3 Aircraft Magnetism

Aircraft magnetism is the development of magnetic fields within aircraft structures due to electrical
currents, metal components, and external magnetic influences, potentially affecting onboard equipment
such as compasses and navigation systems.

3.1 Magnetic Forces in an Aircraft

Magnetic forces in an aircraft refer to the interactions between magnetic fields generated within the
aircraft and external magnetic fields, such as those produced by the Earth or nearby electrical systems.
These forces can affect compass accuracy, induce deviations in navigation systems, and impact the
operation of sensitive equipment onboard. Managing and mitigating these forces is essential for ensuring
accurate navigation and instrument performance during flight.

3.1.1 Define what magnetically “hard” and magnetically “soft” materials mean. Give examples of
each material and where they might be found on aircraft.

"Magnetically hard" and "magnetically soft" are terms used to describe materials based on their response
to external magnetic fields.
1. Magnetically Hard Materials:
 Definition: These materials have high magnetic retentivity, meaning they retain a
significant amount of magnetization even after the removal of an external magnetic field.
They are difficult to demagnetize.
 Examples: Steel alloys, such as those used in structural components like landing gear,
engine mounts, and certain fasteners on an aircraft, are typically magnetically hard. These
materials are chosen for their strength and durability but can also retain magnetic
properties, which can potentially affect nearby sensitive equipment.

2. Magnetically Soft Materials:

 Definition: These materials have low magnetic retentivity and are easily magnetized and
demagnetized by external magnetic fields. They do not retain magnetization once the
external magnetic field is removed.
 Examples: Aluminum alloys, which are commonly used in aircraft fuselages, wings, and
other non-structural components, are generally magnetically soft. These materials are
preferred for their lightweight properties and are less prone to retaining magnetic fields,
reducing interference with sensitive equipment.
In an aircraft:
 Magnetically hard materials are typically found in components requiring high strength and
durability, such as steel alloys used in landing gear, engine mounts, and fasteners. These materials
provide structural integrity but may also pose a risk of interfering with sensitive instruments due
to their magnetic properties.
 Magnetically soft materials are commonly utilized in areas where minimizing magnetic
interference is crucial, such as the fuselage and wings made of aluminum alloys. These materials
offer lightweight construction while reducing the potential for magnetic fields to affect onboard
equipment.

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Comparison between Magnetically hard materials and Magnetically soft materials

Table 1

Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials

Figure 1

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3.1.2 Describe the cause and effects of sub-permanent magnetism.

Sub-permanent magnetism in aircraft refers to the residual magnetic field that can persist in certain
components or structures even after exposure to an external magnetic field is removed. This phenomenon
can occur due to several factors:
1. Material Properties: Some materials used in aircraft construction, particularly steel alloys, can
retain a certain degree of magnetism even after being exposed to external magnetic fields. This is
due to the magnetic properties inherent in the material.
2. Exposure to Magnetic Fields: Aircraft are often exposed to various magnetic fields during their
operation, such as those generated by electrical systems, navigational equipment, or the Earth's
magnetic field. These fields can induce magnetization in certain components, especially those
made of magnetically hard materials.

The effects of sub-permanent magnetism in aircraft can be significant and may include:
1. Compass Errors: Sub-permanent magnetism can interfere with magnetic compasses, leading to
errors in heading indication. This can pose a safety risk, particularly in situations where accurate
navigation is crucial, such as during instrument flight or when operating in areas with magnetic
anomalies.
2. Navigation System Errors: Sub-permanent magnetism can also affect other onboard navigation
systems that rely on magnetic sensors or instruments for orientation and positioning. This can
result in inaccuracies in course plotting, waypoint tracking, and overall navigation performance.
3. Instrument Deviations: Sensitive instruments, such as gyroscopes and magnetic sensors, may
experience deviations or drifts due to the presence of sub-permanent magnetism. This can lead to
incorrect readings or malfunctions, impacting the reliability and safety of flight operations.
4. Calibration Challenges: Sub-permanent magnetism complicates the calibration process for
magnetic-based instruments and sensors. Regular calibration is necessary to correct for any
deviations caused by magnetism and ensure accurate performance.

To mitigate the effects of sub-permanent magnetism, aircraft operators and manufacturers employ various
strategies, including:
 Material Selection: Choosing non-magnetic or magnetically soft materials for critical
components to minimize residual magnetism.
 Shielding: Installing shielding materials or magnetic barriers around sensitive equipment to
reduce exposure to external magnetic fields.
 Calibration: Regularly calibrating magnetic-based instruments and sensors to correct for any
deviations induced by sub-permanent magnetism.
 Maintenance: Conducting routine inspections and maintenance to detect and address any issues
related to magnetism in aircraft components.

The magnetism in the intermediate iron of a ship which tends to change as a result of vibration, aging, or
cruising in the same direction for a long period, but does not alter immediately so as to be properly termed
induced magnetism. This magnetism is the principal cause of deviation changes of a magnetic compass.
At any instant this magnetism is recognized as part of the ship’s permanent magnetism, and consequently
must be corrected as such by means of permanent magnet correctors.

