Harmful Algae:

A Compendium Desk Reference

Executive Summary

Tessa Getchis
Sandra Shumway
Background and Purpose

Toxic microalgae and their associated blooms are regular and natural phenomena
and have been recorded throughout history; yet, major efforts to study their
ecology, physiology, toxins, and impacts have only escalated over the past four–
five decades as their presence and impacts have expanded globally. Harmful
algal blooms (HAB) are caused by a diverse group of microalgal species and they
can exert significant negative impacts on human, animal, and environmental
health, economies, tourism, aquaculture, and fisheries. The continuing increase
in numbers of toxic and harmful algal species worldwide presents a constant
threat to these sectors and to the sustainable development of coastal regions.

This Executive Summary provides a summary of the key issues and state of
the science with respect to harmful algal blooms as presented in Harmful Algal
Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference (Wiley Science Publishers, 2017) to improve
management and response.

Artwork and Photos:

Cover and Back Cover, Eric Heupel
Inside Cover, Brian LaPointe (top) and T. Archer (bottom)

Credits:
This publication was prepared by Tessa L. Getchis and Sandra E. Shumway. Graphic
design by Eric Heupel of the University of Connecticut. This project was funded in
part by grant #NA14NMF4270023 from the DOC/NOAA/Saltonstall Kennedy Program
to Sandra E. Shumway, University of Connecticut Department of Marine Sciences
and Tessa L. Getchis, University of Connecticut Department of Extension and
Connecticut Sea Grant.

Citation:
Getchis, T.L., Shumway, S.E. 2017. Harmful Algae: An Executive Summary.
Connecticut Sea Grant College Program. CTSG-17-08. 16 pp.
The distribution of algal toxins throughout the food web
The distribution of algal toxins throughout the food web

Human consumers

Piscivorous
Carnivorous &
birds
scavenger birds

Algal grazer Marine Mammals

Sea otter

Squid
Carnivorous fish
Carnivorous
invertebrates

Planktivorous fish

Zooplankton
Filter-feeding invertebrates

Toxic phytoplankton

Graphic by Eric Heupel

Introduction

Algal blooms can develop in fresh, marine, and brackish water bodies. A bloom occurs when
there is a rapid increase in the abundance of phytoplankton, some species of which produce
toxins. When phytoplankton are consumed by various organisms, toxins are distributed
throughout the food web. These toxins can adversely affect the health of humans, animals,
and ecosystems, and have substantial economic consequences.

An algal bloom may not be visible, or it can change the color of the water to brown, green,
yellow, orange, or red. Often a bloom resembles swirls of paint floating on the water surface,
but may also appear as a foam, scum, or mat. Macroalgae are also known to proliferate and
can impose deleterious effects on the environment.

Several factors can lead to the excessive growth of these phytoplankton, including:

• increases in nutrient levels from fertilizer run-off from residences and agricultural lands,
sewage discharges, and run-off from urban areas and industrial facilities
• changes in nutrient levels associated with ocean upwelling
• low water flows, such as those associated with drought
• changes in water temperature
• changes in factors such as pH or turbidity
• changes in the local phytoplankton assemblages

Harmful algal blooms are a global problem that has been exacerbated by anthropogenic
forces (ship ballast water, shellfish translocations, sediment dredging) and natural vectors
(climate change, storm events).

A summary of the health and economic consequences of harmful algal blooms, as well as
an introduction to the prominent organisms, and to monitoring and detection methods for
prominent toxin-forming species is summarized here and in the corresponding book.

Steve Morton
Public Health

Harmful algal blooms can cause significant human illness. Humans may be sickened by
swimming, ingesting toxins by drinking contaminated water, eating contaminated seafood, or
by exposure to aerosolized toxins (tiny airborne droplets) produced by algae. While the risk is
significant, the annual number of illnesses is very low compared to other foodborne illnesses.
This is a result of sophisticated surveillance and proactive public notification protocols in place
for responding to bloom events.

The most commonly recognized illnesses include:

Illness Toxin Source
Ciguatera Poisoning ciguatoxin subtropical and tropical fish
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) saxitoxins bivalve and gastropod molluscs, crustaceans, fish
Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) okadaic acid, dinophysistoxins molluscan shellfish
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP} domoic acid molluscan shellfish, crustaceans, fish
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) brevetoxins bivalve and gastropod molluscs
Azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) azaspiracids bivalve molluscs

Exposure to toxins may result in a number of symptoms including:

Gastrointestinal Neurological Respiratory Dermatological
Nausea Pain Coughing Itchy skin
Vomiting Numbness Wheezing Rash
Diarrhea Tingling Rhinitis Hives
Abdominal pain Confusion
Memory loss

These symptoms are toxin-specific and can vary depending upon how a person was
exposed, the duration of the exposure, and the particular HAB toxin involved. The onset of
illness may appear within minutes or hours to days for some neurological symptoms. The
effects may be acute or chronic, with mild to moderate symptoms, or in the most severe
cases, death.

