Name: ____________

YOUR NOTES ⬇
Sec 2 Biology Support Notes/Activity
Anglo Singapore International School

5 Variation and Classification

Page 1
5.1 Variations YOUR NOTES ⬇

Types of Variation

• Variation is defined as differences between individuals of the same species

• Phenotypic variation is the difference in features between individuals of the same species

• Some of these differences are caused by differences in genes, which is genetic variation

• Phenotypic variation can be divided into two types depending on how you are able to
group the measurements:

• Continuous Variation is when there are very many small degrees of difference for a
particular characteristic between individuals and they are arranged in order and can
usually be measured on a scale

• Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there can be many
‘inbetween’ groups

• Discontinuous Variation is when there are distinct differences for a characteristic

• For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are either male or female;
can either roll their tongue or not – there are no ‘inbetweens’

• When graphs of these data are plotted, continuous variation gives smooth bell curves (a
result of all the small degrees of difference), whereas discontinuous variation gives a step-
like shape

Page 2
 18.1 VARIATION cont...
YOUR NOTES ⬇

Height is an example of continuous variation which gives rise to a smooth bell-shaped

curve when plotted as a graph

Blood group is an example of discontinuous variation which gives rise to a step-shaped

graph

Page 3
Activity YOUR NOTES ⬇

Read textbook page 68 - 69 and write important ideas below

1 Hidden variation
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2 Discontinuous variation
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3 Continuous Variation
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4 Unique Differences
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5 Biometrics
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Page 4
 Activity: Answer the following questions using your textbook.

a Look at the people in the photograph on page 68. List five visible features that vary from person to
person.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

b Suppose you could carry out some tests on each person. Describe five features you would expect to
show variation.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

c Variation can be continuous or discontinuous. Explain what is different about these two types of variation.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

d Choose three visible human features that show continuous variation.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

e Explain what a frequency chart can tell you about a discontinuous variable like blood group.
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

f Explain why detectives often look for fingerprints at the scene of a cnme.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Page 5
 Extension
1 Passports often get stolen so that other people can use them. Many people have similar faces, so it can
be hard to identify people from their photographs.

a Explain why biometric data prevents the use of stolen passports.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

b Suggest what biometric data would be best for use at airports.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Page 6
5.2 Causes of Variation YOUR NOTES ⬇

An inherited trait is one that is genetically determined. Inherited traits are passed from parent
to offspring according to the rules of Mendelian genetics. Most traits are not strictly determined
by genes, but rather are influenced by both genes and environment.
• Some features or traits are present when we are born. Example color of the eye and
blood group. Other features are develop as we grow and age.
• Features or traits depend od the genes you inherit from your parents.
• There are many different genes that control individual features.
• Variation caused by genes is called inherited variation and some features we have are
caused by our environment - environmental variation.
• Sometimes features are affected by both your genes and environment.
• For example, you can inherit a fit and athletic body but you won't have one unless you eat
well and train hard.
• Another example is identical twins which has the same inherited genes from both parents
they will have the same blood type but may differ on weight or height as affected by
nutrition.
• Your genes and environment interact throughout your life to control the way you grow and
develop.

Phenotypic Variation

Phenotype simply refers to an observable trait. ... And so it's an observable type of an
organism, and it can refer to anything from a common trait, such as height or hair color, to
presence or absence of a disease.

• Phenotypic variation can be caused in two main ways:

• It can be genetic – controlled entirely by genes

• Or it can be environmental – caused entirely by the environment in

which the organism lives

Genetic Variation

• Examples of genetic variation in humans include:

• blood group

• eye colour

• gender

• ability to roll tongue

• whether ear lobes are free or fixed:

Page 7
 YOUR NOTES ⬇
Whether earlobes are attached (lobeless) or free (lobed) is an
example of genetic variation

Environmental Variation
• Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors such as
climate, diet, accidents, culture, lifestyle and accidents during lifetime

• In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the organism’

• Examples include:

• An accident may lead to scarring on the body

• Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain

• Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain language
with a certain accent

• A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light

Page 8
Activity: Answer the following questions using your textbook.

