KCS603: Computer Networks

Unit-01
Physical Layer
Instructor: Md. Shahid
Syllabus: Introductory concepts: Goals and applications of
networks, categories of networks, organization of the
Internet, ISP, Network structure and architecture (layering
principles, services, protocols and standards). The OSI
reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite, Network devices
and components.

Physical Layer: Network topology design, types of

connections, transmission media, signal transmission and
encoding, network performance and transmission
impairments, switching techniques and multiplexing.

Network: It is a collection of interconnected computing devices. Two

computing devices are said to be interconnected if they can exchange
information.
 History of Network
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was the first
operational packet-switching network and the precursor to the global
Internet. It was developed by the United States Department of Defense's
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the late 1960s to support
research and communication among universities and research centers.
The first ARPANET connection was established in October 1969
between UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) and the Stanford
Research Institute, and the network grew to include several more
universities and research organizations over the next several years.
ARPANET was instrumental in the development of several key
technologies that underpin the Internet, including packet switching and
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which became
the standard communication protocols for the Internet. ARPANET
officially ceased operations in 1990, but its legacy lives on as the Internet
continues to grow and evolve.

Goals and Applications of Networks

The main goals of computer networks are as follows –

1. Cost reduction by sharing hardware & software resources.
2. High reliability by having multiple sources of supply.
3. Greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices.
4. Increase productivity by making it easier to access data by the
several users.
5. Another goal is to increase the systems performance, as the work
load increases, by just adding more processors.
Applications of computer networks –

Computer networks have numerous applications in various fields and industries,

some of which are:

Communication: Computer networks enable communication between individuals

and organizations over long distances through email, instant messaging, video
conferencing, and other forms of communication.

Sharing resources: Computer networks allow users to share resources such as

printers, scanners, and storage devices, making it easier and more cost-effective
for organizations to manage their resources.

Remote access: Computer networks enable remote access to resources, such as

accessing files and databases from remote locations or connecting to a remote
server for processing.

E-commerce: Computer networks enable online transactions such as buying and

selling goods and services, online banking, and online payment processing.

Entertainment: Computer networks enable the streaming of music and videos,

online gaming, and social media.

Education: Computer networks facilitate online learning and access to educational

resources, such as e-books, online courses, and educational videos.

Research and development: Computer networks enable collaboration between

researchers and scientists in different locations, allowing them to share data,
conduct experiments, and analyze results.

Health care: Computer networks enable the sharing of medical records, remote
consultation with specialists, and telemedicine.
 Categories of Networks
[On the basis of geographic area, they cover. ]

Main categories:
1. LAN (Local Area Network) – range is around 2 miles.
2. MAN (Metropolitan-Area Network) – range around 10 miles.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network) – range can be world-wide.

Note – Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or a WAN in isolation;

they are connected to one another. When two or more different
networks are connected, they become an internetwork, or internet.

Internet Service Provider (ISP)

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides internet
access to customers. ISPs typically offer different types of services, such
as residential broadband, business-class network services, and mobile
internet. They may use a variety of technologies to deliver internet
access, such as cable, DSL, fiber-optic, satellite, and wireless. In India,
ISPs are regulated by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI).

Some of Indian ISPs:

BSNL, Bharti Airtel, MTNL, Jio, etc.

 Computer Network Architecture
A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture. The
specification of an architecture must contain enough information to
allow an implementer to write the program or build the hardware for
each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol.

Types of computer network:

1. Peer-to-peer
2. Client-server

Peer-to-peer

o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with
equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can
lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.
Client-Server

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to
access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are
called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants
to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with
the client 2.

Note – We have either peer-to-peer or client server model in colleges, malls,

buildings, etc.
 Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol
defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated. The key elements of a protocol are:
1. Syntax
2. Semantic
3. Timing

1. Syntax : The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the

data, meaning the order in which they are presented. For example,
a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the
receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

2. Semantics : The word semantic refers to the meaning of each

section of bits. How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and
what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For
example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final
destination of the message?