3.1.3 Describe what happens with the application and removal of magnetizing forces on hard and
soft materials.
When magnetizing forces are applied to both hard and soft materials, and then subsequently removed,
different responses occur due to their inherent magnetic properties:
1. Hard Materials:

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  Application of Magnetizing Force: When a hard material, such as steel, is subjected to a
magnetizing force (e.g., an external magnetic field), its atomic domains align with the
direction of the applied magnetic field. This alignment causes the material to become
magnetized, exhibiting a magnetic field of its own.
 Removal of Magnetizing Force: Even after the external magnetic field is removed, hard
materials retain a significant portion of their magnetization. This phenomenon is known
as high magnetic retentivity. As a result, the material remains magnetized and continues
to produce a magnetic field.
2. Soft Materials:
 Application of Magnetizing Force: When a soft material, like aluminum, is exposed to a
magnetizing force, its atomic domains also align with the applied magnetic field.
However, soft materials achieve saturation quickly and exhibit lower magnetic retentivity
compared to hard materials.
 Removal of Magnetizing Force: Upon removal of the magnetizing force, soft materials
lose much of their magnetization. This is due to their low magnetic retentivity, which
means they have a weak ability to retain magnetization. Consequently, the material's
magnetic field diminishes rapidly, approaching zero.
In summary:
 Hard Materials: Maintain a significant portion of their magnetization even after the removal of
the magnetizing force due to high magnetic retentivity. They are difficult to demagnetize.
 Soft Materials: Experience a rapid decline in magnetization after the removal of the magnetizing
force because of their low magnetic retentivity. They are easily magnetized and demagnetized.
Understanding these behaviors is crucial in engineering applications where precise control over
magnetization and demagnetization processes is necessary, such as in designing magnetic circuits,
electromagnets, and magnetic shielding systems. In aircraft design and maintenance, this knowledge helps
in selecting appropriate materials and managing magnetization effects to ensure the reliable and safe
operation of onboard equipment.

3.1.4 Specify “soft iron” magnetism in an aircraft.

"Soft iron" magnetism in an aircraft refers to the magnetic properties exhibited by certain components or
structures made from soft iron materials. Soft iron is a type of ferromagnetic material characterized by its
ability to become easily magnetized and demagnetized. In the context of aircraft, soft iron components
may include certain fasteners, brackets, or other non-structural parts.
Here's a detailed explanation of soft iron magnetism in an aircraft:
1. Material Properties:
 Soft iron is a ferromagnetic material that can be readily magnetized and demagnetized by
external magnetic fields. Unlike permanent magnets, soft iron does not retain
magnetization once the external magnetic field is removed.
 Soft iron exhibits high magnetic permeability, meaning it readily allows magnetic fields
to pass through it. This property makes soft iron ideal for applications where magnetic
shielding or focusing of magnetic fields is required.
2. Applications in Aircraft:
 Soft iron components are commonly used in aircraft for various purposes, including:
 Mounting brackets for instruments and avionics equipment.
 Fasteners such as screws, nuts, and bolts.
 Certain structural reinforcements or supports where magnetic properties are not a
concern.
 These components are chosen for their mechanical properties and ease of fabrication,
rather than for their magnetic characteristics.
3. Effects on Aircraft Systems:

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  Soft iron components can interact with external magnetic fields present in the aircraft
environment. While soft iron does not retain magnetization like permanent magnets, it
can temporarily become magnetized when exposed to magnetic fields.
 This temporary magnetization can affect the operation of magnetic-based instruments and
sensors, such as compasses or magnetometer systems, leading to errors or inaccuracies in
navigation and orientation.
4. Mitigation Measures:
 To mitigate the effects of soft iron magnetism in aircraft, designers and operators may
employ several strategies, including:
 Proper positioning and installation of soft iron components to minimize their
exposure to external magnetic fields.
 Calibration and compensation techniques for magnetic-based instruments to
account for any deviations caused by soft iron magnetism.
 Selection of alternative materials or magnetic shielding methods where critical
for sensitive equipment.
In summary, soft iron magnetism in aircraft refers to the magnetic properties exhibited by components
made from soft iron materials, which can interact with external magnetic fields and potentially affect the
operation of onboard equipment. Understanding and managing these effects are essential for ensuring
accurate navigation and instrument performance during flight.

