Activity 1

OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED

To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wires (8), nails, white paper, glue etc.
R = {(l, m) : l ⊥ m} is symmetric but
neither reflexive nor transitive.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood and paste a white paper on it. Fix the wires randomly
on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of them are parallel,
some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined as shown in
Fig.1.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4. [see Fig. 1]
 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l1, l2), (l1, l3), (l1, l4), (l6, l7) ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 1, no line is perpendicular to itself, so the relation
R = {( l, m) : l ⊥ m} ______ reflexive (is/is not).
2. In Fig. 1, l1 ⊥ l2 . Is l2 ⊥ l1 ? ______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l1, l2) ∈ R ⇒ ( l2, l1) ______ R (∉/∈)

Similarly, l3 ⊥ l1 . Is l1 ⊥ l3? _______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l3, l1) ∈ R ⇒ ( l1, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)

Also, l6 ⊥ l7. Is l7 ⊥ l6? _______ (Yes/No)

∴ ( l6, l7) ∈ R ⇒ ( l7, l6) ______ R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R .... symmetric (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 1, l2 ⊥ l1 and l1⊥ l3 . Is l2 ⊥ l3? ... (Yes/No)

i.e., (l2, l1) ∈ R and (l1 , l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l3) ______ R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R .... transitive (is/is not).

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity can be used to check whether a 1. In this case, the relation is
given relation is an equivalence relation or not an equivalence relation.
not. 2. The activity can be repeated
by taking some more wire in
different positions.

102 Laboratory Manual

Activity 2
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).
 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8), ∈ R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2
l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∉/∈)
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l4, l3) ... R (∉/∈)
and (l5, l8) ∈ R ⇒ (l8, l5) ... R (∉/∈)

∴ The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3) ∈ R and (l3, l4) ∈ R ⇒ (l2, l4) ... R (∈/∉)

Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4) ∈ R, (l4, l2) ∈ R ⇒ (l3, l2) ... R (∈,∉)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.

104 Laboratory Manual

Activity 6
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To explore the principal value of Cardboard, white chart paper, rails,
the function sin–1x using a unit ruler, adhesive, steel wires and
circle. needle.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white chart paper on it.
2. Draw a unit circle with centre O on it.
3. Through the centre of the circle, draw two perpendicular lines X′OX and
YOY′ representing x-axis and y-axis, respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
4. Mark the points A, C, B and D, where the circle cuts the x-axis and y-axis,
respectively as shown in Fig. 6.1.
5. Fix two rails on opposite
sides of the cardboard
which are parallel to
y-axis. Fix one steel wire
between the rails such
that the wire can be
moved parallel to x-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.2.
 6. Take a needle of unit
length. Fix one end of
it at the centre of the
circle and the other
end to move freely
along the circle
Fig. 6.2.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Keep the needle at an
arbitrary angle, say x1
with the positive direction of x-axis. Measure of angle in radian is equal to
the length of intercepted arc of the unit circle.
2. Slide the steel wire between the rails, parallel to x-axis such that the wire
meets with free end of the needle (say P1) (Fig. 6.2).
3. Denote the y-coordinate of the point P1 as y1, where y1 is the perpendicular
distance of steel wire from the x-axis of the unit circle giving y1 = sin x1.
4. Rotate the needle further anticlockwise and keep it at the angle π – x1. Find
the value of y-coordinate of intersecting point P2 with the help of sliding
steel wire. Value of y-coordinate for the points P1 and P2 are same for the
different value of angles, y1 = sinx1 and y1 = sin (π – x1). This demonstrates
that sine function is not one-to-one for angles considered in first and second
quadrants.
5. Keep the needle at angles – x1 and (– π + x1), respectively. By sliding down
the steel wire parallel to x-axis, demonstrate that y-coordinate for the points
P3 and P4 are the same and thus sine function is not one-to-one for points
considered in 3rd and 4th quadrants as shown in Fig. 6.2.

Mathematics 113
 6. However, the y-coordinate
of the points P3 and P1 are
different. Move the needle
in anticlockwise direction
π π
starting from − to and
2 2
look at the behaviour of
y-coordinates of points P5,
P6, P7 and P8 by sliding the
steel wire parallel to
x-axis accordingly. y-co-
ordinate of points P5, P6, P7
and P8 are different (see
Fig. 6.3). Hence, sine
function is one-to-one in
 π π
the domian  − ,  and its range lies between – 1 and 1.
 2 2

 π π
7. Keep the needle at any arbitrary angle say θ lying in the interval  − , 
 2 2
and denote the y-coordi-
nate of the intersecting
point P9 as y. (see Fig. 6.4).
Then y = sin θ or θ = arc
sin–1y) as sine function is
one-one and onto in the
 π π
domain  − 2 , 2  and
range [–1, 1]. So, its
inverse arc sine function
exist. The domain of arc
sine function is [–1, 1] and
Fig. 6.4

114 Laboratory Manual

  π π
range is  − ,  . This range is called the principal value of arc sine
 2 2
function (or sin–1 function).