3. Timing : The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data

should be sent and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a
sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process
data only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and
some data will be lost.
 Standards
Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of
interconnectivity necessary in today’s marketplace and in international
communications. Data communication standards fall into two
categories:
1. De facto ( meaning “ by fact” or “ by convention”)
2. De jure ( meaning “by law” or “ by regulation”)

1. De facto : Standards that have not been approved by an organized

body but have been adopted as standards through widespread use
are de facto standards.
2. De jure : Those standards that have been legislated by an official
recognized body are de jure standards.

Layering principle

The principles of network architecture layering are based on the concept of

abstraction and modularity, where each layer performs a specific set of functions
and hides the details of its underlying layers. This allows for easier design,
development, and maintenance of complex network systems.
 Basic Elements of Layered Architecture
The basic elements of the layered architecture are as follows −
 Service − Set of operations provided from one layer to the higher layer.
 Protocol − It defines a set of rules where a layer uses to exchange the information
with its peer entity (same layer on another machine). It is concerned about both
the contents and order of the messages used.
 Interface − It is a way through that the message is transferred from one layer to
another layer.
Reasons
The reasons for using layered protocols are explained below −
 Layering of protocols provides well-defined interfaces between the layers, so that
a change in one layer does not affect an adjacent layer.
 The protocols of a network are extremely complicated and designing them in layers
makes their implementation more feasible.
Advantages
The advantages of layered protocols are as follows −
 Assists in protocol style, as a result of protocols that operate at a particular layer
have outlined information that they work and a defined interface to the layers on
top of and below.
 Foster’s competition because products from completely different vendors will work
along.
 Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from touching different
layers above and below.
 Provides a typical language to explain networking functions and capabilities.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of layered protocols are as follows −

 The main disadvantages of layered systems consist primarily of overhead

each in computation and in message headers caused by the abstraction
barriers between layers. Because a message typically should pass through
several (10 or more) protocol layers the overhead of those boundaries is
commonly more than the computation being done.
  The upper-level layers cannot see what is within the lower layers, implying
that an application cannot correct where in an exceedingly connection a
problem is or precisely what the matter is.
 The higher-level layers cannot control all aspects of the lower layers, so that
they cannot modify the transfer system if helpful (like controlling windowing,
header compression, CRC/parity checking, et cetera), nor specify routing,
and should rely on the lower protocols operating, and cannot specify
alternatives when there are issues.

Reference Models for Network Architecture

1. OSI reference model (7 layers)
2. TCP/ IP reference model (4 layers-originally)
3. X. 25 reference model ( 3 layers)
4. IEEE reference model (3 layers)
5. ATM reference model (5 layers)

The OSI Model

The OSI reference model, or the OSI model for short, is a conceptual framework for
understanding and describing the functions of a communication system. OSI stands
for Open Systems Interconnection, and the model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the late 1970s.
The OSI model divides the communication process into seven layers, with each
layer responsible for a specific set of functions. The layers are as follows:

1. Physical layer: This layer is concerned with transmitting raw data bits over a
physical medium, such as copper wires or fiber optic cables.

2. Data link layer: This layer provides reliable point-to-point communication

between two devices on the same network. It is responsible for detecting and
correcting errors that may occur in the physical layer.
3. Network layer: This layer is responsible for routing data between different
networks. It determines the most efficient path for data to travel and is
responsible for addressing and packetizing data.

4. Transport layer: This layer provides reliable end-to-end communication

between two devices. It is responsible for ensuring that data is delivered in the
correct order and without errors.

5. Session layer: This layer manages the communication sessions between

applications running on different devices. It is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, and terminating sessions.

6. Presentation layer: This layer translates data from the application layer into a
format that can be understood by the receiving device. It is also responsible for
data compression and encryption.

7. Application layer: This layer provides interfaces for applications to access the
network services. It is responsible for providing services such as email, file
transfer, and remote login.

Note-- The OSI model provides a common language for describing and
understanding communication systems. It is not a protocol in itself, but it provides
a framework for developing protocols that can be used to implement the functions
of each layer.
 Layers, Interfaces, and Protocols

Interface—The interface defines which primitive operations and services the

lower layer makes available to the upper one.

Service— A service is set of operations (primitives) that a layer provides to the

layer above it. It means services are related to the interfaces between layers.

