QUIZ MS102

Welding Engineering
Lucas Montogue

PROBLEMS
▐ Problem 1
For better resistance welding, a metal must have:
P. High electrical resistivity and low melting point.
Q. High thermal conductivity.
R. High electrical resistivity and high melting point.
S. Low thermal conductivity.
A) P, Q
B) P, S
C) R, Q
D) R, S

▐ Problem 2
Consider the following welding processes. The width of the heat-affected
zone in decreasing order is:
𝛂𝛂. Laser beam welding.
𝛃𝛃. Submerged arc welding.
𝛄𝛄. Gas metal arc welding.
A) α > β > γ
B) γ > α > β
C) β > γ > α
D) α > γ > β

▐ Problem 3
A sheet of steel 1.0-mm thick are to be spot welded. In an ordinary spot
welding machine, labeled process 1, a current of 10,000 A is applied in 0.1 second,
while with a capacitor discharge power source, labeled process 2, a current of
30,000 A is applied for 0.005 seconds. Assume that the fusion zone of the weld is a
cylinder of 7 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. Assume an effective resistance of
100 μΩ. Which of the following is true? Take 8.36 × 10-3 g/mm³ as the density of
steel and suppose that 1380 J is necessary to melt 1 g of this metal.
A) Both processes would supply enough heat to weld the sheet.
B) Process 1 would supply enough heat to weld the sheet, whereas process 2 would
not.
C) Process 2 would supply enough heat to weld the sheet, whereas process 1 would
not.
D) Both processes would not supply enough heat to weld the sheet.

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▐ Problem 4
Suppose an arc weld is made on an alloyed steel with a melting
temperature of 1460oC. The voltage and current in the device are 25 V and 250 A,
respectively. The travel velocity is 8 mm/s, the heat transfer efficiency is 90%, and
the melting efficiency is 30%. Determine the total weld metal cross-section melted
in the process.
A) 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 = 21.1 mm²
B) 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 = 30.9 mm²
C) 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 = 44.5 mm²
D) 𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 = 56.0 mm²

▐ Problem 5
Calculate the heat transfer efficiency for an arc welding of metal with a
current of 200 A at 20 V. The travel speed is 8 mm/s, and cross-sectional area of
the joint is 18 mm². The heat required to melt the metal is 5.6 J/mm³ and the
melting efficiency is 28%. With reference to the following table, answer: what
welding process is being used in this case?

Process Transfer Efficiency

Oxyfuel gas (low combustion intensity fuel) 0.25 – 0.50
Gas tungsten arc (low-current DCSP mode) 0.40 – 0.60
Plasma arc (melt-in mode) 0.70 – 0.85
Electron beam (keyhole mode) 0.85 – 0.95

A) Oxyfuel gas.
B) Gas tungsten arc.
C) Plasma arc.
D) Electron beam.

▐ Problem 6
Regarding aspects of welding engineering, true or false?
1.( ) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a process known for its versatility, as it
involves relatively cheap equipment and can be used with either DC or AC power
supplies. Another asset is the possibility of conducting the weld in horizontal,
inclined, or vertical positions.
2.( ) Shield metal arc welding is especially useful for welding metals with low
melting and boiling temperatures such as lead, tin, and their alloys, since the low
heat of the SMAW arc – in contrast to, say, GTAW – does not cause these
materials to vaporize from the solid state.
3.( ) One of the advantages of gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) over shielded
metal arc welding is the high degree of protection achieved with a shielding gas
directed toward the weld pool. In view of this feature, GTAW is sometimes called
tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. Since, however, a noninert gas such as carbon
dioxide is deliberately added to the shielding gas mixture in some applications, the
designation GTAW is a better choice.
4.( ) The flux cored arc welding technique is a welding process that uses an arc
between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used
with shielding from the atmosphere in the form of the gases generated in the weld
pool (self-shielded FCAW) or with a mixture of inert gases (gas-shielded FCAW). The
inherent superiority of gas-shielded FCAW in terms of protection against
contamination has led to the near abandonment of self-shielded FCAW since the
early 1990s.
5.( ) The submerged arc weldng (SAW) method is one of the most productive
welding techniques available; the efficiency of the process can be as high as 90%
and the deposition rates can be as large as 45 kg per hour. On the other hand,
limitations of this technique include its restriction to welding in thick parts
(necessarily thicker than 1.5 mm), the inability to use more than a single electrode
at a time, and the fact that the welding must be carried out in a flat or horizontal
position.