3.1.5 Describe “ability to be magnetized”.

The "ability to be magnetized" refers to a material's capacity to become magnetized when subjected to an
external magnetic field. This property depends on the material's atomic and molecular structure,
particularly its magnetic susceptibility and alignment of magnetic domains.
Here's a detailed explanation of the ability to be magnetized:
1. Atomic Structure:
 At the atomic level, materials consist of atoms with electrons orbiting around nuclei.
Each electron possesses a magnetic moment due to its orbital motion and intrinsic spin.
 In unmagnetized materials, the magnetic moments of individual atoms are randomly
oriented, resulting in no overall magnetic field.
 When an external magnetic field is applied, it exerts a force on these magnetic moments,
causing them to align with the direction of the field.
2. Magnetic Susceptibility:
 The degree to which a material can be magnetized is determined by its magnetic
susceptibility, which measures the material's response to an external magnetic field.
 Materials with high magnetic susceptibility can be easily magnetized, while those with
low susceptibility require stronger magnetic fields to achieve the same level of
magnetization.
3. Alignment of Magnetic Domains:
 Within ferromagnetic materials (such as iron, nickel, and cobalt), magnetic moments of
atoms tend to align in groups called magnetic domains.
 In an unmagnetized state, these domains have random orientations, canceling out each
other's magnetic fields.
 When subjected to an external magnetic field, these domains align in the direction of the
field, resulting in an overall magnetization of the material.
4. Temporary vs. Permanent Magnetization:
 Materials can exhibit temporary or permanent magnetization depending on their ability to
retain magnetization after the removal of the external magnetic field.

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  Temporary magnetization occurs in materials with low magnetic retentivity, such as soft
iron. These materials become magnetized while in the presence of an external magnetic
field but lose their magnetization when the field is removed.
 Permanent magnetization occurs in materials with high magnetic retentivity, such as
certain alloys of iron, nickel, and cobalt. These materials retain their magnetization even
after the external magnetic field is removed, resulting in the formation of permanent
magnets.
In summary, the ability to be magnetized refers to a material's propensity to align its magnetic moments
in response to an external magnetic field, leading to temporary or permanent magnetization depending on
its magnetic susceptibility and retentivity. Understanding this property is crucial in various applications,
including electromagnetism, magnetic data storage, and magnetic materials engineering.

3.1.6 Describe the following:

a) Sources of Magnetizing Fields:

 Magnetizing fields in an aircraft can originate from various sources, including:
 Electrical systems: Alternators, generators, and electrical wiring produce magnetic
fields.
 Permanent magnets: Some aircraft components, such as magnetos or certain
sensors, contain permanent magnets.
 Earth's magnetic field: The Earth itself acts as a giant magnet, generating a
magnetic field that affects all magnetic materials within its vicinity.

b) Polarities of Magnetized Components:

 Magnetized components in an aircraft exhibit polarities based on the alignment of their
magnetic domains. For example:
 In ferromagnetic materials, such as steel, when magnetized, one end becomes a north
pole while the other becomes a south pole.
 The polarities depend on the direction of the external magnetic field during
magnetization.

c) Effects of Changing an Aircraft’s Heading, Attitude, and Position:

The effects of changing an aircraft's heading, attitude, and position play a significant role in its
interaction with the Earth's magnetic field and its navigation systems. Here's a detailed
explanation of these effects:
1. Heading Changes:
 Magnetic Compass Deviation: When an aircraft changes its heading, the orientation
of its magnetic compass relative to the Earth's magnetic field also changes. This can
lead to temporary deviations in compass readings until the compass stabilizes and
aligns with the new heading.
 Navigation System Updates: Heading changes affect the input to navigation systems
such as GPS, inertial navigation systems (INS), and heading indicators. These
systems rely on accurate heading information to determine the aircraft's position and
direction of travel.
2. Attitude Changes (Pitch, Roll, Yaw):
 Compass Deviation: Changes in the aircraft's attitude, such as pitch, roll, or yaw,
can influence the alignment of the magnetic compass with the Earth's magnetic field.
This can result in temporary deviations in compass readings until the aircraft
stabilizes in its new attitude.

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  Instrument Errors: Attitude changes may also introduce errors in gyroscopic
instruments, such as attitude indicators and heading indicators. Gyroscopic
precession and rigidity errors can occur due to changes in the aircraft's orientation,
affecting the accuracy of instrument readings.
3. Position Changes:
 Magnetic Variation: Aircraft position changes affect the geographic location
relative to the Earth's magnetic poles, leading to variations in magnetic declination or
variation. Magnetic variation is the angular difference between true north (geographic
north) and magnetic north at a specific location. Pilots must account for magnetic
variation when navigating using magnetic-based instruments.
 Local Magnetic Anomalies: Changes in aircraft position can also expose it to local
magnetic anomalies, which are deviations from the expected magnetic field strength
or direction due to geological factors. These anomalies can affect the accuracy of
magnetic-based navigation systems, requiring pilots to remain vigilant and cross-
reference with other navigation sources.
In summary, changes in an aircraft's heading, attitude, and position can influence its interaction
with the Earth's magnetic field and navigation systems, leading to temporary deviations in
compass readings, errors in gyroscopic instruments, and variations in magnetic declination or
anomalies. Pilots must be aware of these effects and take them into account when navigating to
ensure accurate and safe flight operations.