Protocol— It is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets
that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer ( same layer on two different
machines). It means protocols are related to the packets sent between peer
entities on different machines.
 The layers in the OSI model Offer two types of services to the layers
above them: connection-oriented and connectionless

Connection-Oriented service
It is modeled after the telephone system. To talk to someone, you pick up the
phone, key in the number, talk, and then hang up. Similarly, to use a connection-
oriented network service, the service user first establishes a connection, uses the
connection, and then releases the connection. The essential aspect of a connection
is that it acts like a tube: the sender pushes bits in at one end, and the receiver
takes them out at the other end.
Connectionless service
In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless service is modeled after
the postal system. Each message (letter) carries the full destination address, and
each one is routed through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent
of all the subsequent messages.

TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is a conceptual
model that defines the protocols and standards used for communication between
devices over the internet. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (originally) , each
of which performs specific functions in the communication process.
The four layers of the TCP/IP model are:
Application Layer: This layer includes protocols that support application programs
that access the network, such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and Telnet.
Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for providing reliable data transfer
services between devices, using protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Internet Layer: This layer is responsible for addressing, routing, and fragmentation
of data packets across the internet, using protocols such as IP (Internet Protocol),
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), and IGMP (Internet Group Management
Protocol).
Network Access Layer: The first layer of the TCP/IP reference model is the Network
Access Layer, which is also commonly referred to as the Link Layer. The Link Layer
is responsible for providing the physical means of transmitting data over the
network and defining the protocols and hardware necessary for accessing the
physical network medium. It provides services such as addressing, packet framing,
error detection and correction, and media access control.

Note -- The TCP/IP model is the foundation of the internet and is used by a wide
range of devices, including computers, smartphones, and servers. It provides a
standardized way for devices to communicate with each other, making it possible
for applications and services to be developed that can be used across different
platforms and devices.

Question. What is the main difference between TCP/IP reference model and OSI
reference model?

While they share some similarities, there are also several differences between
them:

Layers: The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (Application, Transport, Internet,
and Link layer), while the OSI model consists of seven layers (Application,
Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical).

Protocols: The TCP/IP model is based on the protocols developed for the Internet,
such as TCP, IP, UDP, and ICMP, while the OSI model is a more general framework
that does not specify any particular protocols.
Approach: The TCP/IP model is a practical model that was developed based on
existing protocols and practices, while the OSI model is a theoretical model that
was developed based on the principles of layered network architecture.

Scope: The TCP/IP model is widely used in practice and is the de facto standard for
the Internet, while the OSI model is primarily used as a reference model for
teaching and understanding networking concepts.

Flexibility: The TCP/IP model is more flexible and adaptable than the OSI model, as
it can be easily extended and modified to suit different applications and network
environments.

Question. Why do we need a layered approach for the network architecture?

The layer approach to network architecture is essential for a number of reasons:
Modularity: The layer approach provides a modular structure for network design.
Each layer can be developed and modified independently of the others, which
simplifies the process of adding new functionality or upgrading existing
components.
Abstraction: The layer approach allows for a high degree of abstraction. Each layer
provides a different level of abstraction, which makes it easier to conceptualize and
understand complex network architectures.
Standardization: The layer approach allows for standardization of network
protocols and interfaces. This ensures that different devices and applications can
communicate with each other using a common set of rules and protocols,
regardless of the specific implementation.
Flexibility: The layer approach provides a high degree of flexibility. Different layers
can be combined or modified to create customized network architectures that
meet specific requirements or use cases.
Interoperability: The layer approach promotes interoperability between different
systems and devices. By adhering to a common set of standards and protocols,
devices and applications from different vendors can communicate with each other
seamlessly.

Network devices and components

(Hardware- connecting devices)
[Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Router and Gateway]

Note:
1. Passive hubs operate below physical layer.
2. Repeaters and active hubs operate only in the physical layer (L1).
3. Bridges and two-layer switches operate in the physical and data link layer (L2).
4. Routers and three-layer switches operate in L1, L2 and L3 layers.
5. A Gateway device operates in the all layers.
 Repeater
The function of a repeater device in a LAN (Local Area Network) is to regenerate
signals to extend the range (length) of the network.