Routine clinical tests are not yet available for the diagnosis of HAB-related illnesses and there
are no known antidotes. Algal toxins are not reliably eliminated by heat (e.g. cooking), nor
are they rapidly removed, if at all, by depuration of exposed shellfish. Preventing exposure to
toxins is critical to minimizing human health risks.
 Animal Health

Many animals including birds, marine

mammals, fish, and shellfish are
susceptible to the toxins produced by
Tom Archer harmful algal blooms. Many animals
University of Michigan
become ill or die when they consume
toxin-contaminated fish or invertebrates.
Large die-offs of whales, porpoises,
manatees, and birds have been
documented. Illness and deaths of dogs,
cattle, and wildlife exposed to freshwater
cyanotoxins have been reported.
Some phytoplankton species are not
harmful to humans, but cause injury to
Associated Press fish and invertebrates by damaging or
clogging their gills. This is an especially
Florida Fish and Wildlife challenging problem for aquaculture
Conservation Commission
operations. Other algal species, while not
toxic, can grow uncontrolled reducing the
available oxygen and sunlight necessary
for plant and animal survival.

Animals can serve as early indicators

of algal bloom toxicity. Birds and marine
mammals are important sentinel species,
Washington State Park Service and provide early warnings of existing
or emerging health hazards in oceanic
and coastal environments. Increases in
mortality or morbidity of these animals
may be a sign that HAB toxins are
present. Bottlenose dolphins, California
sea lions, cormorants, pelicans, and
southern sea otters are examples of
sentinel species used to evaluate the
Al Segars
presence of algal toxins and other
G. Early
environmental threats in oceans and
human health research studies.
Ecosystem Health

In addition to impacts on human and animal health, harmful algal blooms can cause
significant ecological disruption including:

• accumulation of toxins in the food web resulting in animal illness or death

• changes in phytoplankton diversity which alter the food web structure
• oxygen depletion (hypoxia, anoxia)
• sunlight deprivation which impacts important habitats such as submerged aquatic
vegetation

Photo by T. Joyce
Economics

Harmful algal blooms are a global problem with severe economic consequences for
aquaculture, fisheries, and tourism operations, and especially for the coastal communities
near impacted waterways. There are market-related losses calculated from changes in prices
or quantities of goods or services such as the costs associated with harvest area closure or
a shellfish recall following a HAB event. Non-market goods comprise those for which no formal
market exists. Non-market losses could relate to the adverse effects of HAB on recreational
uses of coastal or ocean resources, such as fishing or beach-going, or on passive uses, such
as perceptions of well-being associated with healthy ecosystems.

Impacts to the following sectors include:

Aquaculture and Fisheries:
• habitat loss
• harvest area closures for finfish and shellfish
• losses of commercially important finfish and shellfish
• damage to animal gills
• fouling of gear, pumps, filters, and intake pipes

Tourism:
• beach closures
• decreased recreational uses of beaches and waterways (via
rotting biomass, offensive odors, reduced water clarity, fish kills)
• reduced recreational travel
• reduced patronage at seafood restaurants
• reduced waterfront real estate values

Coastal communities:
• reduced confidence in local seafood safety Photos by Tessa Getchis

• costly monitoring and detection programs

• increased fouling of pumps, filters, and intake pipes
• taste and odor problems in drinking water supplies
• increased costs of water treatment
• increased costs of managing aquatic resources
• altered aesthetics that can alter property values or local
perceptions of water body health

Toxic and harmful algal blooms can have devastating effects

on local economies and managers need to engage with local
businesses, aquaculture efforts, and communities in addition to
public health officials to minimize and mitigate the impacts.
Marine and Freshwater Species

Bloom-causing organisms can have both toxic and harmful ecological effects. Two types of
phytoplankton, diatoms and dinoflagellates, produce harmful toxins in marine waters. Harmful
algal blooms have been documented along the coastlines of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans
and the Gulf of Mexico. In freshwater, the most common harmful algal bloom is caused by
cyanobacteria, otherwise known as blue-green algae. These bacteria, like phytoplankton, are
photosynthetic meaning that they use sunlight to create food. Macroalgae can grow rapidly,
clogging waterways, preventing sunlight from penetrating the water surface, and reducing the
available oxygen. Submerged aquatic plants and animals can suffer mass mortalities.