d) Resolution of Horizontal and Vertical Components (H and Z Forces) from the Earth’s
Magnetic Field:
The resolution of horizontal (H) and vertical (Z) components from the Earth's magnetic field
involves decomposing the Earth's magnetic field vector into its constituent parts along the
horizontal and vertical axes. This process is essential for understanding the magnetic forces acting
on an aircraft and its navigation systems. Here's a detailed explanation:
1. Earth's Magnetic Field:
 The Earth's magnetic field is a vector field that originates from the Earth's core and
extends into space. It consists of both horizontal and vertical components.
 The horizontal component (H) aligns roughly parallel to the Earth's surface and
points towards magnetic north.
 The vertical component (Z) points either downward or upward, depending on the
hemisphere, and indicates the inclination or dip angle of the magnetic field relative to
the Earth's surface.
2. Resolution of H and Z Components:
 The resolution of the Earth's magnetic field into horizontal (H) and vertical (Z)
components involves decomposing the total magnetic field vector (B) into its
perpendicular components along the horizontal and vertical axes.
 Mathematically, this can be expressed using trigonometric principles. For example, in
the northern hemisphere:
 H = B * cos(θ), where θ is the dip angle or inclination of the magnetic field.
 Z = B * sin(θ).
 The horizontal component (H) represents the strength of the magnetic field aligned
with the Earth's surface, while the vertical component (Z) represents the strength of
the magnetic field perpendicular to the surface.

Resolution of a Force into Components

A given force F can be resolved into (or replaced by) two forces, which together produces the
same effects that of force F. These forces are called the components of the force F. This process
of replacing a force into its components is known as resolution of a force into components. A

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 force can be resolved into two components, which are either perpendicular to each other or
inclined to each other. If the two components are perpendicular to one another, then they are
known as rectangular components and when the components are inclined to each other, they are
called as inclined components. The resolution of force into components is illustrated as follows.

Resolution of a Force into Rectangular Components

Consider a force F acting on a particle O inclined at an angle Ө as shown in Fig.2 (a).
Let x and y axes can be the two axes passing through O perpendicular to each other. These two
axes are called rectangular axes or coordinate axes. They may be horizontal and vertical or
inclined as shown in Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2 Resolution of force into rectangular components

The force F can now be resolved into two components Fx and Fy along the x and y axes and hence, the
components are called rectangular components. Further, the polygon constructed with these two
components as adjacent sides will form a rectangle OABC and, therefore, the components are known as
rectangular components.
From the right angled triangle OAB, the trigonometrical functions can be used to resolve the force as
follows:

The conventional coordinate directions are used for the sign conventions of the components of the force.
That is, the components along the coordinate directions are considered as positive components and the

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one in the opposite direction as negative components. The sign conventions shown in Fig.4.2 are used in
general.

Fig.3 Sign conventions

3. Significance in Aircraft Navigation:

 The resolution of H and Z components is crucial for accurate aircraft navigation,
particularly when using magnetic-based instruments such as compasses and
magnetometers.
 The horizontal component (H) provides the primary reference for determining the
aircraft's magnetic heading or direction relative to magnetic north.
 The vertical component (Z) influences the operation of vertical sensing systems, such
as vertical gyros and autopilots, and may affect magnetic compass performance,
especially during changes in aircraft attitude or position.
4. Practical Considerations:
 Pilots and navigators must account for both H and Z components when interpreting
magnetic-based navigation information.
 Magnetic variation, which represents the angular difference between true north and
magnetic north, is primarily determined by the horizontal component (H).
 Local magnetic anomalies, such as deviations in magnetic field strength or direction,
may affect both H and Z components and require careful consideration during flight
planning and navigation.
In summary, the resolution of horizontal (H) and vertical (Z) components from the Earth's
magnetic field is essential for understanding magnetic forces acting on aircraft and interpreting
magnetic-based navigation information accurately. Pilots and navigators must consider both
components when navigating using magnetic instruments to ensure safe and precise flight
operations.

e) Resolution of X, Y, and Z Forces:

The resolution of X, Y, and Z forces involves decomposing the total magnetic field vector into its
components along the three orthogonal axes: X (east-west), Y (north-south), and Z (vertical). This
process is important for understanding the three-dimensional nature of the Earth's magnetic field and
its effects on aircraft systems. Here's a detailed explanation:
1. Earth's Magnetic Field:
 The Earth's magnetic field can be represented as a vector field with three-dimensional
components.