6.( ) Electroslag welding is a highly efficient technique and can achieve extremely
high deposition rates, usually in no more than two or three passes. Its main
drawbacks include the relatively high angular distortion when compared to arc
welding processes and the fact that, much like SAW, welding is restricted to a
horizontal or flat position.

7.( ) Although the use of oxyfuel gas welding has been surpassed by the arc
welding processes in most applications, oxyacethylene gas welding remains popular
because it is versatile, portable, and inexpensive. In addition, the process is

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applicable to a wide range of metals, including reactive metals, refractory metals,
and many steels (such as low-alloy steels and high-strength, heat-treatable steels).

8.( ) One of the main drawbacks of plasma arc welding (PAW) is the fact that the
contact between the electrode and the workpiece may cause impurities of the ionic
gas and electrode metal to infiltrate the weld, much like tungsten electrode
contamination in GTAW.
9.( ) The laser welding of aluminum alloys is made difficult because of its low
absorption coefficient. In this case, a YAG laser has a slight advantage compared to
the CO2 laser because of its lower wavelength, which allows for better radiation
absorption.
10.( ) Continuous-voltage power supplies are particularly suitable for constantly
fed continuous electrode processes such as GMAW and SAW. In a CV setting, a
slight change in arc length leads to a large change in current, so melting rate
changes rapidly in response. This has the effect of self-regulation, increasing the
melting rate as arc length is inadvertently shortened, and vice versa. An even better
control of process variables is attained if the voltage supply is short-circuited.

11.( ) Either AC or DC current patterns can be employed with shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), and each type presents advantages and disadvantages. With
small-diameter electrodes and low welding currents, AC provides better operating
characteristics and a more stable arc. In addition, an AC source allows for easier arc
initiation and presents a lower risk of arc blow.

12.( ) Molten (or hot, solid) metal can be protected from adverse reactions with
gases in the atmosphere (particularly oxygen and nitrogen) by excluding those
gases. One of the most common and simplest methods is to displace atmospheric
gases with inert gases. The two most common choices are helium, argon, or a
mixture of both. Helium is superior to argon because it is heavier than air, and as
such is easily maintained on the work during the welding procedure. Furthermore,
helium has a higher ionization potential than argon.

13.( ) All arc welding, electron beam, laser beam, resistance, and friction welding
processes can be readily used to join stainless steels. Gas metal arc, gas tungsten
arc, flux cored arc, and shielded metal arc welding are commonly used. Submerged
arc welding also offers significant benefits for stainless steel, such as greater
productivity and extremely low spatter levels. Benefits associated with use of SAW
on stainless steel include advanced control of the chemical composition of the weld
and, due to the combination of high heat input and stainless steel’s low thermal
expansion, formation of a mechanically outstanding microstructure.
14.( ) Preheating is generally avoided in the preparation of base metals for welding
because it tends to raise shrinkage stresses and hence leads to cracking and
distortion. In addition, preheating slows the cooling rate of the finished weld, with
the result that the welding process duration and the hardness of the HAZ are both
increased.
15.( ) One way to reduce the incidence of solidification cracking in a weld is to give
preference to low linear heat input processes such as PAW and LBW and, if possible,
appeal to grain refining agents (e.g., titanium and zirconium in the case of Al).

16.( ) The basicity index is used to assess the chemistry of weld fluxes in
applications such as SAW. Chemically basic fluxes are normally high in manganese
oxide (MgO) or calcium hydroxide (CaO) while chemically acid fluxes are normally
high in silicon dioxide (SiO2). A weld flux with basicity index lower than 1.0 is
considered acidic.
17.( ) Weld hydrogen content can be reduced in several ways, including, for
example, eschewing hydrogen-containing inert gases and cellulose-type electrode
coverings. Controlling the composition of inert gases is another alternative. The
following figure, for instance, illustrates the effect of shielding gases on weld metal
hydrogen content for GMAW (figure a) and FCAW (figure b). With reference to these
graphs, we surmise that the effect of adding CO2 to shielding gases is to decrease
the weld diffusible hydrogen.