OBSERVATION
1. sine function is non-negative in _________ and __________ quadrants.
2. For the quadrants 3rd and 4th, sine function is _________.
π
3. θ = arc sin y ⇒ y = ________ θ where − ≤ θ ≤ ________.
2
4. The other domains of sine function on which it is one-one and onto provides
_________ for arc sine function.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used for finding the principal value of arc cosine function
(cos –1y).

Mathematics 115
Activity 7
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To sketch the graphs of ax and logax, Drawing board, geometrical instru-
a > 0, a ≠ 1 and to examine that they ments, drawing pins, thin wires,
are mirror images of each other. sketch pens, thick white paper,
adhesive, pencil, eraser, a plane
mirror, squared paper.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. On the drawing board, fix a thick paper sheet of convenient size 20 cm × 20 cm
(say) with adhesive.

Fig. 7
 2. On the sheet, take two perpendicular lines XOX′ and YOY′, depicting
coordinate axes.
3. Mark graduations on the two axes as shown in the Fig. 7.
4. Find some ordered pairs satisfying y = ax and y = logax. Plot these points
corresponding to the ordered pairs and join them by free hand curves in
both the cases. Fix thin wires along these curves using drawing pins.
5. Draw the graph of y = x, and fix a wire along the graph, using drawing pins.

DEMONSTRATION
1. For ax, take a = 2 (say), and find ordered pairs satisfying it as

1 1
x 0 1 –1 2 –2 3 –3 – 4
2 2

1 1
2x 1 2 0.5 4 8 1.4 0.7 16
4 8

and plot these ordered pairs on the squared paper and fix a drawing pin at
each point.
2. Join the bases of drawing pins with a thin wire. This will represent the graph
of 2x.
3. log2x = y gives x = 2 y . Some ordered pairs satisfying it are:

1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
2 4 8

y 0 1 –1 2 –2 3 –3

Plot these ordered pairs on the squared paper (graph paper) and fix a drawing
pin at each plotted point. Join the bases of the drawing pins with a thin wire.
This will represent the graph of log2x.

Mathematics 117
 4. Draw the graph of line y = x on the sheet.
5. Place a mirror along the wire representing y = x. It can be seen that the two
graphs of the given functions are mirror images of each other in the line y = x.

OBSERVATION
1. Image of ordered pair (1, 2) on the graph of y = 2x in y = x is ______. It lies
on the graph of y = _______.
2. Image of the point (4, 2) on the graph y = log2x in y = x is _________ which
lies on the graph of y = _______.

Repeat this process for some more points lying on the two graphs.

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of (exponential and
logarithmic functions) which are mirror images of each other in y = x.

118 Laboratory Manual

Activity 9
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

 x 2 – 16 
 , x ≠ 4
1. Consider the function given by f ( x) =  x – 4 
 10, x = 4 


2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.

DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:

Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999

f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A ∩ B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36
taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A ∩ Β) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A ∩ B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : _________, n (A) = _________.
2. Outcomes favourable to B : _________, n (B) = _________.
3. Outcomes favourable to A ∩ B : _________, n (A ∩ B) = _________.
4. P (A ∩ B) = _________.
5. P (A | B) = _________ = _________.

APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.

Mathematics 175
 2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001

OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to ________, as x → 4 from the right.

3. So, lim f ( x ) = ________ and lim+ f ( x ) = ________.

x→ 4 x →4

4. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = ________ , f (4) = ________.

x →4

5. Is lim f ( x ) = f (4) ________ ? (Yes/No)

x →4

6. Since f ( c ) ≠ lim f ( x) , so, the function is ________ at x = 4 (continuous/

x →c
not continuous).

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a point.

Mathematics 123
Activity 13
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of Pieces of wire of different lengths,
decreasing and increasing functions. piece of plywood of suitable size,
white paper, adhesive, geometry
box, trigonometric tables.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires of length say 20 cm each and fix them on the white
paper to represent x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take two more pieces of wire each of suitable length and bend them in the
shape of curves representing two functions and fix them on the paper as
shown in the Fig. 13.