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 The X component represents the magnetic field strength aligned with the east-west
axis.
 The Y component represents the magnetic field strength aligned with the north-south
axis.
 The Z component represents the magnetic field strength aligned with the vertical
axis, pointing either downward or upward depending on the hemisphere.
2. Resolution of X, Y, and Z Components:
 The total magnetic field vector (B) can be resolved into its X, Y, and Z components
using trigonometric principles.
 Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows:
 X = B * cos(α), where α is the angle between the total magnetic field vector
and the east-west axis.
 Y = B * cos(β), where β is the angle between the total magnetic field vector
and the north-south axis.
 Z = B * cos(γ), where γ is the angle between the total magnetic field vector
and the vertical axis.
 These components represent the strength of the magnetic field along each respective
axis.
3. Significance in Aircraft Navigation:
 The resolution of X, Y, and Z components provides a comprehensive understanding
of the Earth's magnetic field's influence on aircraft systems and instrumentation.
 The X and Y components are particularly important for determining the aircraft's
magnetic heading or direction relative to the east-west and north-south axes,
respectively.
 The Z component influences vertical sensing systems and may affect magnetic
compass performance, especially during changes in aircraft attitude or position.
4. Practical Considerations:
 Pilots and navigators must account for all three components (X, Y, and Z) when
interpreting magnetic-based navigation information.
 Magnetic variation and magnetic anomalies may affect all three components and
require consideration during flight planning and navigation.
 Aircraft systems and instrumentation must be calibrated to account for the three-
dimensional nature of the Earth's magnetic field and its effects on magnetic-based
sensors and instruments.
In summary, the resolution of X, Y, and Z forces from the Earth's magnetic field provides a
comprehensive understanding of magnetic forces acting on aircraft and is essential for accurate
navigation using magnetic instruments. Pilots and navigators must consider all three components
when interpreting magnetic-based navigation information to ensure safe and precise flight
operations.
f) Effects of Components P and Q:

The effects of components P and Q in the context of an aircraft's interaction with magnetic fields
can vary depending on their specific characteristics and their proximity to magnetic sources.
Here's a detailed explanation of their potential effects:
1. Component P:
 Material Properties: Component P might represent a magnetic material within the
aircraft structure, such as steel or iron alloys.
 Magnetization: If component P is magnetized or becomes magnetized due to its
exposure to external magnetic fields, it can influence the local magnetic field
environment within the aircraft.
 Effects:

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  Compass Deviation: Magnetic materials like steel can cause deviations in
compass readings due to their influence on the magnetic field sensed by the
compass needle.
 Instrument Errors: Components made of magnetic materials can also affect
the performance of other magnetic-based instruments and sensors onboard,
such as magnetometers or magnetic heading indicators.
 Magnetic Shielding: On the other hand, strategically placed magnetic
materials can be used for magnetic shielding purposes to protect sensitive
equipment from external magnetic interference.
2. Component Q:
 Sensitivity to Magnetic Fields: Component Q may represent a magnetically
sensitive instrument or sensor onboard the aircraft, such as a magnetic compass, a
magnetometer, or a fluxgate sensor.
 Effects:
 Measurement Accuracy: The presence of nearby magnetic materials or
sources, such as component P or other magnetic anomalies, can introduce
errors or inaccuracies in the readings of magnetically sensitive instruments.
 Compass Deviation: If component Q is a magnetic compass, it can be
influenced by nearby magnetic materials (e.g., component P) and experience
deviations from its true magnetic heading.
 Calibration Requirements: Instruments like magnetometers or fluxgate
sensors may require frequent calibration to compensate for the effects of
nearby magnetic sources and ensure accurate measurements.
In summary, components P and Q can have significant effects on the aircraft's magnetic
environment and the performance of magnetic-based instruments and sensors. Understanding
these effects is crucial for pilots, aircraft designers, and maintenance personnel to mitigate
compass errors, ensure accurate navigation, and maintain the reliability of onboard
instrumentation. Measures such as proper shielding, calibration, and material selection can help
manage these effects and maintain safe and precise flight operations.

g) Deviating Forces on a Compass Needle:

Deviating forces on a compass needle refer to external influences that cause the needle of a
magnetic compass to deviate from its true magnetic heading. These forces can arise from various
sources and can affect the accuracy of compass readings. Here's a detailed explanation of
deviating forces on a compass needle:
1. Magnetic Materials and Structures:
 Ferrous Materials: Presence of ferrous materials, such as steel or iron components
within the aircraft structure (represented by component P), can cause local magnetic
fields that interfere with the compass needle.
 Magnetization: If these materials become magnetized or are exposed to external
magnetic fields, they can induce deviations in the compass needle due to their
influence on the surrounding magnetic field.
2. Electrical Systems:
 Electromagnetic Interference: Electrical systems onboard the aircraft, including
alternators, generators, and wiring, can produce electromagnetic fields that interfere
with the compass needle.
 Eddy Currents: Fluctuating currents in electrical systems can induce eddy currents
in nearby conductive materials, generating magnetic fields that affect the compass
needle.
3. Changes in Aircraft Attitude:

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 Pitch, Roll, and Yaw: Changes in the aircraft's attitude, such as pitching up or
rolling to one side, can cause the compass needle to tilt or rotate, leading to
deviations in its readings.
 Acceleration Forces: Acceleration forces experienced during changes in aircraft
attitude can also influence the movement of the compass needle, particularly in
sensitive compass designs.
4. Magnetic Anomalies:
 Local Variations: Magnetic anomalies, such as variations in the Earth's magnetic
field strength or direction caused by geological features, can affect the behavior of
the compass needle.
 Unpredictable Deviations: These anomalies can lead to unpredictable deviations in
compass readings, especially when flying over areas with significant magnetic
disturbances.
5. Instrument Errors:
 Friction and Damping: Mechanical friction or inadequate damping in the compass
mechanism can introduce errors and delays in the response of the compass needle to
changes in magnetic fields.
 Misalignment: Misalignment of the compass housing or improper installation can
also contribute to deviations in compass readings.
6. External Magnetic Fields:
 Other Aircraft Equipment: Nearby equipment containing permanent magnets or
electromagnetic devices can produce additional magnetic fields that interfere with the
compass needle.
 External Sources: External sources such as nearby power lines, radio towers, or
other aircraft can also generate magnetic fields that affect the compass needle.