Type Where Found

Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) Fresh water, occasionally marine
Dinoflagellates Marine water
Diatoms Brackish water

Notable bloom-forming organisms include:

Species Common name Where Found Impacts
Alexandrium fundyense Red tide marine causes illnesses in humans and animals; adversely
affects many invertebrates
Karenia brevis Red tide marine kills fish
Noctiluca Red tide marine fish kills due to reduced dissolved oxygen; no risk to
human health
Cochlodinium polykrikoides Rust tide marine adversely affects growth of shellfish; kills fish; no
risk to human health
Aureococcus anophagefferens Brown tide marine no risk to human health; reduces growth and can
kill shellfish; adversely impacts sea grasses due to
reduced light penetration
Pseudo-nitzschia spp. None marine causes illnesses and deaths in humans, marine
mammals, and seabirds
Cyanobacteria such as None freshwater and causes illness in humans and animals
Microcystis spp. and others marine
Macroalgae None freshwater and reduces light and oxygen; fish kills due to reduced
marine dissolved oxygen
Prevention, Control, and Mitigation

A suite of prevention, control, and mitigation strategies are available to minimize effects
of harmful algal bloom events, but each must be assessed for the geographic area,
algal species present, and shellfish or fish produced, harvested, and distributed for
human consumption. Modeling can also be a powerful tool to predict the distribution and
abundance of toxin-forming algae. Deployment of models in management ranges from
short-term forecasting, often driven in part by external data from remote sensors, while other
approaches use fully computational simulators in a what-if predictive mode.

Prevention focuses on:

1) assessment of local land uses that may minimize proliferation of algae or
cyanobacteria
2) methods to minimize human exposure or treat intoxicated individuals

Control methods focus on manipulating environmental conditions in fresh and saline systems
to produce sub-optimal habitats or supporting conditions for harmful taxa. Mitigation requires
direct intervention in local waters to reduce biomass of harmful algae or cyanobacteria and
their associated toxins.

There is a spectrum of approaches that can be used to minimize bloom impacts, but most are
temporary as ultimate control must be through rigorous land management to reduce nutrient
loads that promote eutrophication and proliferation of algae and cyanobacteria.

Multi-trophic aquaculture, the farming of filter-feeding shellfish and seaweeds alongside

finfish, has been proposed as one way to help alleviate excess nutrients; however, the scale
of nutrient loading in most coastal water bodies is far beyond the capacity for aquaculture
systems alone to contribute in any significant way. With few exceptions, basin-wide
alteration of major land uses has not been readily adopted due to minimal political will and
inadequate funding.

Rick Dove, Dove Imaging, www.doveimaging.com

Monitoring and Detection

The ongoing collection, analysis, and interpretation of data are essential to help better
understand risk factors and prevent exposure. This includes continuous monitoring to collect
real-time environmental data and the use of sophisticated tools for detection of harmful algal
species and toxins.

Harmful algal blooms are monitored by state agencies and the National Centers for Coastal
Ocean Science. According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), in the past several years,
HAB have been observed with increasing frequency and in more locations in the United States.

Detection methods have become

L Gary Kirkpatrick
increasingly more sophisticated
and reliable over the past several
decades, and include tools to
measure both bloom-forming
organisms and the toxins they
produce. These tools include those
suitable for in-situ deployment or
field-portable application, as well as
more conventional and sophisticated
laboratory use. Some are available
commercially as kits and provide users
with the ability to respond rapidly
to HAB events. Some field tests are
currently approved by the U.S. National Shellfish Sanitation Program for preliminary field
screening which saves time and money in the monitoring process.

It is important to stress that the toxicity of HAB species can be highly variable such that
toxicity can become uncoupled from organism presence depending upon environmental
factors and resulting physiological status of the algae. This can lead to situations where cells
of a given HAB species may be present or even abundant yet little or possibly no toxicity
is associated with these cells. Monitoring programs frequently rely upon sampling of filter-
feeding shellfish and testing for the presence of algal toxins. When phytoplankton and/or
toxins exceed safe levels, public health warnings are issued and shellfish beds are closed.

The toxicity of HAB organisms can vary markedly, reflecting differences in their genetic
make-up combined with the effects of multiple environmental factors. This diverse
chemical structure of algal toxins requires the use of targeted detection methods. These
range from animal bioassays to complex functional and structural assays and chemical
analytical methodologies.
Phytoplankton monitoring involves
sampling the algae by hauling a
fine mesh net (mesh of 10 �m or
20 �m) through the water column
or obtaining a water sample in a
bottle from the surface or from
a predetermined depth. Once a
sample has been obtained, the
species can be identified and
enumerated through a number of
methods including light microscopy,
flow cytometry, fluorometry,
spectrometry, or more rapid (and
often more accurate) molecular
methods.
Steve Morton
Protecting Human Health

Preventing exposure to toxic and harmful algae is key to avoiding illness. Consumers
should heed advisories related to consuming contaminated fish and shellfish, always avoid
consuming seafood from closed harvest areas, and only purchase seafood from certified
dealers and restaurants. Further, individuals should avoid entering water that has a foul odor,
appears discolored, has surface foam, scum, or algal mats, or contains dead fish or animals.

