What is IoT? Discuss the evolutionary phase of the internet with neat diagram.

A world where everything is online and communicating to other things and people to enhance
people’s lives likeself-driving drones and sensors for monitoring your health, is collectively
known as the Internet of Things (IoT).

The IoT started between the years 2008 and 2009. “Internet of Things” is invented by Kevin
Ashton. Kevin quoted as saying: “In the 20th century, computers were brains without
senses—they only knewwhat we told them.” Computers depended on humans to input data
and knowledge. But in the 21 st century, computers are sensing things too.
List the difference between operation technology and informationtechnology (IT) with
IoT challenges.
Explain the M2M IoT architecture with neat diagram.
oneM2M’s framework focuses on IoT services, applications, and platforms which include
smart metering applications, smart grid, smart city automation, e-health, and connected
vehicles.
One of the greatest challenges in designing an IoT architecture is dealing with the
heterogeneity ofdevices, software, and access methods. By developing a horizontal platform
architecture, oneM2M is developing standards that allow interoperability at all levels of the
IoT stack. oneM2M’s horizontal framework and RESTful APIs allow the LoRaWAN system
to interface with the building management system over an IoT network, thus promoting end-
to-end IoT communications in a consistent way, no matter how heterogeneous the networks.
Applications layer:
It includes the application-layer protocols and attempts to standardize northbound API
definitions for interaction with business intelligence (BI) systems.
Applications tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets of data models, and thus
they are shown as vertical entities.
Services layer:
The horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT applications run on, the
underlying management protocols, and the hardware. Examples include backhaul
communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on.
This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware supporting third-party services and
applications.
One of the stated goals of oneM2M is to “develop technical specifications which address
the
need for a common M2M Service Layer that can be readily embedded within various
hardware
and software nodes, and rely upon connecting the myriad of devices in the field area network
to M2M application servers, which typically reside in a cloud or data center.”
Network layer:
It includes the devices and the communications infrastructure which include wireless mesh
technologies, such as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE
801.11ah.
Also included are wired device connections, such as IEEE 1901 power line
communications.
The device domain includes the gateway device, which provides communications up into
the
core network and acts as a demarcation point between the device and network domains.
Explain in detail IoT world form (IoTWF) standard architecture.

The seven layers of the IoT Reference Model:

Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer
▪ This layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various endpoint
devices and sensors that send and receive information.
▪ The primary function is generating data and being capable of being queried and/or
controlled over a network.

Layer 2: Connectivity Layer

The primary function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of data.

Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer

At this layer, the emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows into
information
that is ready for storage and processing by higher layers.
One of the basic principles of this reference model is that information processing is initiated
as early

Explain expanded view of the simplified IoT architecture.

The simplified IoT (Internet of Things) architecture typically consists of three main layers:
the Perception Layer, the Network Layer, and the Application Layer. The expanded view of
this architecture elaborates on each of these layers and may introduce additional components
or functionalities. Here's a breakdown:

1. **Perception Layer**: This layer deals with sensing and collecting data from the physical
world. In the expanded view, it includes:

- **Sensors and Actuators**: These devices are responsible for gathering data from the
environment (e.g., temperature, humidity, motion) and sometimes taking action based on
commands received.

- **Edge Computing**: In some cases, processing and analyzing data directly at the edge
(closer to the data source) may be necessary to reduce latency, conserve bandwidth, or
enhance privacy and security.

- **Embedded Systems**: Devices with embedded systems, such as microcontrollers or

single-board computers, are often used to manage sensor data acquisition, processing, and
communication.

2. **Network Layer**: This layer facilitates communication between devices, sensor nodes,
and the broader internet. The expanded view may incorporate:

- **Communication Protocols**: Various protocols like MQTT, CoAP, or HTTP are used
for data transmission between devices and gateways.

- **Gateways**: Gateways act as intermediaries between the IoT devices and the cloud or
server infrastructure. They often perform protocol translation, data aggregation, and
sometimes limited data processing.
 - **Wireless Technologies**: In addition to traditional internet connectivity, IoT devices
may utilize wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRaWAN, or cellular networks
for communication.

