3/s Ans.
 Choose the right answer

3- For flow of oil [=0.1 kg/(m.s), SG=0.9]

through a long, straight, smooth 5-cm-diameter
pipe at 14 m3/h, the pressure drop per meter is
approximately
(a) 2200 Pa,
(b) 2500 Pa,
(c) 10,000 Pa,
(d) 160 Pa,
(e) 2800 Pa
4.6 Turbulent-Flow Solution
A turbulent flow can be considered as the superposition of a random
fluctuating flow over a well-ordered flow. Unfortunately, the nature of the
fluctuating component is little understood, so that no adequate theory has
yet been formulated for analyzing turbulent flow.
For the solution of the turbulent flow used the experimental data and the
dimensional analysis (empirical formulation).
To find the values of the friction factor for a turbulent flow (smooth and
rough walls)
0.3164
Smooth wall f = 1
…(4.14)
4
1- Empirical formulation
Re
0.25
 ( )( )
Or Rough wall f =
log 
2
+ 5.74 0.9
3.7d Re
2- Moody chart …(4.15)
The Moody chart for pipe friction with smooth and rough walls shown in
Fig. 4.7 and the roughness values for commercial pipes in table 4.1.
 Wholly turbulent flow

 /d
f
Turbulent flow
Laminar
flow

Smooth
Transition rang

Re

Fig. 4.7 Friction factors for flow in pipes [Ref. 3]

 Table 4.1 Roughness Values for Commercial pipes


Material Condition
ft mm
Steel Sheet metal 0.00016 0.05
Stainless 0.000007 0.002
Commercial 0.00015 0.046
Riveted 0.01 3.0
Rusted 0.007 2.0
Iron Cast 0.00085 0.26
Wrought 0.00015 0.046
Galvanized 0.0005 0.15
Asphalted cast 0.0004 0.12
Brass Drawn, new 0.000007 0.002
Plastic Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Glass — Smooth Smooth
Concrete Smoothed 0.00013 0.04
Rough 0.007 2.0
Rubber Smoothed 0.000033 0.01
Wood Stave 0.0016 0.5
EXAMPLE 4.2
Oil, with ρ = 900 kg/m3 and ν = 0.00001 m2/s, flows at 0.2 m3/s through 500 m of
200-mm-diameter cast-iron pipe. Determine (a) the head loss and (b) the pressure
drop if the pipe slopes down at 10° in the flow direction.
Solution
First compute the velocity from the known flow rate, u =Q / .r2 = 6.4 m/s

Then the Reynolds number is, Re = u.d / = 128000 (Turbulent)

From Table 4.1,  = 0.26 mm for cast-iron pipe. Then,  /d = 0.0013

Enter the Moody chart on the right at  /d = 0.0013 (you will have to interpolate),
and move to the left to intersect with Re = 128000. Read f = 0.0225
From energy equation
2 2
p1 u p u
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h f , z1 = L.sin10
g 2 g g 2 g
Then the head loss is
hf = f.(L/d).(u2/2g) = 117 m Ans.
 (p1 – p2) = 265000 Pa Ans.
 Choose the right answer

4- For flow of water at a Reynolds number of 1.03

E6 through a 5-cm-diameter pipe of roughness
height 0.5 mm, the approximate Moody friction
factor is
(a) 0.012,
(b) 0.018,
(c) 0.038,
(d) 0.049,
(e) 0.102
4.7 Minor Losses in Pipe Systems
For any pipe system, in addition to the Moody-type friction loss computed
for the length of pipe, there are additional so-called minor losses due to
1. Sudden expansion or contraction
2. Pipe entrance or exit
3. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings
4. Valves, open or partially closed
5. Gradual expansions or contractions

The minor loss is u2

hm = K …(4.16)
2g
Where K is loss coefficient

And the total losses in pipe system is

ht = hf + hm …(4.17)
►Loss at sudden expansion (enlargement) :
If shear stress is neglected and pressure force is considered, the momentum
equation between sections 1 and 2 is
p1.A1 – p2.A2 = m` (u2 – u1)
H
Replace u1 by u2.(A2/A1) by hf1
continuity we get u1 / 2g hm=K.(u2/2g)

(p1– p2)/ = u22[1–(A2/A1)] …(i) EGL

hf2
From the energy equation HGL
u2 / 2g
p1 u
2
p u
2 p1 / 
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + hm
g 2 g g 2 g
p2 / 
(p1– p2)/g = u22/2g [1 –(A2/A1)2] + hm
(1) (2)
And substitution from equation (i) gives

u2 A2 u 2

hm = K =( − 1) 2 . 2 …(4.18)
2g A1 2g Eddies

Fig. 4.8 Sudden enlargement, with HGL and EGL

►Loss at sudden contraction :
Eddies are formed between the vena contracta and the wall of the pipe,
and this causes practically all the dissipation of energy.
Similar so the loss of head H
is assumed to be given by hf1
u1 / 2g
equation (4.18) hm=K.(u2/2g)

EGL
2 2 hf2
u 1 2 u
hm = K =( − 1) . 2
p1 /  HGL
2g Cc 2g u2 / 2g

…(4.19)
Vena contracta p2 / 
(Ac)
Where Ac represents the cross- (1) (2)
sectional area of the vena
contracta, and the coefficient
of contraction Cc = Ac / A2. Eddies

Fig. 4.9 Sudden contraction, with HGL and EGL

EXAMPLE 4.3
When a sudden contraction is introduced in horizontal pipe line from 40 cm to 20
cm, the pressure changes from 100 kPAa to 80 kPa. Calculate the rate of flow of
water. Assume the coefficient of contraction of the jet is to be 0.62.