In a LAN, signals can weaken as they travel along the cables between devices. This
can cause data loss, errors, and a reduction in network performance. A repeater
device is used to overcome these limitations by receiving and regenerating the
original signals before re-transmitting them on to the next device in the network.
This process effectively extends the range of the network and ensures that all
devices can communicate with each other effectively.

Repeater devices are typically used in Ethernet LANs (IEEE 802.3) and can be used
to connect devices over long distances, such as in large buildings or across
campuses. However, it's worth noting that repeaters can introduce some latency
(delay) in the network, so they should be used wisely and only when necessary.
Note – Thinnet and Thicknet are terms associated with two different types of
coaxial cables used in Ethernet networking (IEEE 802.3 LAN).
Thinnet (10 BASE2): Thinnet refers to a type of coaxial cable with a thinner
diameter, typically with a diameter of 0.2 inches (5 mm).10 represents the data
transfer rate of 10 Mbps, "BASE" indicates baseband signaling, and "2" indicates a
maximum segment length of 200 meters.
Thicknet (10 BASE5): Thicknet refers to a type of coaxial cable with a thicker
diameter, typically with a diameter of 0.4 inches (10 mm).10 represents the data
transfer rate of 10 Mbps, "BASE" indicates baseband signaling, and 5 indicates a
maximum segment length of 500 meters.

Note – In modern LANs, other technologies such as switches are often used
instead of repeaters to overcome the limitations of signal attenuation and improve
network performance.

Hub [Multiport Repeater]

1. Passive hub
2. Active hub
Passive hub – A passive hub is a type of networking hub that simply provides
a central point for multiple network devices to connect to one another. It does not
require a power source and does not actively regenerate signals. The primary
function of a passive hub is to allow network devices to communicate with each
other by providing a central connection point. When a device sends a message,
the hub sends it out to all other devices ( broadcasting ) connected to the hub,
allowing them to receive and process the message.

Active hub -- An active hub, also known as a powered hub, is a type of

networking hub that requires an external power source to operate. Unlike a passive
hub, an active hub actively regenerates signals, allowing it to extend the distance
of a network and support more devices.

An active hub contains electronic components, such as a power supply and a signal
regenerator, that allow it to boost the strength of the signals it receives from
connected devices before retransmitting them to other devices on the network.
This helps to overcome signal degradation that can occur when signals are
transmitted over long distances or through multiple devices.

Active hubs are typically used in larger network installations where multiple devices
need to be connected over a greater distance. They can also provide additional
features such as the ability to monitor network traffic and support for different
network protocols. However, like passive hubs, active hubs have become less
common in recent years due to the popularity of switches and routers, which
offer even greater control and functionality for network connectivity.
 Bridges

A bridge is a network device used to connect two different LANs. For example, a
bridge with two ports can connect an Ethernet LAN on one side and a token ring
LAN on the other. The bridge uses a forwarding table to filter and forward data
packets between the LANs. It operates in both the physical and the data link layer.
As a physical layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer
device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC) addresses contained in the frame.

Note – You will get to learn more about bridges in the second unit.

Switches ( L2 and L3 switches)

An L2 switch connects devices together in a local area network (LAN). It is used to
forward data packets between devices within the same LAN, allowing the devices
to communicate with each other.
The Layer 2 (L2) switch is essentially a multiport bridge that operates at the data
link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

A three-layer switch (L3 switch) is used at the network layer; it’s a kind of router.

Router

It is a type of networking device that connects two or more different networks (

having same technology) together and directs network traffic between them. A
router operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model and is responsible
for forwarding packets based on their destination IP address. It can be used to
connect devices on a local area network (LAN) to devices on another LAN or to the
internet.
 Gateway
If a device is capable of connecting two different networks with different
technologies, for example, one network using TCP/IP and the other using ATM,
then this device is called a gateway.
In this case, the gateway would be responsible for translating the data between the
TCP/IP and ATM network protocols, allowing them to communicate with each
other. This type of device is commonly used in larger networks where different
technologies may be used in different parts of the network.