a List two visible features that Rachel has inherited from her mother.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

b Explain how a gene can influence what you look like.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

c List two of Rachel's features that won't change after she is born because they are not affected by her
environment.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

d People whose diets lack certain minerals are often shorter than average. Is this an example of genetic or
environmental variation?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

e The lower leaves on a tree are often thinner and paler than those near the top. What difference in their
environments could cause this?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

f If a seed from a bonsai was planted outside in a field, would it grow into another miniature tree? Explain
your answer.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

g Choose three features from this list that are controlled by both genes and the environment: language/s
spoken, fingerprint pattern, blood group, skill at football, eye colour, body mass, and health.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Page 9
5.3 Species YOUR NOTES ⬇

Definitions of Species
• Scientists have been classifying organisms into species for hundreds of years, in order to
investigate the diversity of life that exists today and in the past
There is difficulty in determining whether new organisms discovered belong to an existing
species, or a new one
This is because the most widely accepted definition of a species is:
A group of organisms with similar morphological and physiological features that able
to breed together and produce fertile offspring.

These animals look very different, but you can tell which animals are cats and which are dogs.
The cats and dogs belong to separate species. The cats' faces have similar shapes, while all the
dogs' faces are different.

How can we decide which animals belong to the same species?

• Sometimes members of the same species can look very different. On the other· hand,
members of different species can look the same.

• Scientists use this definition to clarify whether living things are the same
species:
Members of a species can breed with each other and produce offspring that are able
to breed.

• Members of different species can't usually breed with each other, but there are exceptions.
A liger is the offspring of a male lion and a female tiger. Its parents are from different
species, so the tiger is a hybrid. Hybrids are usually infertile. They can't produce offspring of
their own.

• Unfortunately breeding experiments take a long time and animals don't always cooperate,
so decisions about species can be difficult.

Page 10
Naming species YOUR NOTES ⬇

• Species are often given common names, but in order to avoid confusion about what
group of organisms scientists are talking about, all species are given a two-part scientific
name using the binomial system.
• This naming convention was developed and established by the Swedish scientist Carl
Linnaeus in the 18th Century.
• The first part of the name is the genus that the species belongs to; this is a group of very
similar organisms.
• The second part of the name is specific and unique to a single group of organisms that are
identified as a species (and occasionally there may be a third name)
The binomial name is always italicized in writing (or underlined if it is not possible to
italicize)
For example:
The most commonly known yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae
It is common to abbreviate the genus name: S. cerevisiae

• To avoid confusion, scientists give each species a unique two-part Latin name. Similar species
are given the same first name. For example, lions and tigers are both large and they both roar.
They share the first name Panthera.
• Pet cats purr, along with some small wild cats. They share the first name Felis.
• The second name identifies each individual species. So lions are Panthera leo and tigers are
Panthera tigris.
• It was difficult to decide which first name clouded leopards should have. They purr and roar.
Their skulls look like a big cat's but are much smaller. Scientists solved the problem by giving
them a first name of their own - Neofelis - meaning new small cat. meaning new small cat.
Their second name is nebulosa, which is Latin for cloudy.

A new species

• For a long time clouded leopards on Borneo and mainland China shared the same
name - Neofelis nebulosa. Then scientists checked to see if they really were the
same species.
• Instead of trying to breed the clouded leopards, scientists compared the genes in their
cells. They found that they were as different as the genes of lions and tigers. The
animals on Borneo became a separate species and were given a new name
-Neofelis diardi.
• Genetic evidence lets scientists decide whether animals are the same species or just
look similar.

CHINA

Neofelis
nebulosa
Neofelis
diardi
BORNEO
Clouded leopards in China and Borneo look
the same, but their genes show that they are
different species.

