Highway Materials

Chapter Three
Bitumen

Bitumen is defined as “A viscous liquid, or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and

their derivatives, which is soluble in trichloroethylene and is substantially nonvolatile and softens
gradually when heated. It is black or brown in color and possesses waterproofing and adhesive
properties. It is obtained by refinery processes from petroleum, and is also found as a natural
deposit or as a component of naturally occurring asphalt, in which it is associated with mineral
matte.

Bitumen is manufactured from crude oil. Bitumen is obtained as the last residue in fractional
distillation of crude petroleum. Crude petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons of different
molecular weights. In the petroleum refineries the individual components like LPG, naphtha,
Kerosene, Diesel etc. are separated through the process of fractional distillation. The heaviest
material obtained from the fractional distillation process is further treated and blended to make
different grades of paving grade bitumen.

Figure 3-1: Refinery Operation

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Different Forms of Bitumen

Cutback Cutback is a free flowing liquid at normal temperatures and is obtained by fluxing
bitumen with suitable solvents. The viscosity of bitumen is reduced substantially by adding
kerosene or any other solvent. Cutback has been used in tack coat applications.

Bitumen emulsion Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a

finely divided condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by suitable material. The bitumen
content in the emulsion is around 60% and the remaining is water. When the emulsion is applied
on the road it breaks down resulting in release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of setting
depends upon the grade of bitumen.

Modified Bitumen Modified Bitumen is bitumen with additives. These additives help in
further enhancing the properties of bituminous pavements. Pavements constructed with Modified
Bitumen last longer which automatically translates into reduced overlays. Pavements constructed
with Modified Bitumen can be economical if the overall lifecycle cost of the pavement is taken
into consideration.

Requirements of Bitumen

The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general, Bitumen should
possess following desirable properties:

1. The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest weather the
mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold weather the mix should not
become too brittle causing cracks.
2. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be adequate.
This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable grades or by heating the
bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
3. There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and aggregates used
in the mix.

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Properties of Asphalt Materials

1. Consistency
2. Aging and temperature sustainability
3. Rate of curing
4. Resistance to water action

Bitumen Tests

1. Specific gravity
2. Penetration
3. Ductility
4. Softening point
5. Viscosity
6. Flash & Fire point
7. Loss on heating

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Specific Gravity of Bitumen

Introduction

This test is to determine the specific gravity of semi-solid or solid bitumen. The principle is that
it is the ratio of mass of a given volume of bitumen to the mass of an equal volume of water, both
taken at a specified temperature. This can be done either by balance or by using pycnometer.

Significance

The test is done for the following purposes:

1. Specific gravity of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently required as an

aid in classing binders for use in paving jobs.
2. Bitumen weights sometimes have to be converted into volumes for asphalt concrete mix
design calculations.
3. Specific gravity is also used in identifying the source of bitumen binder.
4. In case bitumen contains mineral impurities the specific gravity will be higher. Thus it is
possible for a quantitative extraction of mineral impurity in bitumen.

Apparatus

1. Pycnometer: Specific gravity bottles of 50 ml capacity.

2. Water bath: constant type for maintaining the desired temperature within 0.2°C variation
of required temperature.
3. Bath thermometer.
4. Balance.

Figure 3-2: Pycnometer

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Precautions

1. Only freshly boiled and cooled distilled water shall be used.

2. Precautions shall be taken to prevent expansion and over-flow of the contents resulting
from the heat of the hand when wiping the surface of the apparatus.
3. All air bubbles shall be eliminated in filling the apparatus and inserting the stopper.
4. Weighing shall be done quickly after filling the apparatus and shall be accurate to 0.1 mg.
5. In order to avoid breakage of the bottle while cleaning in case of very viscous materials,
it is advisable to warm it at a temperature less than 100 oC, until most of the material is
poured out and then to swab it with cotton waste. When cooled, it may finally be rinsed
with benzene and wiped clean.

Procedure

1. The clean, dried specific gravity bottle is weighed let that be ‘A’ gm.
2. Then it is filled with fresh distilled water and then kept in water bath for at least half an
hour at temperature 27°C ± 0.1°C.
3. The bottle is then removed and cleaned from outside. The specific gravity bottle containing
distilled water is now weighed. Let this be ‘B’ gm.
4. Then the specific gravity bottle is emptied and cleaned. The bituminous material is heated
to a pouring temperature and the material is poured half the bottle, by taking care to prevent
entry of air bubbles. Then it is weighed. Let this be ‘C’ gm.
5. The remaining space in specific gravity bottle is filled with distilled water at 27°C and is
weighed. Let this be ‘D’ gm.