In summary, deviating forces on a compass needle can arise from various sources, including
magnetic materials within the aircraft structure, electrical systems, changes in aircraft attitude,
magnetic anomalies, instrument errors, and external magnetic fields. Pilots must be aware of
these factors and take them into account when interpreting compass readings to ensure accurate
navigation during flight. Additionally, proper maintenance, calibration, and avoidance of
magnetic disturbances can help mitigate the effects of deviating forces on compass accuracy.

3.1.7 Describe the cause, and the effects on a compass system of the following errors.

a) Acceleration Error:
Cause: Acceleration error in a compass system is primarily caused by the Earth's magnetic field
interacting with the acceleration forces experienced by an aircraft during changes in speed or
direction. When an aircraft accelerates or decelerates, the acceleration forces can cause the
compass card or needle to tilt or dip, leading to inaccuracies in the compass reading.

Effects:
 Northerly Acceleration Error: During acceleration when heading north or decelerating
when heading south, the compass card tends to rotate towards the west, indicating a turn to
the left (in the northern hemisphere) or to the right (in the southern hemisphere). This error is
most pronounced during rapid changes in speed.
 Southerly Acceleration Error: Conversely, during acceleration when heading south or
decelerating when heading north, the compass card tends to rotate towards the east, indicating
a turn to the right (in the northern hemisphere) or to the left (in the southern hemisphere).
 The magnitude of acceleration error depends on factors such as the latitude of the aircraft, the
rate of acceleration or deceleration, and the design of the compass system. In extreme cases,

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 acceleration errors can lead to significant deviations from the aircraft's actual heading, posing
a risk to navigation safety.
b) Turning Error:
Cause: Turning error occurs due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field lines relative to
the horizontal plane, combined with the banking motion of an aircraft during turns. As the aircraft
banks into a turn, the magnetic compass needle experiences both horizontal and vertical
components of the Earth's magnetic field, leading to errors in the compass reading.

Effects:
 North-South Turning Error: When the aircraft turns towards the north or south, the
compass card tends to indicate a shallower turn than the actual bank angle. This error is
caused by the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field becoming weaker as the
aircraft banks into the turn, leading to an apparent decrease in the compass needle's
sensitivity to the turn.
 East-West Turning Error: Conversely, when the aircraft turns towards the east or west, the
compass card tends to indicate a steeper turn than the actual bank angle. This error occurs
because the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field becomes stronger as the
aircraft banks into the turn, leading to an apparent increase in the compass needle's sensitivity
to the turn.
 The magnitude of turning error depends on factors such as the latitude of the aircraft, the rate
of turn, and the design of the compass system. Turning errors are most pronounced during
steep turns and can lead to significant deviations from the intended flight path if not properly
compensated for by the pilot.
In summary, acceleration error and turning error are two common types of errors encountered in
compass systems due to the interaction between the Earth's magnetic field and the motion of the
aircraft. Pilots must be aware of these errors and apply appropriate corrections to ensure accurate
navigation and safe flight operations.

3.1.8 Define the term “Compass Safe Distance” and specify acceptable limits.

The term "Compass Safe Distance" refers to the minimum distance required between a magnetic compass
and any magnetic or ferrous material that could potentially interfere with the compass's accuracy. This
distance is necessary to ensure that the magnetic field produced by nearby materials does not affect the
compass needle's ability to align with the Earth's magnetic field accurately. The concept of a compass safe
distance is critical for aircraft design, installation, and maintenance to prevent compass errors and ensure
safe navigation.
Here's a detailed explanation of the compass safe distance and its acceptable limits:
1. Rationale:
 Magnetic compasses rely on the Earth's magnetic field to determine direction accurately.
 Any nearby magnetic or ferrous material, such as steel, iron, or permanent magnets, can
create local magnetic fields that interfere with the compass needle's alignment.
 To maintain accurate compass readings, it's essential to keep the compass clear of any
such materials within its vicinity.
2. Acceptable Limits:
 The acceptable limits for compass safe distance can vary depending on factors such as the
type of compass, the strength of the local magnetic fields, and the aircraft's specific
configuration.
 In general aviation, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) provides guidelines
regarding acceptable compass safe distances.