3. **Application Layer**: This layer focuses on processing and analyzing the data collected
from the Perception Layer to derive insights or trigger actions. The expanded view may
include:

- **Cloud Services**: Cloud platforms provide scalable storage, computing resources, and
analytics tools for handling large volumes of IoT data. They also offer services for data
visualization, machine learning, and application development.

- **Data Processing and Analytics**: Advanced analytics techniques, including real-time

stream processing, predictive analytics, and machine learning, are applied to IoT data to
extract valuable insights and enable intelligent decision-making.

- **User Interfaces and Applications**: Interfaces like web dashboards, mobile apps, or
command-line interfaces allow users to interact with IoT systems, monitor device status, and
control device behavior remotely.

4. **Security and Privacy**: Although not always explicitly represented as a separate layer,
security and privacy considerations are critical across all layers of the IoT architecture. The
expanded view may emphasize:

- **Authentication and Authorization**: Mechanisms for ensuring that only authorized

devices and users can access IoT resources and data.

- **Data Encryption**: Techniques for encrypting data both in transit and at rest to prevent
unauthorized access or tampering.

- **Device Management**: Practices for securely provisioning, updating, and

decommissioning IoT devices throughout their lifecycle.

- **Privacy Controls**: Policies and technologies for protecting user privacy and
complying with regulations regarding data collection, storage, and sharing.

Explain in detail with any two-example IoT impact.

Internet of Things (IoT) has revolutionized various industries, including transportation,

construction, and manufacturing. Here's a detailed explanation of the impact of IoT on three
key areas: connected cars, smart connected buildings, and connected factories, along with
examples:

1. **Connected Cars:**
The automotive industry has seen significant transformations due to IoT technologies.
Connected cars utilize sensors, internet connectivity, and data analytics to enhance safety,
efficiency, and user experience. Here's how IoT impacts connected cars:

- **Safety Features:** IoT enables real-time monitoring of vehicle performance and

surroundings. For instance, sensors can detect obstacles, pedestrians, and other vehicles,
sending alerts to drivers to prevent accidents. Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) systems,
enabled by IoT, can apply brakes in emergencies, reducing collision risks.
- **Telematics:** IoT facilitates remote monitoring of vehicle diagnostics, fuel levels, and
maintenance requirements. Manufacturers can gather data on vehicle usage patterns, helping
improve design and performance. Fleet management companies utilize IoT to track vehicle
locations, optimize routes, and schedule maintenance, enhancing operational efficiency.
- **Infotainment Systems:** IoT enables seamless integration of smartphones, navigation
systems, and entertainment platforms with car dashboards. Voice-activated controls, traffic
updates, and personalized content enhance the driving experience.
- **Autonomous Driving:** IoT forms the foundation of autonomous vehicle technology.
Connected cars utilize sensors, cameras, and machine learning algorithms to navigate roads,
interpret traffic signals, and make driving decisions autonomously.

*Example:* Tesla's vehicles are equipped with IoT sensors and software that enable
features like Autopilot, which allows semi-autonomous driving. These cars continuously
collect data from sensors and cameras to improve self-driving capabilities through over-the-
air software updates.

2. **Smart Connected Buildings:**

IoT transforms traditional buildings into intelligent, interconnected spaces, enhancing
energy efficiency, occupant comfort, and operational efficiency. Here's how IoT impacts
smart connected buildings:

- **Energy Management:** IoT sensors monitor energy consumption, occupancy patterns,

and environmental conditions. Smart thermostats, lighting systems, and HVAC (Heating,
Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) controllers adjust settings based on occupancy and
ambient conditions, optimizing energy usage and reducing costs.
- **Security and Access Control:** IoT-enabled surveillance cameras, motion sensors, and
access control systems enhance building security. Integration with smartphones enables
remote monitoring and control, allowing occupants to manage access permissions and receive
alerts about security breaches.
- **Occupant Comfort:** IoT devices collect data on indoor air quality, temperature, and
lighting levels. Automated systems adjust environmental settings to maintain optimal comfort
levels for occupants, improving productivity and well-being.
- **Maintenance and Facility Management:** IoT sensors monitor equipment performance
and detect potential failures in real-time. Predictive maintenance algorithms analyze data to
schedule repairs proactively, reducing downtime and maintenance costs.