Solution
The head loss due to sudden contraction is

hm = [(1/Cc) – 1]2.(u22/2g) = 0.3756.(u22/2g)

From energy equation

2 2
p1 u p u
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + hm
g 2 g g 2 g

Replace u1 by u2.(A2/A1) by continuity

u2 =5.5 m/s
Q = 0.172 m3/s Ans.
►Loss at pipe entrance :
hm
EGL
HGL

K = 0.05 K = 0.5 K = 1.0

Fig. 4.10 The different loss coefficient for pipe entrance
►Loss at pipe exit :
EGL
hm
HGL

►Losses at Bends, elbows,

tees, and other fittings; Valves,
open or partially closed; Gradual
expansions or contractions In the K = 1.0
document file Fig. 4.11 Pipe exit
 Choose the right answer

5- Minor losses through valves, fittings, bends,

contractions, etc., are commonly modeled as
proportional to
(a) total head,
(b) static head,
(c) velocity head,
(d) pressure drop,
(e) velocity
 Choose the right answer
6- A smooth 8-cm-diameter pipe (f =0.01) , 200 m long, connects two
reservoirs, containing water at 20°C, one of which has a surface elevation
of 700 m and the other with its surface elevation at 560 m. If minor losses
are neglected, the expected flow rate through the pipe is
(a) 0.048 m3/h,
(b) 2.87 m3/h,
(c) 134 m3/h,
(d) 180 m3/h,
(e) 385 m3/h

7- If, in Prob.6 the pipe is rough (f = 0.044) and the actual flow rate is 90
m3/h, then the expected average roughness height of the pipe is
approximately
(a) 1.0 mm,
(b) 1.25 mm,
(c) 1.5 mm,
(d) 1.75 mm,
(e) 2.0 mm
4.8 Multiple-Pipe Systems:
►Series pipe system :
The first is a set of three (or more) pipes in series shown in Fig. 4.12.
The flow rate is the same in all pipes, and the total head loss through the
system equals the sum of the head loss
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = constant (3)
(1) (2)
and …(4.20) A
B
hA-B = h1 + h2 + h3
Fig. 4.12 Pipes in series
►Parallel pipe system :
The second multiple-pipe system is the parallel-flow case shown in Fig.
4.13. The loss is the same in each pipe, and the total flow is the sum of the
individual flows
(1)
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (2)
B
A
(3)
and …(4.21)

hA-B = h1 = h2 = h3 = constant Fig. 4.13 Pipes in parallel

►Branches pipe system :
Consider the third example of a three-reservoir pipe junction, as in Fig. 4.14.
If all flows are considered positive toward the junction and the pressure must
change through each pipe so as to give the same static pressure pJ
z1
Q1 - Q2 + Q3 = 0.0
z2
and

hJ= (pJ / ) + zJ …(4.22) (1)

(2)
2
L u
h1 = f . )1 = z1 − hJ z3
d 2g J (3)
L u2
h2 = f . ) 2 = z 2 − hJ
d 2g
L u2 Fig. 4.14 Pipes in branches
h3 = f . )1 = z3 − hJ
d 2g

Then the head loss through each, assuming p1 = p2 = p3 =0 (gage) at each

reservoir surface.
►Pipeline with pump or turbine :
Pump is defined as the hydraulic machines which convert mechanical energy
into pressure (hydraulic) energy (Fig. 4.15a).
Turbine is defined as the hydraulic machines which convert pressure
(hydraulic) energy into mechanical energy (Fig. 4.15 b).
Energy equation with turbine and pump is
2 2
p1 u1 p2 u 2
+ + z1 = + + z 2 + hT − hP + hlosses …(4.23)
 2g  2g
Where, power)pump = .Q.hP/P and power)turbine = .Q.hT.T
(2)

(1)

(b)
P (a)

(1) (2)
T

Fig. 4.15 Pipeline with (a) pump (b) turbine

EXAMPLE 4.4
Given is a three-pipe series system, as in Fig. E4.4 The total pressure drop is pA –
pB = 150,000 Pa, and the elevation drop is zA - zB = 5 m. The pipe data are
(3)
Pipe L, m d, cm , mm f (1) (2)
A
1 100 8 0.24 0.0288 B
2 150 6 0.12 0.0260
3 80 4 0.20 0.0314 Fig. E4.4

The fluid is water, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and ν = 1.02 * 10-6 m2/s. Calculate the flow
rate Q in m3/h
Solution
The total head loss across the system is
hA-B = h1 + h2 + h3 = (pA – pB)/ + (zA – zB) = 20.3 m
From the continuity relation u1.A1= u2 .A2= u3 .A3= Q
Neglecting minor losses and substituting into Equation 4.20
hA-B = 20.3 = (Q2/2g)[{f.(L/d).(1/A12)}1 + {f.(L/d).(1/A22)}2 + {f.(L/d).(1/A32)}3 ]
Q = 2.84 * 10-3 m3/s = 10.2 m3/h Ans.
 Choose the right answer
8- A fireboat pump delivers water to a vertical nozzle with a 3:1
diameter ratio, as in Fig. If friction is neglected and the flow rate is
0.032 m3/s, how high will the outlet water jet rise? [Ref. 1]
(a) 2.0 m,
(b) 9.8 m,
(c) 33 m,
(d) 64 m,
(e) 98 m