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  For example, FAA Advisory Circular AC 43.13-1B recommends a minimum safe
distance of 18 inches (46 centimeters) between a magnetic compass and any magnetic or
ferrous material, including steel or iron components.
 Additionally, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and other aviation
regulatory bodies may have similar guidelines to ensure consistent safety standards
worldwide.
3. Considerations:
 The acceptable safe distance may need to be adjusted based on factors such as the
aircraft's size, design, and the sensitivity of the compass system.
 Certain aircraft configurations or equipment installations may require additional
precautions or modifications to ensure compliance with safe distance requirements.
 Regular inspections and maintenance are essential to verify that the compass safe
distance is maintained throughout the aircraft's service life, as changes to the aircraft's
structure or equipment may affect magnetic interference levels.
4. Mitigation Measures:
 To ensure compliance with compass safe distance requirements, aircraft designers and
manufacturers take measures such as:
 Installing non-magnetic materials or magnetic shielding around sensitive
compasses.
 Properly positioning compasses away from magnetic sources during aircraft
design and installation.
 Conducting periodic checks and adjustments during maintenance to verify
compass alignment and minimize interference from nearby materials.
In summary, the compass safe distance refers to the minimum distance required between a
magnetic compass and any magnetic or ferrous material to ensure accurate navigation. Adhering
to acceptable limits for compass safe distance is crucial for maintaining compass accuracy and
ensuring the safety of flight operations.

3.1.9 Specify how the direction of magnetization of ferrous metal in an aircraft (with respect to the
aircraft centre line) affects the compass deviation on respective headings.

The direction of magnetization of ferrous metal in an aircraft, relative to the aircraft centerline, can
significantly affect compass deviation on respective headings. Compass deviation refers to the angular
difference between the indicated magnetic heading on the compass and the actual magnetic heading of the
aircraft. Here's a detailed explanation of how the direction of magnetization of ferrous metal impacts
compass deviation on different headings:
1. Parallel Magnetization:
 Effect on Compass Deviation: When ferrous metal in the aircraft is magnetized parallel
to the aircraft centerline, it tends to create a more significant and consistent deviation on
east-west headings compared to north-south headings.
 Reasoning: This occurs because the magnetic field produced by the magnetized metal
interacts more strongly with the Earth's magnetic field along the east-west axis. As a
result, the compass needle may consistently deviate more on east-west headings due to
the stronger influence of the magnetized metal.
2. Perpendicular Magnetization:
 Effect on Compass Deviation: When ferrous metal in the aircraft is magnetized
perpendicular to the aircraft centerline, it tends to create a more significant and consistent
deviation on north-south headings compared to east-west headings.
 Reasoning: In this case, the magnetic field produced by the magnetized metal interacts
more strongly with the Earth's magnetic field along the north-south axis. As a result, the

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 compass needle may consistently deviate more on north-south headings due to the
stronger influence of the magnetized metal.
3. Mixed Magnetization:
 Effect on Compass Deviation: If the ferrous metal in the aircraft is magnetized in
various directions relative to the aircraft centerline, the compass deviation may be more
complex and less predictable.
 Reasoning: The influence of magnetized metal on compass deviation depends on the
component's orientation relative to the aircraft's heading and the Earth's magnetic field.
Therefore, the compass needle may exhibit deviations of varying magnitude and direction
on different headings, making it challenging to compensate accurately.
4. Compensating for Compass Deviation:
 Regardless of the direction of magnetization, compass deviation can be mitigated through
compass compensation techniques.
 Swing Checks: Periodic swing checks involve systematically rotating the aircraft to
different headings and comparing the indicated magnetic headings on the compass with
known true headings. This allows for the detection and correction of compass deviation
errors.
 Adjustment and Calibration: Compass deviation can be corrected through adjustments
or calibration of the compass system, either manually or using specialized equipment.
This process involves compensating for known sources of magnetic interference,
including magnetized metal components.
In summary, the direction of magnetization of ferrous metal in an aircraft relative to the aircraft centerline
has a significant impact on compass deviation on respective headings. Understanding this relationship is
crucial for accurately interpreting compass readings and implementing effective compensation measures
to ensure precise navigation during flight operations.

3.1.10 Describe the cause and effect of changes in compass deviation during flight.

Changes in compass deviation during flight can occur due to various factors related to the aircraft's
motion, its environment, and the behavior of the Earth's magnetic field. Here's a detailed explanation of
the causes and effects of changes in compass deviation during flight:
1. Aircraft Motion:
 Acceleration and Deceleration: Changes in aircraft speed, such as acceleration or
deceleration, can induce acceleration errors in the magnetic compass. This occurs
because acceleration forces cause the compass card or needle to tilt, leading to temporary
deviations in compass readings.
 Changes in Attitude: Alterations in the aircraft's pitch, roll, or yaw, either due to pilot
control inputs or external factors like turbulence, can affect the alignment of the compass
needle with the Earth's magnetic field. As the aircraft's attitude changes, the compass
needle may deflect from its true magnetic heading, resulting in deviations in compass
readings.
 Turning and Bank Angles: Turns, especially steep turns, can introduce turning errors in
the magnetic compass. During a turn, the banking motion of the aircraft causes the
compass needle to experience changes in the Earth's magnetic field, leading to
inaccuracies in compass readings.
2. Environmental Factors:
 Magnetic Variation: Changes in geographic location during flight can lead to variations
in magnetic variation, which is the angular difference between true north and magnetic
north. As the aircraft moves from one location to another, the magnetic variation may
change, affecting the accuracy of compass readings.