Calculation

Figure 3-3: Specific Gravity Computation of Bituminous Material

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C−A
specific gravity of solid and semisolid materials =
(B − A) − (D − C)
A = Weight of bottle empty
B = Weight of bottle filled with water
C = Weight of bottle half filled with water

D = Weight of bottle + half filled with material + remaining filled with water
Bitumen binder has specific gravity in the range of 0.97 to 1.02.

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Penetration Test

Introduction

The penetration test determines the consistency of bituminous materials for the purpose of grading
them, by measuring the depth (in units of one-tenth of a millimeter or one-hundredth of a
centimeter) to which a standard needle will penetrate vertically under specified conditions of
standard load, duration, and temperature.

Significance

1. To determine the consistency of bituminous material.

2. To determines the hardness or softness of bitumen.
3. The bitumen grade is specified in terms of the penetration value.

Apparatus

1. Container: 55mm in diameter and 35mm to the 57mm height

2. Needle: provided with a shank approximately 3mm in diameter into which it is
immovably fixed and its weight is 100gm.
3. Water bath
4. Penetrometer
5. Stopwatch

Figure 3-4: Penetration Measurements Figure 3-5: Bitumen Penetrometer

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Procedure

1. The bitumen is softened to a paving consistency between 75° and 100°C above the
approximate temperature at which bitumen softens.
2. The sample material is thoroughly stirred to make it homogeneous and free from air bubbles
and water.
3. The sample containers are cooled in an atmosphere of temperature not lower than 13°C for one
hour. Then they are placed in a temperature controlled water bath at a temperature of 25°C for
a period of one hour.
4. The total weight of the needle should be 100gm.
5. Using the adjusting screw, the needle assembly is lowered and the tip of the needle is made
to just touch the top surface of the sample.
6. The needle assembly is clamped in this position. The contact of the tip of the needle is
checked using the mirror placed on the rear of the needle.
7. The initial reading of the penetrometer dial is either adjusted to zero or the initial reading is
noted.
8. Then the needle is released by pressing a button and a stopwatch is started. The needle is
released exactly for a period of 5sec.
9. At least 3 measurements are made on this sample by testing at distance of not less than
100mm apart.
10. The difference between the initial and final penetration readings are taken as the penetration
value.

Note

❖ 30/40 and 80/100 grade bitumen is commonly used.

❖ In hot climates, lower penetration grade bitumen is preferred and vice versa.
❖ The consistency of bitumen varies with temperature, constituents, refining process.
❖ Record the dial reading of each time and take the average, the result from each time
should not differ by more than 4%, if not, ignore the readings and repeat the test.
❖ Find the grade of asphalt that produced the required penetration.
❖ The value of penetration reported shall be the mean of not less than three determinations
whose values do not differ by more than the amount given below:

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Penetration Maximum Difference Penetration Maximum Difference

0 to 49 2
50 to 149 4
150 to 249 6
250 and above 8

Calculation

o
Pouring temperature = C
Depth of sample in container = mm
Air cooling period = min.
Period of cooling in water bath = min.
o
Testing temperature = C
Weight of load on needle =
Trials
Readings Mean Value
1 2 3
Penetrometer Dial Initial Reading
Penetrometer Dial Final Reading
Penetrometer Value

The average penetration value of a given bitumen sample =

The grade of bitumen =

After determining the penetration value, the sample is denoted with standard grades
designated by ASTM which is given below:
0 - 20, 20 - 30, 30 - 40, 40 - 60, 60 - 80, 80 - 100, 100 - 120, 120 - 160, 160 - 200, 200 - 300.
The test is useful to determine the penetrations index which is given as:
𝟑𝐏
𝐏𝐈 = +𝟏
𝟐𝟎

PI: is the penetration index

P: is the penetration value.

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Softening Point Test

Introduction

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree of
softening under the specifications of the test. The test is conducted by using the Ring and Ball
apparatus.
Bitumen does not suddenly change from solid to liquid state, but as the temperature increase, it
gradually becomes soften until it flows readily. The softening point is the temperature at which the
substance attains a particular degree of softening under specified condition of test.

Significance

To determine the softening point of given paving bitumen. The softening point is useful in the
classification of bitumen.