…………………………………………………………………………………….
Physical Layer ( Layer-1)

The physical layer deals with the electrical, mechanical, functional and procedural
characteristics of the physical links between computing devices.

Note— A host typically refers to an endpoint device (for example,

computer). Nodes are the two end hosts and the routers, and the
networks in between these two end hosts are called links.

Functions of the physical layer:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium – It defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.

2. Representation of bits – The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits

(sequence of 0s or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must
be encoded into signals—electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the
type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to digital signals).
 3. Synchronization of bits—The sender and receiver not only must use the
same bit rate but also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words,
the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.

4. Line configuration—The physical layer is concerned with the connection of

devices to the media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are
connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is
shared among several devices.

5. Physical topology—The physical topology defines how devices are

connected to make a network.

6. Transmission mode—The physical layer also defines the direction of

transmission between two devices: simplex, half duplex, or fullduplex.

Encoding /Line Coding

[ Digital data to digital signals]

Encoding at the physical layer refers to the process of converting digital

data into a physical signal that can be transmitted over a communication
channel. This includes things like voltage levels, frequency, and
modulation techniques used to represent the data. The specific
encoding method used will depend on the type of physical medium and
the communication protocol being used. Examples include Manchester
encoding for Ethernet and 4B/5B encoding for Fiber Channel.
Unipolar encoding - In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are
on one side of the time axis, either above or below. For example,
unipolar NRZ (non-return-to-zero).

Unipolar Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) encoding –

It is a digital encoding technique used to represent binary data using a
single voltage level. In this technique, the voltage level is held constant
at a positive or negative value for the duration of each bit period.
A "0" bit is represented by a zero-voltage level for the entire bit period,
while a "1" bit is represented by a high voltage level for the entire bit
period. There is no transition in voltage level (cannot move from +ve
voltage to -ve voltage or vice-versa) during the bit period.

Question. Sketch the Unipolar NRZ encoding for the bit stream: 10110
Note – The name NRZ (non-return-to-zero) comes from the fact that the
signal does not return to zero between the transmission of two
consecutive bits.
Bit period (bit interval)– It is the duration of time required to transmit a single bit
over the communication channel.
Bit rate (data rate) – Bit rate is a measure of the number of bits that are transmitted
over a communication channel per unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second
(bps).

The relationship between bit rate and bit period is given by the following formula:

Bit rate = 1 / Bit period

For example, if the bit period is 1 microsecond (1 µs), then the bit rate is:

Bit rate = 1 / 1 µs = 1,000,000 bits per second (1 Mbps) [ 1 second = 10^6

microseconds]
Note :
One kilobit (kb) = 1,000 bits. [1000 bits]
One megabit (Mb) = 1,000,000 bits. [1000 kb]
One gigabit (Gb) = 1,000,000,000 bits. [1000 Mb]

Signal rate (baud rate/modulation rate/pulse rate)— The baud rate is the number
of signal elements transmitted in 1s. The unit is baud.

Polar encoding— In polar scheme, the voltages are on the both sides of the
time axis. Examples of polar encoding are NRZ, RZ and biphase.

Polar RZ encoding—
Symbol “0” is represented by - A/2 for the half bit period and remaining half is for
the zero voltage .
Symbol “1” is represented by + A/2 for the half bit period and remaining half is for
the zero voltage.

Question. Sketch the polar RZ encoding for the bit stream: 01001

Note – The name RZ (return-to-zero) comes from the fact that the signal
returns to zero between the transmission of two consecutive bits.
Polar NRZ—We have two versions of polar NRZ:
1. Polar NRZ-L
2. Polar NRZ-I

Question. Sketch the polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I encodings for the bit
stream: 01001110

For NRZ-L (NRZ-Level)

Symbol “0” is represented by + A for the entire bit period.
Symbol “1” is represented by -A for the entire bit period.
For NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)
Start from either side
For symbol “0”, there will be no transition.
For symbol “1”, there will be transition ( changing the polarity +ve to -ve and vice
versa)
Polar biphase—
1. Manchester encoding ( used in Ethernet LAN)
2. Differential Manchester encoding (used in Token ring LAN)