Page 11
Activity: Answer the questions using your textbook. YOUR NOTES ⬇

1 What is a species?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2 Do members of a species always look similar??
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3 Mules are the offspring of female horses and male donkeys. They are stronger and more
intelligent than horses. Explain why they aren't a separate species.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4 Wild cats can look very different. How could you prove that a male and female belong to
the same species??
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5 Why can't we be sure how many species there are in the world??
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

6 Suppose you discovered a large white cat that roars. How would you name it
scientifically?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
EXTENSION
A dzo is a cross between a yak and domestic cow. It is much stronger than either of its
parents and grows faster.
a Suggest why dzos have not been bred to form large herds, despite being more useful
than both cows and yaks.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b Yaks and dzos can look quite similar. Suggest how scientists could distinguish between
them.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Page 12
5.4 Classification YOUR NOTES ⬇

How Organisms are Classified: Basics

• There are millions of species of organisms on Earth

• A species is defined as a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce fertile

offspring

• These species can be classified into groups by the features that they share e.g. all
mammals have bodies covered in hair, feed young from mammary glands and have
external ears (pinnas)

• Organisms were first classified by a Swedish naturalist called Linnaeus in a way that
allows the subdivision of living organisms into smaller and more specialised groups

• The species in these groups have more and more features in common the more
subdivided they get

• He named organisms in Latin using the binomial system where the scientific name of an
organism is made up of two parts starting with:

o the genus (always given a capital letter)

o and followed by the species (starting with a lower case letter)
• When typed, binomial names are always in italics (which indicates they are Latin) e.g.
Homo sapiens

• The sequence of classification is: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus,
Species

,,
arthropods
60%

invertebrate
animals 70%

vertebrate
animals 3%
• Most species are animals, and most animals
are a type of invertebrate called an arthropod.

EXAM TIP

The order of classification can be remembered by using this

mnemonic: King Philip Came Over For Gran’s Spaghetti

Page 13
The main groups of living organisms YOUR NOTES ⬇

In addition to the five different kingdoms of living organisms, there are

viruses - the smallest 'organisms'. They are on the borderline between the living
and non-living worlds.

Page 14
Invertebrates YOUR NOTES ⬇

• One of the morphological characteristics used to classify invertebrates is whether they

have legs or not

• All invertebrates with jointed legs are part of the phylum Arthropods

• They are classified further into the following classes:

arthropods molluscs echinoderms cnidarians

have jointed legs have a soft body have spiny skin have tentacles

annelids nematodes flatworms

have segmented bodies have long thin bodies have flat bodies

• One of the morphological characteristics used to classify invertebrates is whether they

have legs or not

• All invertebrates withjjointed legs are part of the phylum Arthropods

• They are classified further into the following classes:

Page 15
 YOUR NOTES ⬇

CLASS MAIN FEATURES EXAMPLES

MYRIAPODS --BODY-CONSISTS-OF-MANY SEGMENTS CENTIPEDE

--EACH-SEGMENT-CONTAINS-AT-LEAST-1 PAIR OF
JOINTED LEGS
--1-PAIR-OF-ANTENNAE

INSECTS --3 PART BODY---HEAD,-THORAX-AND-ABDOMEN BUTTERFLY

--3 PAIRS-OF-JOINTED-LEGS
--2 PAIRS OF WINGS-(1-OR-BOTH-PAIRS-MAY-BE-
VESTIGIAL---MEANING-NON-FUNCTIONAL-AND-
UNDEVELOPED)
--1-PAIR-OF-ANTENNAE

ARACHNIDS --2 PART BODY---CEPHALOTHORAX-AND-ABDOMEN SPIDER

--4 PAIRS-OF-JOINTED-LEGS
--NO-ANTENNAE

CRUSTACEANS --MORE THAN 4 PAIRS-OF-JOINTED-LEGS CRAB

--CHALKY-EXOSKELETON-FORMED-FROM-CALCIUM
--BREATHE-THROUGH-GILLS
--2 PAIRS OF ANTENNAE

• Having all these subgroups makes it easy to identify each species using a key. A key uses
simple questions to determine which groups and subgroups a species belongs to.
Coccinella septe111pu11ctata belongs to each of these groups: arthropods, insects,
beetles, ladybirds and spotted ladybirds.

arthropod
I
does it have 6 legs?
yes I no

+
insect
l
other arthropods

does it have a tough cover?

yes I no

beetle other insects

does it have a brightly coloured, round body7

yes I no

ladybird other beetles

is it red with spots?

yes I no
t
spotted ladybird
t
other ladybirds

does 11 have 7 spots7

yes I no
t
Coccmella septempunctata other spotted ladybirds

t- To use a key, start at the top and follow the arrows as you answer
each question.