Apparatus

1. Ring and Ball apparatus

2. Water bath with a stirrer
3. Thermometer
4. Glycerin
5. Steel balls each of 9.5mm and weight of 2.5 ± 0.08gm.

Figure 3-6: Ring and Ball Apparatus

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Procedure

1. The sample material is heated to a temperature between 75° and 100°C above the
approximate softening point until it is completely fluid and is poured in heated rings placed
on the metal plate.
2. To avoid sticking of the bitumen to the metal plate, the coating is done to this with a
solution of glycerin and dextrin.
3. After cooling the rings in the air for 30 minutes, the excess bitumen is trimmed and rings
are placed in the support.
4. At this time the temperature of distilled water is kept at 5°C. This temperature is maintained
for 15 minutes after which the balls are placed in position.
5. Then the temperature of the water is raised at a uniform rate of 5°C per minute with a
controlled heating unit until the bitumen softens and touches the bottom plate by the sinking
of balls. At least two observations are made. For material whose softening pointis above
80°C, glycerin is used for heating medium and the starting temperature is 35°C instead of
5°C.
6. The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the bottom plate
of support is recorded as softening point value.

Figure 3-7: Softening Point

Notes

❖ Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is

preferred in hot climates.
❖ Bitumen with lower softening point tends to melt on the road in summer and start flowing
under the impact of temperature and traffic.

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❖ Subsequently, when the bitumen cools down at night the road surface loses its original
shape and becomes wavy. This mode of failure of roads due to bitumen is referred to as
failure by rutting. Therefore it can be concluded that bitumen with higher softening point
melt at higher temperatures and have better rutting resistance.

Calculation

Grade of bitumen =
Approximate softening point =
Liquid used in water bath (water/Glycerin) =
Period of air cooling (minutes) =
Period of cooling in water bath (minutes) =

Sample
Test Property
A B Mean
Temperature at each sample touches bottom plate
Repeatability %
Reproducibility %

The softening point value of given bitumen sample =

Grade of bitumen =

Note

The temperature at the instant when each of the ball and sample touches the bottom plate of support
is recorded as softening point value. The mean of duplicate determinations is noted. It is essential
that the mean value of the softening point (temperature) does not differ from individual observation
by more than the following limits:

Softening Point Repeatability Reproducibility

Below 30 °C 2 °C 4 °C
30 °C to 80 °C 1 °C 2 °C
Above 80 °C 2 °С 4 °C

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Specification

IS Specifications
Bitumen Grades Softening Point
S35 55 – 65
A45, S45, A65 45 – 60
S65 40 – 55
A90, S90 35 – 50
A200, S200 30 - 45
Note: S denotes sources other than Assam petroleum

Penetration Grade
Grade Penetration
S35 30/40
S45 40/50
S65 60/70
S90 80/100
S200 175/225

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Ductility Test

Introduction

The ductility of bituminous material is the distance in centimeters to which it will elongate
before breaking when a briquette specimen of the materials is pulled at a specified speed and at a
specified temperature.

Objective

1. To determine the ductility of given bitumen sample.

2. To determine the suitability of bitumen for its use in road construction.
3. Ductility test is an empirical test which measures the cohesive strength of bitumen its
ability to stretch.
4. The ductility of bitumen improves the physical interlocking of the aggregate bitumen
mixes.

Apparatus

1. Briquette mold: (length – 75mm, the distance between clips – 30mm, width at the mouth
of clips – 20mm, the cross section at minimum width – 10mm x10mm)
2. Ductility machine: with a water bath and a pulling device at a rate a precalibrated rate,
3. Putty knife.
4. Thermometer.

Figure 3-8: Briquette mold Figure 3-9: Ductility machine

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Procedure

1. The bitumen sample is melted to a temperature of 75 to 100°C above the approximate

softening point until it is fluid.
2. Poured the bitumen sample in the mold assembly and placed on a brass plate, after a
solution of glycerin and dextrin is applied at all surfaces of the mold exposed to bitumen.
3. Thirty to forty minutes after the sample is poured into the molds, the plate assembly
along with the sample is placed in a water bath maintained at 27°C for 30 minutes.
4. The sample and mold assembly are removed from the water bath and excess bitumen
material is cut off by leveling the surface using a hot knife.
5. After trimming the specimen, the mold assembly containing the sample is replaced in the
water bath maintained at 27°C for 85 to 95 minutes.
6. The sides of the mold are now removed and the clips are carefully hooked on the machine
without causing any initial strain.
7. The pointer is set to read zero.
8. The machine is started and the two clips are thus pulled apart horizontally while the test
is in operation, it is checked whether the sample is immersed in water at depth of at least
10 mm.
9. The distance at which the bitumen thread breaks is recorded in cm to report as ductility
value.