Manchester Encoding
Question. Sketch the Biphase Manchester and Differential Manchester
encoding for the bit stream: 0101110101

Manchester Encoding
Note: There are two types of conventions in Manchester encoding:
1. Dr. Thomas: In this Manchester encoding “0” is represented as low-to-
high voltage and 1 is represented as high-to-low voltage.
2. IEEE802.3: In this Manchester encoding, 0 is represented as high-to-low
and 1 is represented as low-to-high.
 Differential Manchester

Baud rate = 2 * bit rate ( for biphase encoding)

Because two signals elements (+ve and -ve voltage ) are
getting transmitted in 1s

For example, if bit rate = 20 bits/sec, then Baud rate will

be 40 baud for Biphase encoding.
 Categories of topology
It is the physical or logical arrangement of devices on a computer
network. It describes the layout of connected devices and how they
communicate with each other. There are two types of topology: physical
and logical topology.

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a

network.
Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through a
single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected
to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it has
been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access).

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable without
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based
networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware components are easily
available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes.

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable
faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of
both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.

Ring Topology
 o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Working of Token passing

o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address
matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without
bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and
monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation
cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable

faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay.

Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the
central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star topology as

compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to inspect the kilometers
of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized network.
Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the
problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in the star
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the open ports
on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial
cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx. 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one
of the most popular Star topology networks.

Disadvantages of Star topology

Dependence on Central Hub: The star topology depends heavily on the central hub or switch. If
the central hub or switch fails, the entire network can be disrupted. This means that the network
may be less resilient and reliable than other topologies such as the mesh topology.

Cost: Implementing a star topology can be more expensive than other topologies, particularly in
larger networks. Each device requires its own cable to connect to the central hub or switch, which
can increase the cost of cabling.

Limited scalability: The star topology may not be as scalable as other topologies. As the number
of devices in the network increases, the central hub or switch may become overloaded, which can
lead to network congestion and slow performance.

Single Point of Failure: Since all devices are connected to the central hub or switch, it becomes
a single point of failure. If the central hub or switch fails, all the devices connected to it lose
connectivity.
Limited Distance: The distance between the central hub or switch and the devices connected to
it is limited by the length of the cables used. This means that the star topology may not be suitable
for large geographic areas.

Overall, while the star topology is a popular choice for small to medium-sized networks, its
limitations should be considered when designing larger or more complex networks.

Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it forms
a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide

broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances without being
attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can
say that tree topology is easily expandable.
 o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known
as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to
troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to
reconfigure.

Mesh topology
 o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected
with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point
of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures
are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

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Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the
computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain computers are
connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not
affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and
more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and
manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure
goes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of
the network.
Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid
topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in
Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the
rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network.
 o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements
of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that the
strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid
network. It is very difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are
different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a
lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Types of connection (Line configuration)

There are two possible types of connections:
1. Point-to-point
2. Multipoint

1. Point-to-point connection
A point to point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices only.

2. Multipoint connection
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link.
 Transmission Media

Classification of Transmission Media:

Guided Media
It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is
also known as Bounded media.

Types of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other.
A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation
of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range
for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

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The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following are the
categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

The seven categories of UTP cable are:

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the wire that allows
the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that
separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high

speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.

Advantages of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.

Fiber Optic
o It uses electrical signals for communication.
o It holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic interference
from other types of wiring.
o It provides faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fiber optic cable:

Basic elements of Fiber optic cable:

o Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the core, the more light
will be transmitted into the fiber.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main functionality of the
cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core interface as to cause the
reflection within the core so that the light waves are transmitted through the fiber.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The main purpose
of a jacket is to preserve the fiber strength, absorb shock and extra fiber protection.