*Example:* The Edge, a smart office building in Amsterdam, utilizes IoT sensors and data
analytics to optimize energy usage, space utilization, and indoor climate control. The
building's intelligent systems adjust lighting, heating, and cooling based on occupancy
patterns, improving energy efficiency and occupant comfort.

3. **Connected Factory:**
IoT revolutionizes manufacturing processes by connecting machines, sensors, and
production systems to improve efficiency, quality, and flexibility. Here's how IoT impacts
connected factories:

- **Predictive Maintenance:** IoT sensors monitor equipment performance, detecting

anomalies and predicting potential failures before they occur. Predictive maintenance
algorithms analyze data to schedule maintenance proactively, minimizing downtime and
reducing maintenance costs.
- **Supply Chain Optimization:** IoT enables real-time tracking of raw materials,
components, and finished products throughout the supply chain. Manufacturers gain visibility
into inventory levels, delivery schedules, and production status, enabling just-in-time
manufacturing and reducing inventory holding costs.
- **Quality Control:** IoT sensors collect data on product quality and production
parameters in real-time. Machine learning algorithms analyze data to identify defects,
optimize production processes, and improve product quality.
- **Remote Monitoring and Control:** IoT enables remote monitoring and control of
production processes, allowing managers to oversee operations from anywhere. Real-time
data analytics provide insights into production efficiency, enabling continuous improvement
initiatives.

*Example:* Siemens' "Digital Enterprise" solution integrates IoT technologies into

manufacturing processes, enabling real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and
optimization of production operations. IoT sensors collect data from machines and production
systems, which is analyzed to improve efficiency, quality, and flexibility in manufacturing
processes.

Describe the fog layer on the IoT data management and computing characteristics.
The fog layer in IoT data management and computing refers to the decentralized
infrastructure that extends the cloud computing paradigm closer to the edge of the network,
where IoT devices are located. This fog layer is characterized by several key attributes:

1. **Proximity to Edge Devices**: The fog layer operates in close proximity to IoT
endpoints, enabling faster data processing and response times. By bringing computing
resources closer to where data is generated, the fog layer minimizes latency and reduces the
need for extensive data transmission over the network.

2. **Distributed Computing**: Fog computing involves the distribution of computing tasks

across multiple nodes or devices within the network. This decentralized approach allows for
efficient data processing and analysis without overburdening centralized cloud servers.

3. **Contextual Awareness**: Fog nodes have contextual awareness of the sensors and
devices they manage, thanks to their geographic proximity. This awareness enables them to
analyze data in the context of its source, facilitating more intelligent decision-making and
response strategies.

4. **Data Preprocessing**: One of the primary functions of the fog layer is to preprocess
data collected from IoT devices before transmitting it to the cloud for further analysis.
Preprocessing tasks may include data filtering, aggregation, compression, or basic analytics,
which help reduce the volume of data transmitted over the network and improve efficiency.

5. **Real-time Interactions**: Fog computing supports real-time interactions between IoT

devices and applications by processing data locally and providing timely responses. This
capability is particularly important for time-sensitive applications such as industrial
automation, smart cities, and healthcare monitoring.
6. **Scalability and Flexibility**: The fog layer offers scalability and flexibility by
leveraging a distributed architecture that can easily accommodate fluctuations in workload
and device connectivity. New fog nodes can be added or removed dynamically to adapt to
changing network conditions and requirements.

7. **Security and Privacy**: Fog computing enhances security and privacy by keeping
sensitive data localized within the network and reducing the exposure of sensitive
information to external threats. By processing data closer to the source, the fog layer can
implement security measures such as encryption, access control, and anomaly detection more
effectively.