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Figure 3-10: Process of Ductility Test

Calculation

Grade of bitumen =
Pouring temperature °C =
Test temperature =
Period of cooling (minutes) in Air =
In water bath before trimming =
In water bath after trimming =

Briquette Number Mean Value

Test Property
A B C Mean
Ductility (cm)
Repeatability %
Reproducibility %

The Ductility value of given bitumen is =

Specification

The ductility value of a good material should be within the permitted range which has been
specified to:

❖ 50 to 110 cm by AASHTO
❖ >100cm by SORB

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Saybolt Fural Viscosity Test

Introduction

Viscosity denotes the fluid property of bituminous material and it is a measure of resistance to
flow. At the application temperature, this characteristic greatly influences the strength of resulting
paving mixes. The Viscosity or Consistency of Asphalt Cement is measured by either the Saybolt
Fural Viscosity Test or the Kinematic Viscosity Test. Viscosity: the time that we
needed to fill a standard flask (50 or 60mm volume) at a suitable temperature as (50 or 60 °C).

Significance

To determine the viscosity of bituminous binder.

Apparatus

1. Saybolt viscometer with fural orifice and bath

2. Withdrawal tube
3. Thermometer support
4. Filter funnel
5. Receiving flask
6. Timer
7. Viscosity thermometer

Figure 3-11: Saybolt Viscometer Figure 3-12: Receiving Flask

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Procedure

1. Fill the bath at least 6mm above the overflow rim of the viscometer.
2. Establish and control the bath temperature at the selected test temperature (Say 50 oC).
3. Insert a cork stopper at the bottom of the viscometer.
4. Preheat the sample to not more than 1.7 oC above test temperature, and 28 oC of its flash
point. Stir the sample and strain it through sieve No. 100 directly into the viscometer.
5. Stir the sample in the viscometer with the thermometer, use a circular motion at (30 to
50) rpm in a horizontal plane. Remove thermometer when the temperature remainsconstant
within 0.03oC of the test temperature during one minute of continuous stirring.
6. Place the tip of the withdrawal tube in the gallery at a point and apply suction to remove
oil until its level in the gallery is below the overflow rim.
7. Place the receiving flask in its proper position.
8. Snap the cork and start the timer.
9. Stop the timer the instant the bottom of the oil meniscus reaches graduation mark.
10. Record the efflux time in seconds to the nearest 0.1 sec. This will be the viscosity.

Figure 3-13: Viscosity Procedure

Calculation

Report the time in seconds to the nearest 0.1 sec, and the test temperature in ᵒC.
Grade of bitumen =
Test temperature =

Test Number Temperature °C Efflux time (viscosity) sec.

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Specification

Saybolt Fural,
Grade Use
Viscosity
15 – 30 0 ❖ Used as a tack, a thin adhesive bonding coat for the hard dense
surface, and as a prime or penetrating coat for the very open
40 – 80 1 surface.
100 – 200 2
❖ Higher viscosity.
250 – 500 3 ❖ Used in surface treatments and penetration macadam applications.
600 – 1200 4 ❖ More heat must be used with the higher grades, but fewer diluents
are used.
1500 – 3000 5

On the basis of the relative speed of evaporation, cutback asphalts are divided into three types:

1. SC (Slow Curing Cutback) = Asphalt cement and oils of low volatility generally in the
heavy distillate range (SC-70, 250, 800, 3000) Slow curing (SC) cutback asphalts are often
called road oils and are used:
❖ In road-mixing and dust-laying applications.
❖ For stockpile patching mixes, plant-mixed with graded aggregates and occasionally for
priming.
2. MC (Medium-Curing Cutback) = Asphalt cement and a solvent of intermediate volatility
or medium distillate, generally in the kerosene boiling point range (MC-30, 70, 250, 800,
3000). The medium grades are designed for mixing with aggregates because:
❖ Medium grades do not break immediately upon contact with aggregate
❖ Mixes that using them can remain workable for extended periods of time and lend
themselves to cold mix stockpiles.
3. RC (Rapid Curing Cutback) = asphalt and a volatile solvent or light distillate, generally
in the gasoline or naphtha boiling point range (RC-70, 250, 800, 3000). The rapid grades
are designed to react quickly for spray applications:
❖ Such as tack coats, aggregate chips seals, sand seals, and similar surface treatments.

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Figure 3-14: Petroleum Asphalt Flow Chart

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Flash and Fire Point Test

Introduction

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen, materials leave out volatiles. And
these volatiles catch fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is essential to qualify this
temperature for each bitumen grade.

Definition

Flash Point is the lowest temperature at which the vapor of substance momently takes fire in the
form of a flash under specified condition of test.