Following are the advantages of fiber optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fiber optic cable provides more bandwidth as compared copper.
Therefore, the fiber optic carries more data as compared to copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fiber optic cable carries the data in the form of light. This allows the fiber
optic cable to carry the signals at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fiber optic cable carries the data at a longer distance as compared
to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fiber optic cable is more reliable than the copper cable as it is
immune to any temperature changes while it can cause obstruct in the connectivity of
copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fiber optic cable is thinner and lighter in weight so it can withstand
more pull pressure than copper cable.
UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical
medium. Therefore, it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow
easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free
space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 GHz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the
wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages of Radio transmission:

 o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves

Microwaves are of two types:

o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a

radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz
to 300 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e.,
the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna
which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the
direct sight of each other.
 Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz to 21-23
GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental conditions
and antenna size.

Advantages of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the installation of
cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any malicious user

can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to weather
condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind can distort the
signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.
Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable
and fiber optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies
the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the center of the
coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV signal
broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains
in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch of the
satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over short
ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell phones,
TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same
closed area.

Characteristics of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication in one
room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will
interfere with the infrared waves.

Transmission Modes

o The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known
as transmission mode.
o The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
o Each communication channel has a direction associated with it, and transmission
media provide the direction. Therefore, the transmission mode is also known as a
directional mode.
o The transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
 The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

 Simplex mode

 Half-duplex mode

 Full-duplex mode

Basis for Simplex mode Half-duplex mode Full-duplex mode

comparison

Direction of In simplex mode, the In half-duplex mode, In full-duplex mode, the

communication communication is the communication is communication is bidirectional.
unidirectional. bidirectional, but one at
a time.

Send/Receive A device can only send the Both the devices can Both the devices can send and
data but cannot receive it or send and receive the receive the data simultaneously.
it can only receive the data data, but one at a time.
but cannot send it.

Performance The performance of half- The performance of The Full-duplex mode has better
duplex mode is better than full-duplex mode is performance among simplex and
the simplex mode. better than the half- half-duplex mode as it doubles the
duplex mode. utilization of the capacity of the
communication channel.

Example Examples of Simplex mode Example of half-duplex Example of the Full-duplex mode is
are radio, keyboard, and is Walkie-Talkies. a telephone network.
monitor.
 Network performance

Network performance refers to the efficiency, reliability, and speed with which a
computer network can transmit data from one device to another. There are several
factors that can impact network performance, mainly:
1. Bandwidth
2. Throughput
3. Latency (delay)

1. Bandwidth—Maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network

in a given time period.
2. Throughput— It represents the actual amount of data that can be transmitted
over the network in a given time period.

For example, we can have a link with a bandwidth of 100 Mbps, but the device
connected to the end of the link may handle only 10 Mbps. Here, 100 Mbps is
bandwidth ( max speed) and 10 Mbps is throughput (actual speed).
3. Latency (delay) — How long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time first bit is sent out from the source. It
consists of mainly four components:
a. Transmission delay
b. Propagation delay
c. Queuing delay
d. Processing delay

a. Transmission delay ( Tt )—Time it takes to place the complete data packet on the
transmission medium.

Tt = Message size / bandwidth

 b. Propagation delay (Tp )—Time it takes for a bit to travel from the source to the
destination.
Tp = Distance / propagation speed
c. Queuing delay –Time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold the
message before it can be processed.

d. Processing delay—How much time the node takes to process the message.

Transmission Impairment
It refers to any type of degradation or distortion of a signal as it travels through a
transmission medium from the sender to the receiver.

Causes of impairment

Attenuation: The weakening of the signal as it travels over a distance due to factors
such as cable resistance or absorption.
The decibel (Db) measures the relative strength of two signals or one signal at two
different points.
Note—The decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if a signal is
amplified.

Db = 10 log10 P2/P1
Variables P2 and P1 are the powers of a signal at point 1 and 2, respectively.

Noise: The presence of unwanted electrical or electromagnetic signals that can

interfere with the transmission of the signal, such as crosstalk or electromagnetic
interference.

Distortion: The alteration of the signal waveform due to factors such as signal
reflection, dispersion, or delay.

Question. Illustrate the concept of transmission impairment and apply it to solve

the following:
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced
to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, calculate the attenuation
(loss of power).

10 log10 0.5p1/P1 = 10 log100.5= 10 (-0.3) = -3dB

 Switching

Switching techniques are used to forward data from one network node (router or
gateway) to another.