4. Take two straight wires each of suitable length for the purpose of showing
tangents to the curves at different points on them.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that it is
 tangent to the curve at the point say P1 and making an angle α1 with the
positive direction of x-axis.
2. α1 is an obtuse angle, so tanα1 is negative, i.e., the slope of the tangent at P1
(derivative of the function at P1) is negative.
3. Take another two points say P2 and P3 on the same curve, and make tangents,
using the same wire, at P2 and P3 making angles α2 and α3, respectively with
the positive direction of x-axis.
4. Here again α2 and α3 are obtuse angles and therefore slopes of the tangents
tan α2 and tan α3 are both negative, i.e., derivatives of the function at P2 and
P3 are negative.
5. The function given by the curve (on the left) is a decreasing function.
6. On the curve (on the right), take three point Q1, Q2, Q3, and using the other
straight wires, form tangents at each of these points making angles β1, β2,
β3, respectively with the positive direction of x-axis, as shown in the figure.
β1, β2, β3 are all acute angles.
So, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive. Thus, the
function given by this curve (on the right) is an increasing function.

OBSERVATION
1. α1 = _______ , > 90° α2 = _______ > _______, α3 = _______> _______,
tan α1 = _______, (negative) tan α2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan α3 =
_______, ( _______). Thus the function is _______.
2. β1 = _______< 90°, β2 = _______, < _______, β3 = _______ , < _______

tan β1 = _______ , (positive), tan β2 = _______, ( _______ ), tan β3 =

_______( _______ ). Thus, the function is _______.

APPLICATION
This activity may be useful in explaining the concepts of decreasing and
increasing functions.

Mathematics 133
Activity 14
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To understand the concepts of local A piece of plywood, wires,
maxima, local minima and point of adhesive, white paper.
inflection.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a piece of plywood of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Take two pieces of wires each of length 40 cm and fix them on the paper on
plywood in the form of x-axis and y-axis.
3. Take another wire of suitable length and bend it in the shape of curve. Fix
this curved wire on the white paper pasted on plywood, as shown in Fig. 14.
 4. Take five more wires each of length say 2 cm and fix them at the points A, C,
B, P and D as shown in figure.

DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, wires at the points A, B, C and D represent tangents to the
curve and are parallel to the axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are
zero, i.e., the value of the first derivative at these points is zero. The tangent
at P intersects the curve.
2. At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to
positive. So, they are the points of local minima.
3. At the point C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to
negative. So, they are the points of local maxima.
4. At the point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of
inflection.

OBSERVATION
1. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate left of A is _______.
2. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate right of A is_______.
3. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of B is _______.
4. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of B is _______.
5. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of C is _______.
6. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of C is _______.
7. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of D is _______.

Mathematics 135
 8. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of D is _______.
9. Sign of the first derivative at a point immediate left of P is _______ and
immediate right of P is_______.
10. A and B are points of local _______.
11. C and D are points of local _______.
12. P is a point of _______.

APPLICATION
1. This activity may help in explaining the concepts of points of local maxima,
local minima and inflection.
2. The concepts of maxima/minima are useful in problems of daily life such
as making of packages of maximum capacity at minimum cost.

136 Laboratory Manual

Activity 19
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To evaluate the definite integral Cardboard, white paper, scale,
b pencil, graph paper
∫a (1 − x 2 ) dx as the limit of a sum and
verify it by actual integration.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of a convenient size and paste a white paper on it.
2. Draw two perpendicular lines to represent coordinate axes XOX′ and YOY′.
3. Draw a quadrant of a circle with O as centre and radius 1 unit (10 cm) as
shown in Fig.19.

The curve in the 1st quadrant represents the graph of the function 1 − x 2 in the
interval [0, 1].
DEMONSTRATION
1. Let origin O be denoted by P0 and the points where the curve meets the
x-axis and y-axis be denoted by P10 and Q, respectively.
2. Divide P0P10 into 10 equal parts with points of division as, P1, P2, P3, ..., P9.
3. From each of the points, Pi , i = 1, 2, ..., 9 draw perpendiculars on the x-axis
to meet the curve at the points, Q1, Q2, Q3 ,..., Q9. Measure the lengths of
P0Q0, P1 Q1, ..., P9Q9 and call them as y0, y1 , ..., y9 whereas width of each part,
P0P1, P1P2, ..., is 0.1 units.
4. y0 = P0Q0 = 1 units
y1 = P1Q1 = 0.99 units
y2 = P2Q2 = 0.97 units
y3 = P3Q3 = 0.95 units
y4 = P4Q4 = 0.92 units
y5 = P5Q5 = 0.87 units
y6 = P6Q6 = 0.8 units
y7 = P7Q7 = 0.71 units
y8 = P8Q8 = 0.6 units
y9 = P9Q9 = 0.43 units
y10 = P10Q10 = which is very small near to 0.