Overall, the fog layer plays a critical role in IoT data management and computing by
providing a decentralized, context-aware, and efficient infrastructure that complements
traditional cloud-based approaches. By extending computing capabilities to the edge of the
network, the fog layer enables real-time insights, improved responsiveness, and enhanced
scalability for a wide range of IoT applications.

Explain core IoT functional stack in detail

IoT networks are built around the concept of “things,” or smart objects performing functions
and
delivering new connected services. These objects are “smart” because they use a combination
of
contextual information and configured goals to perform actions.
From an architectural standpoint, several components have to work together for an IoT
network to be
operational:
A. “Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the
environment in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the information
needed.
B. Communications network layer: When smart objects are not self-contained, they need to
communicate with an external system. In many cases, this communication uses a wireless
technology. This layer has four sublayers:
C. Access network sublayer: The last mile of the IoT network is the access network. This is
typically made up of wireless technologies such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and LoRa. The
sensors
connected to the access network may also be wired.
D. Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: A common communication system
organizes
multiple smart objects in a given area around a common gateway. The gateway
communicates
directly with the smart objects. The role of the gateway is to forward the collected
information
through a longer-range medium (called the backhaul) to a headend central station where the
information is processed. This information exchange is a Layer 7 (application) function,
which
is the reason this object is called a gateway. On IP networks, this gateway also forwards
packets
from one IP network to another, and it therefore acts as a router.
E. Network transport sublayer: For communication to be successful, network and transport
layer protocols such as IP and UDP must be implemented to support the variety of devices to
connect and media to use.
F. IoT network management sublayer: Additional protocols must be in place to allow the
headend applications to exchange data with the sensors. Examples include CoAP and MQTT.
G. Application and analytics layer: At the upper layer, an application needs to process the
collected data, not only to control the smart objects when necessary, but to make intelligent
decision based on the information collected and, in turn, instruct the “things” or other systems
H. to adapt to the analyzed conditions and change their behaviors or parameters.
List and explain different types of sensors(any 8) with an example each
What are smart objects? With neat diagram, explain characteristics of smart object.
Smart Objects (also known as Intelligent Objects) are objects that are equipped with positioning and
communication technologies and are integrated into a communication network, the so called Internet
of Things (IoT).
What are actuators? Explain comparison of sensors and actuators functionality with
human.
Actuators are devices used to convert electrical signals, pneumatic pressure, or hydraulic
pressure into physical movement or action. They are crucial components in various systems,
including robotics, industrial automation, automotive systems, and more. Actuators can be
categorized based on the type of energy they convert, such as electrical actuators, pneumatic
actuators, or hydraulic actuators.

Here's a comparison of sensors and actuators with the functionality of humans:

1. **Sensors**:
- **Functionality**: Sensors are like the senses of a human body. They detect and measure
various physical properties such as temperature, pressure, light, motion, etc.
- **Analogous Human Function**: Just like how humans perceive their environment
through senses like sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell, sensors perceive the environment
in terms of physical properties.
- **Examples**: Cameras act as sensors for capturing images, thermocouples sense
temperature, and motion detectors sense movement.

2. **Actuators**:
- **Functionality**: Actuators are like the muscles in a human body. They take input
signals and convert them into physical movement or action.
- **Analogous Human Function**: Similar to how muscles in the human body contract in
response to signals from the brain, actuators respond to signals from control systems to
perform tasks or move components.
- **Examples**: Electric motors rotate to move mechanical parts, hydraulic cylinders
extend or retract to move loads, and solenoid valves control the flow of fluids in pneumatic
systems.

In summary, sensors perceive the environment and provide feedback to control systems,
much like human senses provide information to the brain. Actuators, on the other hand,
execute actions based on signals received from control systems, akin to how muscles in the
human body carry out movements in response to signals from the brain. Together, sensors and
actuators play vital roles in enabling automation and control in various technological
applications.
Briefly explain protocol stack utilization IEEE 802.15.4.

List and explain in brief communication criteria.