There are three main switching techniques:

1. Circuit switching: In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path is established

between two nodes before any data is transferred. This path is reserved exclusively for
that communication until it is terminated. Circuit switching is commonly used in
traditional telephone networks and is less common in computer networking.

2. Packet switching:

a. Virtual packet switching

b. Datagram packet switching

a. Virtual packet switching, also known as virtual circuit switching, involves establishing a
dedicated, logical connection between two nodes in a network before transmitting any
data. This connection is called a virtual circuit, and it is maintained throughout the
duration of the communication session. Each packet sent over the virtual circuit is labeled
with a connection identifier that is used by the network to route the packet to its
destination. This method provides a more predictable and reliable communication
experience, as packets are delivered in order and with a consistent delay.

b. Datagram packet switching is a connectionless packet switching method where each

packet is treated as an independent entity and is routed through the network based on
its destination address. Unlike virtual packet switching, there is no dedicated path
established beforehand, and each packet is independently routed. This method is more
flexible and can handle varying traffic patterns, but it is less reliable as packets may arrive
out of order or be dropped due to congestion.
3. Message switching: In message switching, the entire message is sent from the source
node to the first intermediate node, where it is stored until a free path to the next node
is available. The message is then forwarded to the next intermediate node, and the
process continues until the message reaches its destination. Message switching is rarely
used in modern computer networking.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple data streams into a single data stream
that can be transmitted over a shared medium. In the data link layer, multiplexing is used
to efficiently use the available bandwidth and to allow multiple devices to share the same
communication channel.

The main function of multiplexing in the data link layer is to enable the transmission of
multiple data streams over a single communication channel. This is achieved through
various techniques such as time division multiplexing (TDM), frequency division
multiplexing (FDM), and code division multiplexing (CDM).

In TDM, each data stream is given a dedicated time slot for transmission, so that multiple
streams can be transmitted one after the other, in a round-robin fashion. In FDM, the
frequency band is divided into multiple sub-bands, and each data stream is assigned to a
specific sub-band. In CDM, each data stream is assigned a unique code, and all the data
streams are transmitted simultaneously using the same frequency band.

Multiplexing in the data link layer also helps to reduce the overhead associated with
transmitting multiple data streams separately. By combining multiple data streams into a
single data stream, the overhead associated with data framing, error checking, and flow
control can be reduced, leading to more efficient use of the available bandwidth.

Overall, the function of multiplexing in the data link layer is to improve the efficiency of
data transmission by enabling multiple data streams to be transmitted over a single
communication channel, while minimizing the overhead associated with transmitting
multiple streams separately.

Question. If the frequency is given to be 60 Hz, calculate the period of signal.

Solution

f = 1/T

T =1/f = 0.0167 seconds

Question.
Question. In a certain communication channel, the signal power is 100 W and noise
power is 10 W. In order to send information at the rate of 10 kbps, what is require
bandwidth?

Solution:

We can use Shannon's formula to calculate the required bandwidth of the communication
channel:

C = B log2(1 + S/N)
where C is the channel capacity (bits per second), B is the bandwidth (hertz), S is
the signal power, and N is the noise power.
signal power is 100 W, noise power is 10 W and data rate of 10 kbps
Max data rate = bandwidth * log2 (1 + (Signal power / Noise power))
10 = bandwidth * log (1 + (100 / 10)) { log (1 + (100 / 10)) = 3.4594 approx. equal
to 4 is taken here}
10 = bandwidth * 4
bandwidth = 2.5 Kbps
Question. What is the transmission delay of a packet sent by a station if
the length of the packet is 2 million bytes and the bandwidth of the
channel is 300 kbps?

Solution
To calculate the transmission delay of a packet, we use the following
formula:
Transmission delay = packet length / bandwidth

Given that the length of the packet is 2 million bytes and the bandwidth
of the channel is 300 kbps, we can convert the units as follows:
2 million bytes = 2,000,000 * 8 bits = 16,000,000 bits

Substituting these values into the formula, we get:

Transmission delay = 16,000,000 bits / 300,000 bits/s
Transmission delay = 53.33 seconds

Therefore, the transmission delay of the packet is 53.33 seconds.