Treatment
If exposure occurs or illness is suspected:
1) Seek professional medical attention
2) Report the event to the local or state
health department

Tracking Illness
The National Outbreak Reporting System is
a reporting system used for foodborne and
waterborne disease outbreaks. When an outbreak
(2 or more illnesses) occurs, public health officials enter patient information that is
subsequently reviewed and recorded by the U.S. Center for Disease Control. The One Health
Harmful Algal Bloom System is a web-based tool for reporting individual human and animal
cases of exposure to HAB-associated exposures. The system also collects environmental
data about HAB.

Steps health officials take when an individual has been exposed to a HAB toxin:

Local Health Department

Exposure Illness
Notified of Possible Outbreak

Local Health Department Local Health Department Enters

Conducts Outbreak Investigation Outbreak Data into NORS

CDC Checks and Analyzes Data Data Summarized and Published

Print Resources

Anderson, C., S.K. Moore, M.C. Tomlinson, J.

Silke, and C.K. Cusack. 2015. Living with
harmful algal blooms in a changing world:
strategies for modeling and mitigating their
effects in coastal marine ecosystems. Web Resources
Chapter 7 in: Coastal and Marine Hazards,
Risks, and Disasters. J.F. Shroder, J.T. Ellis
and D. J. Sherman (Eds.) Elsevier Science
Publishers, Amsterdam. 592 p. Center for Disease Control Harmful Algal Bloom
Associated Illness
Burkholder, J.M. 1998. Implications of https://www.cdc.gov/habs/index.html
harmful microalgae and heterotrophic
dinoflagellates in management of Environmental Protection Agency’s Advisory for
sustainable fisheries. Ecol. Appl. 8: Safe Seafood Consumption
S37-S62. https://www.epa.gov/choose-fish-and-shellfish-
wisely
Landsberg, J.H., K.A. Lefebvre, and L.J.
Flewelling. 2014. Effects of toxic microalgae Fish and Wildlife Research Institute Red Tide
on marine organisms. In: Rossini, G.P. (Ed.), Research
Toxins and Biologically Active Compounds http://myfwc.com/research/redtide/
from Microalgae, Volume 2. CRC Press, Boca
NOAA Harmful Algal BloomS Observing System
Raton, Florida: pp. 379-449.
https://service.ncddc.noaa.gov/website/
Shumway, S.E. 1990. A review of the AGSViewers/HABSOS/maps.htm
effects of algal blooms on shellfish and
NOAA National Centers for Coastal Ocean
aquaculture. J. World Aquaculture Society.
Science Harmful Algal Blooms
21: 65-104.
https://coastalscience.noaa.gov/research/habs/
Smayda, T.J. 1991. Global epidemic of
NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research
noxious phytoplankton blooms and food
Laboratory – Great Lakes HABs and Hypoxia
chain consequences in large ecosystems
https://www.glerl.noaa.gov/res/HABs_and_
food chain consequences in large
Hypoxia/
ecosystems. Ch. 13. In K. Sherman, L.M.
Alexander, and B.D. Gold (Eds.), Food chains, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution National
yields, models and management of large Algal Bloom Website
marine ecosystems. Westview Press. http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/home
Boulder, 320 p.
List of U.S. State Health Departments
Tomas, C. (Ed.) 1996. Identifying Marine https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/international/relres.
Phytoplankton. Academic Press, Inc. 858 p. html
 Featured Publication

Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference provides

basic information on harmful algal blooms (HAB) and references
for individuals in need of technical information when faced with
unexpected or unknown harmful algal events. Chapters in this volume
will provide readers with information on causes of HAB, successful
management and monitoring programs, control, prevention, and
mitigation strategies, economic consequences of HAB, associated
risks to human health, impacts of HAB on food webs and ecosystems,
and detailed information on the most common HAB species.

Harmful Algal Blooms: A Compendium Desk Reference will be an

invaluable resource to managers, newcomers to the field, those
who do not have easy or affordable access to scientific literature,
and individuals who simply do not know where to begin searching
for the information needed, especially when faced with novel and
unexpected HAB events.

To download visit: Edited by three of the world’s leading harmful algal bloom researchers
http://seagrant.uconn.edu/ and with contributions from leading experts, Harmful Algal Blooms: A
Compendium Desk Reference will be a key source of information for
publications/aquaculture/ this increasingly important topic.