Fire Point is the lowest temperature at which the material gets ignited and burns under specified
the condition of test.

Significance

1. To determine the Flash and Fire point of a given sample of bituminous material.
2. To find the safe point of heating the asphalt during the construction process (to protect
asphalt from burning).
3. To find out the type and quantities for the availability of undesirable materials in the asphalt.

Apparatus
1. Cleveland Open Tester: The apparatus consists of the test cup, heating plate, test flame
applicator, heater, and support.
2. Thermometer: ASTM thermometer having a range of (-6 oC to + 400 oC).

Figure 3-15: Cleveland Open Tester

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Procedure

1. All parts of the cup should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before the test is started
particular care should be taken to remove all traces of solvent used for cleaning.
2. Fill the cup with the material to be tested up to the filling mark.
3. Insert the desired thermometer into the sample. The bottom of the thermometer should not
touch the bottom of the cup.
4. Switch on the heater. Apply heat at such a rate that the temperature rise is 5oC to 6 oC per
minute.
5. Light and adjust the test flame so that it is of the size of a bead of 4mm in diameter.
6. Turn the stirrer at a rate of approximately 60 revolutions per minute.
7. Apply the test flame at each temperature reading which a multiple of 1 oC to 104 oC. For the
temperature range above 104 oC, apply the test flame at each reading which is a multiple of 3
o
C, the first application of the test flame being made at a temperature of 17 oC below the actual
flash point. The flame must be kept in lowered position for one second and then quickly raised
to its high position. The material should not be stirred while the test flame is applied.
8. Report flash point as the thermometer at the time when the flame application causes a distinct
bluish flash in the interior of the cup for one second.
9. Continue heating and subsequent application of the flame at an interval of 3 oC. This will be
continued until the material ignites and continuous to burn for 5 seconds, the temperature of
the material at this instance as read in the thermometer is recorded as the fire point.

Figure 3-16: Flash Point Figure 3-17: Fire Point

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Calculation

Trails
Test Mean Value
1 2 3
Flash Point
Fire Point

The temperature at which the flame application that causes a bright flash (Flash Point) °C =
Temperature at which the sample catches fire (Fire Point) °C =

The result shall not differ from the mean value by more than the following:

❖ 3 oC in case of flash point.

❖ 6 oC in case of fire point.

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Loss on Heating Test

Introduction

The loss in weight (Exclusive of Water) of bituminous materials when heated is called loss on
heating of bituminous materials.

Significance

To determine the Loss on Heating of a given of bituminous material.

Apparatus

1. Oven: minimum interior dimensions 330 x 330mm.

2. Rotating shelf: the shelf shall be suspended by a vertical shaft, the minimum diameter of
250mm and rotating with 5 to 6 rpm.
3. Thermometer: having a range from 155 to 170°C, sensitivity 0.1.
4. Containers: metal or glass cylindrical containers shall have a flat bottom and minimum
diameter 55mm and 35mm depth.
5. Balance: sensitivity 0.01 gm.

Figure 3-18: Loss on Heating Oven Figure 3-19: Containers

Preparation of Material

Test the material under examination for water and if water is present, remove it by suitable methods
of dehydration before subjecting the material to the loss on the heating test, or obtain another
sample that is free from water.

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Procedure

1. Place 50.0±0.5 gm of the sample of the water free material in a container, cool the sample to
room temperature and weigh to the nearest 0.01 gm.
2. Bring the oven to a temperature of 163°C and place the container with the weighed sample
(A) on the shelf.
3. Close the oven and rotate the shelf during the entire test at a rate of 5 to 6 rpm.
4. Maintain the temperature at 163 ± 1°C for 5 hrs, start counting the time when the temperature
reaches 162°C, and in no case shall the total time that a sample is in the oven be more than
5h and 15 min.
5. After the heating period, remove the sample from the oven, cool to room temperature, and
weigh to the nearest 0.01 gm (B).

Calculation

Calculate the percentage loss to the nearest 0.01 as follows:

% loss = [(A-B)/A′] * 100

Where:
A= Initial weight of the container plus sample.
B = Final weight of the container plus sample after heating.
A′ = Initial weight of the sample.

Final weight of
Initial weight of
Initial weight of the container % loss =
Container No. the container
the sample (A′) plus sample [(A-B)/A′] *100
plus sample (A)
after heating (B)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Mean % loss

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Specification

Bitumen used in pavement mixes < 1% loss in weight.

Bitumen having penetration values 150-200 ≤ 2% loss in weight.

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