Page 16
Constructing and using a key YOUR NOTES ⬇

• Keys are used to identify organisms based on a series of questions about their
features

• Dichotomous means ‘branching into two’ and it leads the user through to the name of
the organism by giving two descriptions at a time and asking them to choose

• Each choice leads the user onto another two descriptions

• In order to successfully navigate a key, you need to pick a single organism to start with
and follow the statements from the beginning until you find the name

• You then pick another organism and start at the beginning of the key again,
repeating until all organisms are named

Example of a dichotomous key #1

Page 17
 YOUR NOTES ⬇

Example of a Dichotomous Key #2

KEY

1 (a) BODY IS COMPLETELY OR PARTLY COVERED IN A SHELL GO TO 2

(b) BODY IS NOT COMPLETELY OR PARTLY COVERED IN A SHELL LIMAX FLAVUS

2 (a) SHELL IS ATTACHED TO ROCKS BY THIN THREADS MYTILUS EDULIS

(b) SHELL IS NOT ATTACHED TO ROCKS BY THIN THREADS GO TO 3

3 (a) SHELL IS A SPIRE THAT COMES TO A POINT BUCCINUM UNDATUM

(b) SHELL IS NOT A SPIRE THAT COMES TO A POINT GO TO 4

4 (a) ANIMAL HAS TENTACLES NAUTILUS POMPILIUS

(b) ANIMAL HAS 2 TENTACLES PLANORBIS PLANORBIS

EXAM TIP

• Simple dichotomous keys almost always come up in the multiple choice paper, so
make sure you can use one.

• Very occasionally they show up in the theory paper

• When they do you almost always have to use one instead of constructing one:
so focus on this rather than spending hours learning to construct them yourself!

Page 18
5.5 Vertebrates YOUR NOTES ⬇

All vertebrates have a backbone. There are 5 classes of vertebrates:

CLASS MAIN FEATURES EXAMPLES

MAMMALS --FUR/HAIR-ON-SKIN HORSE,-DOG,-

--HAVE-A-PLACENTA SQUIRREL,-HUMAN
--YOUNG-FEED-ON-MILK-FROM-MAMMARY-GLANDS-
--EXTERNAL-EARS-(PINNA)-VISIBLE
--ENDOTHERMIC

BIRDS --SKIN-COVERED-IN-FEATHERS PARROT,-BLUE-TIT,-

--HAVE-2-LEGS-AND-2-WINGS-INSTEAD-OF-FORELIMBS EAGLE
--LAY-EGGS-WITH-HARD-SHELLS-ON-LAND
--HAVE-A-BEAK
--ENDOTHERMIC

REPTILES --DRY,-FIXED-SCALES-ON-SKIN SNAKE,-TURTLE,-

--LAY-EGGS-WITH-RUBBERY-SHELLS-ON-LAND IGUANA

AMPHIBIANS --SMOOTH,-MOIST-SKIN FROG,-TOAD,-NEWT

--ADULTS-USUALLY-LIVE-ON-LAND-(SO-HAVE-LUNGS),-
LARVAE-LIVE-IN-WATER-(SO-HAVE-GILLS)
--LAY-EGGS-WITHOUT-SHELLS-IN-WATER

FISH --LOOSE,-WET-SCALES-ON-SKIN FLOUNDER,-

--GILLS-TO-BREATHE GROUPER
--LAY-EGGS-WITHOUT-SHELLS-IN-WATER

Vertebrate classification
Page 19
Difficult to classify YOUR NOTES ⬇

• Some species have characteristics from more than one vertebrate group. Their body
covering is usually the best guide to the group they belong in.
• Some vertebrates don't share all the characteristics of their group.

Olm Platypus Caecilian Armadillo

• has gills • has a double layer • smooth skinned • underside covered with
• covered in smoooth of fur soft fur
• lives in underground
skin • lays eggs burrows • low body temperature
• lives entirely in • offspring fed on • gives birth to live • feeds young on milk
water milk young

Activity 2: Answer the following questions.