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  Magnetic Anomalies: Flight over areas with magnetic anomalies, such as regions with
high concentrations of magnetic minerals or geological features, can introduce sudden
and unpredictable changes in compass deviation. These anomalies can cause the compass
needle to behave erratically, leading to fluctuations in compass readings.
3. Earth's Magnetic Field:
 Geomagnetic Activity: Changes in geomagnetic activity, such as magnetic storms or
fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field strength, can influence compass deviation
during flight. These variations may be more pronounced at higher latitudes and can affect
the accuracy of compass readings.
 Solar Activity: Solar storms and solar flares can also impact the Earth's magnetic field,
leading to temporary disturbances that affect compass deviation. Pilots operating during
periods of heightened solar activity should be particularly vigilant regarding compass
reliability.
4. Effects of Changes in Compass Deviation:
 Changes in compass deviation can lead to inaccuracies in heading information,
potentially resulting in navigation errors if not promptly recognized and corrected by the
pilot.
 Pilots must continuously monitor compass readings and cross-reference them with other
navigation sources, such as GPS or radio navigation aids, to ensure accurate heading
information during flight.
 Failure to detect and compensate for changes in compass deviation can lead to deviations
from intended flight paths, increased fuel consumption, and compromised flight safety.
In summary, changes in compass deviation during flight can result from aircraft motion, environmental
factors, and variations in the Earth's magnetic field. Pilots must be aware of these factors and employ
proper navigation techniques to mitigate the effects of compass deviation and ensure safe and precise
flight operations.

3.2 Factors in selecting the location of a Compass

Selecting the location of a compass in an aircraft is a critical decision that involves balancing several key
factors to ensure accurate and reliable navigation. The chosen location should minimize magnetic
interference from nearby materials, provide easy accessibility and visibility for the pilot or navigator,
maintain stability and reduce vibration, offer adequate lighting and illumination, withstand environmental
conditions, remain compatible with other aircraft systems, and comply with regulatory standards. By
carefully considering these factors, aircraft designers and operators can optimize the compass's
performance and contribute to safe and efficient flight operations.

3.2.1 State the factors which must be taken into consideration when determining a suitable location
and mounting for a compass, including the following:

When determining a suitable location and mounting for a compass in an aircraft, several factors must be
considered, including the following:
a) Position of Moving Steel Components:
 Explanation: Moving steel components, such as control cables, trim tabs, or movable seats,
can generate magnetic fields that may interfere with the compass's accuracy.
 Consideration: Position the compass away from areas where moving steel components are
located to minimize magnetic interference. Ensure a sufficient distance between the compass
and any moving steel parts to reduce the risk of compass deviation caused by magnetic fields
generated by these components.
b) Electrical Cables Carrying Uni-directional Electrical Currents:
 Explanation: Electrical cables carrying uni-directional electrical currents can produce
magnetic fields that may affect the compass's performance.

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  Consideration: Avoid routing electrical cables carrying uni-directional currents near the
compass location. If unavoidable, ensure that the cables are positioned at a sufficient distance
from the compass to minimize magnetic interference. Consider using shielding or insulation
to reduce the impact of magnetic fields generated by electrical currents on the compass.
c) Distance in Feet Away from Electrical Cables:
 Explanation: The distance between the compass and electrical cables carrying current is
crucial in minimizing magnetic interference.
 Consideration: Maintain a safe distance between the compass and electrical cables carrying
current. Consult aircraft manuals or guidelines provided by regulatory authorities to
determine the recommended distance. Ensure that the compass location complies with these
distance requirements to prevent magnetic interference and ensure accurate navigation.
d) Generation of Magnetic Fields Caused by Electrical Current Passing Through Aircraft
Structure and Instrument Mounts:
 Explanation: Electrical current passing through aircraft structure and instrument mounts can
generate magnetic fields that may interfere with the compass.
 Consideration: Choose a location for the compass that minimizes exposure to magnetic
fields generated by electrical currents. Avoid mounting the compass near areas where
electrical currents pass through the aircraft structure or instrument mounts. Consider
shielding or isolating the compass to reduce the impact of magnetic fields generated by
electrical currents on its accuracy.
e) Effects of Modifications to Electrical, Instrument, and Radio Systems:
 Explanation: Modifications to electrical, instrument, and radio systems in the aircraft can
alter the magnetic environment and potentially affect compass performance.
 Consideration: Evaluate the effects of any modifications to electrical, instrument, and radio
systems on the magnetic environment of the aircraft. Ensure that the compass location is
unaffected by these modifications and remains in a position that provides accurate and
reliable navigation. Conduct thorough testing and validation to verify compass performance
after any modifications are made to the aircraft systems.

By carefully considering these factors, aircraft designers and operators can determine a suitable
location and mounting for the compass that ensures accurate and reliable navigation while
minimizing the risk of magnetic interference from various sources within the aircraft.

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