Communication criteria are factors that are considered when evaluating different
communication technologies for specific use cases. Here's a list of communication criteria
along with brief explanations:

1. **Range**:
- Refers to the distance over which a signal can be propagated.
- Important for determining the coverage area of a communication technology.
- Technologies are categorized into short, medium, and long ranges based on their
maximum distance capabilities.

2. **Frequency Bands**:
 - Describes the range of frequencies within which a communication technology operates.
- Split into licensed and unlicensed bands, each with its own regulations and requirements.
- Determines factors like interference and availability of spectrum for deployment.

3. **Power Consumption**:
- Relates to the amount of power required by communication devices or nodes.
- Crucial for battery-powered devices to ensure long battery life and operational efficiency.
- Low-power communication technologies are preferred for IoT devices to minimize energy
consumption.

4. **Topology**:
- Refers to the arrangement or structure of devices within a network.
- Common topologies include star, mesh, and peer-to-peer.
- Topology choice impacts factors such as scalability, reliability, and data routing efficiency.

5. **Interference**:
- Occurs when signals from different devices or sources disrupt each other.
- Can degrade communication quality and reliability.
- Technologies with mechanisms to mitigate interference are preferred for robust and stable
connectivity.

6. **Data Rate**:
- Indicates the speed at which data can be transmitted over a communication channel.
- Influences the efficiency of data transfer and responsiveness of connected devices.
- Higher data rates are desirable for applications requiring real-time communication or large
data transfers.

7. **Scalability**:
- Refers to the ability of a communication technology to accommodate an increasing
number of devices or nodes.
- Important for IoT deployments as the number of connected devices may grow over time.
- Scalable technologies can support expanding networks without significant performance
degradation.

8. **Security**:
- Concerns measures implemented to protect communication channels and data from
unauthorized access or manipulation.
- Critical for preserving the integrity, confidentiality, and availability of IoT systems.
- Technologies with robust security features are preferred to safeguard sensitive information
and ensure privacy.

These communication criteria collectively help in evaluating and selecting the most suitable
communication technology for specific IoT applications, considering factors such as coverage
requirements, power constraints, network architecture, and security considerations.
With a neat diagram, explain data aggregation in WSN and list out the
limitations of smart objects.

Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are
sometimes referred to as motes. The fact that there is no infrastructure to consider with WSNs
is surely a powerful advantage for flexible deployments, but there are a variety of design
constraints to consider with these wirelessly connected smart objects.
The following are some of the most significant limitations of the smart objects in WSNs:
Limited processing power
Limited memory
Lossy communication
Limited transmission speeds
Limited power
These limitations greatly influence how WSNs are designed, deployed, and utilized. The fact
that
individual sensor nodes are typically so limited is a reason that they are often deployed in
very large
numbers. As the cost of sensor nodes continues to decline, the ability to deploy highly
redundant
sensors becomes increasingly feasible. Because many sensors are very inexpensive and
correspondingly inaccurate, the ability to deploy smart objects redundantly allows for
increased
accuracy.
Such large numbers of sensors permit the introduction of hierarchies of smart objects. Such a
hierarchy
provides, among other organizational advantages, the ability to aggregate similar sensor
readings from
sensor nodes that are in close proximity to each other. Figure 3-9 shows an example of such a
data
aggregation function in a WSN where temperature readings from a logical grouping of
temperature
sensors are aggregated as an average temperature reading.
These data aggregation techniques are helpful in reducing the amount of overall traffic (and
energy)
in WSNs with very large numbers of deployed smart objects. This data aggregation at the
network
edges is where fog and mist computing, While there are certain instances in which sensors
continuously
stream their measurement data, this is typically not the case. Wirelessly connected smart
objects
generally have one of the following two communication patterns:
Event-driven: Transmission of sensory information is triggered only when a smart object
detects a particular event or predetermined threshold.
Periodic: Transmission of sensory information occurs only at periodic intervals.
The decision of which of these communication schemes is used depends greatly on the
specific
application. For example, in some medical use cases, sensors periodically send postoperative
vitals,
such as temperature or blood pressure readings. In other medical use cases, the same blood
pressure or temperature readings are triggered to be sent only when certain critically low or
high readings are
measured.