1 Use the evidence below to classify each animal:

a Dolphins feed their young on milk.

b Snakes have dry scaly skin.
c Sea turtles lay their eggs in the sand.
d Sea horses breathe using gills.

e Penguins lay shelled eggs.

f Whales lose their hair before they
are born.
g Komodo dragons have dry scaly skin.

2 Bats are flying mammals. They sleep during the day, so they are rarely seen. List the features you would expect
them to have.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3 Think of two very different vertebrates that live in water. Which vertebrate groups do they belong to?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Page 20
 Activity: Answer the following questions.
4 Think of two very different vertebrates that live on land. Which vertebrate groups do they belong to?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

5 A pet snake only needs feeding once a week. Most cats and dogs eat twice a day. Explain why cats and dogs
need more food.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

6 Explain what makes each of the following vertebrate animals different from most of their group: whale, bat,
snake. and penguin.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

7 Classify the following animals and describe a feature they have that doesn't fit their group: olm, platypus,
caecilian, and armadillo.

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

EXTENSION

The drawing below shows a type of invertebrate.

Write what type of invertebrate it is and explain how you can distinguish it from
other invertebrate groups.

Page 21
5.6 Classification of Plants YOUR NOTES ⬇

Flowering plants:

• Reproduce sexually by means of flowers and seeds

• Seeds are produced inside the ovary found at the base of the flower

• Can be divided into two groups – monocotyledons and dicotyledons

How to distinguish between monocotyledons and dicotyledons:

1. FLOWERS

• Flowers from monocotyledons contain petals in multiples of 3

• Flowers from dicotyledons contain petals in multiples of 4 or 5

2. LEAVES

• Leaves from monocotyledons have parallel leaf veins

• Leaves from dicotyledons have reticulated leaf veins (meaning that they are all
interconnected and form a web like network throughout the leaf)

Comparing Monocots and Dicots

EXAM TIP

Identification of monocotyledons and dicotyledons comes up fairly frequently

in the multiple choice paper.

So it is worth learning the two differences between their flowers and leaves.

Page 22
 YOUR NOTES ⬇

Non- Flowering plants:

• Some plants don't produce flowers and seeds. Plants such as ferns and mosses are called
nonflowering plants and produce spores instead of seeds. There is also another group called
the Fungi, that include mushrooms, and these also reproduce by spores.

• Mosses and ferns grow in damp, shady places. They reproduce by making spores and can
only do this successfully when they a,-e wet. Spores are smaller than most seeds and don't
last as long. Moss spores form at the ends of small stalks, while fern spores form on the
undersides of their- leaves.

• The trees are conifers. Conifers and flowering plants can reproduce in dry conditions. They
both make seeds but conifers have cones instead of flowers. Seeds can survive for
thousands of years if they are cold and dry

t- Conifer seeds are produced t- The red capsules on the moss

in cones. contain spores.

t- Fern spores form on the undersides

of leaves.

Page 23
 Life in the oceans

• In the oceans plants are replaced by algae. They are not classified as plants because they
don't have separate roots, stems, and leaves.

• Algae include large seaweeds and microscopic phytoplankton like those at the bottom of
page 53. Like plants, algae are important to other living things. They provide nutrients
and oxygen to support life in the oceans.

Naming plants
• In 1735, a Swedish plant expert called Carl Linnaeus invented the system we use to name
species. He chose Latin names because that was the international language of science at the
time.

• Linnaeus was good at getting publicity. His students enjoyed his lessons. He organised
popular plant-finding trips and he wrote lots of books. Everyone heard about his system so
they started to use it themselves.

• Scientists need to be good communicators to get people to understand their ideas.

EXTENSION

The drawing shows an artist's reconstruction of an

extinct vertebrate called archeopteryx. It had claws,
feathered wings, a long bony tail and a beak full
of teeth.
a Give one reason why archaeopteryx is difficult
to classify.
b Which two vertebrate groups does archaeopteryx
share features with?

Page 24
EXTENSION

Algae are important in the oceans' ecosystems. They produce

nutrients to support food chains and add oxygen to the water.
The largest algae are called seaweeds. Unlike plants, they
cannot survive on land.
Describe two differences between flowering plants and
seaweeds that make flowering plants better adapted to
life on land .

Page 25