5. Area of the quadrant of the circle (area bounded by the curve and the two
axis) = sum of the areas of trapeziums.

(1 + 0.99 ) + ( 0.99 + 0.97 ) + ( 0.97 + 0.95 ) + ( 0.95 + 0.92 ) 

1  
= × 0.1  + (0.92 + 0.87) + (0.87 + 0.8) + (0.8 + 0.71) + (0.71+ 0.6) 
2  + (0.6 + 0.43) + (0.43) 
 

Mathematics 151
 = 0.1 [0.5 + 0.99 + 0.97 + 0.95 + 0.92 + 0.87 + 0.80 + 0.71 + 0.60 + 0.43]

= 0.1 × 7.74 = 0.774 sq. units.(approx.)

1
6. Definite integral = ∫0 1 – x 2 dx

1
 x 1 – x2 1  1 π 3.14
= + sin −1 x  = × = = 0.785sq.units
 2 2  0 2 2 4

Thus, the area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum is nearly the same as area
obtained by actual integration.

OBSERVATION
1. Function representing the arc of the quadrant of the circle is y = ______.
1

2. Area of the quadrant of a circle with radius 1 unit = ∫ 1– x 2 dx = ________.

0

sq. units
3. Area of the quadrant as a limit of a sum = _______ sq. units.
4. The two areas are nearly _________.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the
concept of area bounded by a curve. This
activity can also be applied to find the
approximate value of π.
NOTE
Demonstrate the same activity
by drawing the circle x2 + y2 = 9
and find the area between x = 1
and x = 2.

152 Laboratory Manual

Activity 20
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify geometrically that Geometry box, cardboard, white
paper, cutter, sketch pen, cellotape.
( )








c× a + b = c× a + c×b

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Fix a white paper on the cardboard.
2. Draw a line segment OA (= 6 cm, say) and let it represent c .

3. Draw another line segment OB (= 4 cm, say) at an angle (say 60°) with OA.



Let OB = a
 



4. Draw BC (= 3 cm, say) making an angle (say 30°) with OA . Let BC = b
5. Draw perpendiculars BM, CL and BN.
6. Complete parallelograms OAPC, OAQB and BQPC.

DEMONSTRATION






1. OC = OB +BC = a + b , and let ∠COA = α .

( )







2. c × a + b = c a + b sin α = area of parallelogram OAPC.

3. c × a = area of parallelogram OAQB.



4. c × b = area of parallelogram BQPC.

5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)

= (OA) (LN + NC) = (OA) (BM + NC)

= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)

= Area of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram BQPC




= c+a + c × b

So, c × ( a + b ) = c × b + c × b

Direction of each of these vectors c × (a + b ), c × a and c × b is perpendicular
to the same plane.








So, c × (a + b ) = c × a + c × b.

154 Laboratory Manual

OBSERVATION



c = OA = OA = _______



a + b = OC = OC = ______

CL = ______




c × ( a + b) = Area of parallelogram OAPC

= (OA) (CL) = _____________ sq. units (i)

c × a = Area of parallelogram OAQB

= (OA) (BM) = _____ × _____ = ______ (ii)

c × b = Area of parallelogram BQPC

= (OA) (CN) = _____ × _____ = ______ (iii)

From (i), (ii) and (iii),

Area of parallelogram OAPC = Area of parallelgram OAQB + Area of

Parallelgram ________.





Thus c × (a + b | = c × a + c × b

( )








c × a, c × b and c × a + b are all in the direction of _______ to the plane
of paper.

( )






Therefore c × a + b = c × a + ________.

Mathematics 155
APPLICATION
Through the activity, distributive property of vector multiplication over addition
can be explained.

NOTE
This activity can also be per-
formed by taking rectangles
instead of parallelograms.

156 Laboratory Manual

Activity 27
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To explain the computation of A piece of plywood, white paper
conditional probability of a given pen/pencil, scale, a pair of dice.
event A, when event B has already
occurred, through an example of
throwing a pair of dice.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a white paper on a piece of plywood of a convenient size.
2. Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares of size 1cm each
(see Fig. 27).
3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure.

Fig. 27
DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A ∩ B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36
taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A ∩ Β) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A ∩ B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : _________, n (A) = _________.
2. Outcomes favourable to B : _________, n (B) = _________.
3. Outcomes favourable to A ∩ B : _________, n (A ∩ B) = _________.
4. P (A ∩ B) = _________.
5. P (A | B) = _________ = _________.

APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.

Mathematics 175