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▐ Problem 7 (Khan, 2007, w/ permission)
Suppose we wish to estimate the transverse shrinkage of the butt joint
illustrated below. Given the empirical factor 𝑘𝑘 = 0.2, the transverse shrinkage of the
weld is most nearly:

A) Δ = 0.812 mm
B) Δ = 1.25 mm
C) Δ = 1.81 mm
D) Δ = 2.43 mm

▐ Problem 8
The maximum temperature attained in a thick sheet welding, considering
two-dimensional flow of heat in a section perpendicular to the welding section,
obeys which of the following proportions? Let 𝑟𝑟 denote the distance to the fusion
line.
A) 𝑇𝑇max ∝ 𝑟𝑟 −1
B) 𝑇𝑇max ∝ 𝑟𝑟 −2
C) 𝑇𝑇max ∝ 𝑟𝑟 −3
D) 𝑇𝑇max ∝ 𝑟𝑟 −4

▐ Problem 9 (Khan, 2007, w/ permission)

The following parameters were obtained for a single-pass, full-penetration
butt weld.

 Initial temperature of the weldment: 30oC

 Thickness of the base material: 6 mm
 Melting temperature of the base material: 1530oC
 Volume thermal capacity of the base material (steel): 0.0044 J/mm³oC
 Net heat input: 700 J/mm
Determine the peak temperatures at distances of 3.0 and 6.0 mm from the
weld fusion boundary.

A) 𝑇𝑇p,3 = 912oC and 𝑇𝑇p,6 = 654oC

B) 𝑇𝑇p,3 = 912oC and 𝑇𝑇p,6 = 807oC
C) 𝑇𝑇p,3 = 1050oC and 𝑇𝑇p,6 = 654oC
D) 𝑇𝑇p,3 = 1050oC and 𝑇𝑇p,6 = 807oC

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▐ Problem 10 (Khan, 2007, w/ permission)
Find the highest welding speed to be used for the welding of 6 mm steel
plates with an ambient temperature of 30oC with the welding transformer set at 20
V and current passing is 320 A. The arc efficiency is 0.9 and possible travel speeds
are 7 to 10 mm/s. The limiting cooling rate for satisfactory performance is 7.5oC/s
at a temperature of 500oC. Assume the volume thermal capacity of steel to be 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝
= 0.0044 J/mmoC. Take 𝑘𝑘 = 0.028 J/mm-s-oC as the thermal conductivity of steel.
A) 𝑣𝑣max = 10 mm/s
B) 𝑣𝑣max = 9 mm/s
C) 𝑣𝑣max = 8 mm/s
D) 𝑣𝑣max = 7 mm/s

▐ Problem 11 (Khan, 2007, w/ permission)

In a butt welding process using arc welding, the arc power was found to be
2.4 kVA. The process is used to weld 2 steel plates each 3 mm thick, with 60o V-
edge preparation angle, as shown. Determine the maximum possible welding speed.
The metal transfer is short-circuit type and the arc is on for 90% of the time given.
Take 1530oC as the melting point of steel and 30oC as room temperature. Also, use
𝑘𝑘 = 40 W/moC and 𝛼𝛼 = 1.2 × 10-5 m2/s as the thermal conductivity and thermal
diffusivity, respectively.

A) 𝑉𝑉 = 0.565 m/min
B) 𝑉𝑉 = 1.08 m/min
C) 𝑉𝑉 = 1.56 m/min
D) 𝑉𝑉 = 2.11 m/min

▐ Problem 12
Match the suitability of non-destructive testing methods in Group I with
the defects that can be detected listed in Group II.

Group I Group II
P. Magnetic Particle 1. Surface crack in martensitic
Inspection stainless steels
Q. X-Ray Radiography 2. Surface crack in austenitic stainless steels
R. Dye Penetrant Test 3. Hairline crack in aluminum
S. Ultrasonic Testing 4. Inclusions in steels

A) P-2, Q-4, R-3, S-1

B) P-4, Q-2, R-1, S-3
C) P-3, Q-1, R-2, S-4
D) P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3

▐ Problem 13
In a nondestructive evaluation of a weld by radiography, an exposure of 6.5
mA-minutes was associated with a transmittance of 0.01. Determine the exposure
that will produce a film density of 3.0.
A) 𝐸𝐸 = 7.35 mA-min
B) 𝐸𝐸 = 8.21 mA-min
C) 𝐸𝐸 = 9.75 mA-min
D) 𝐸𝐸 = 10.8 mA-min

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▐ Problem 14
Regarding nondestructive testing methods, true or false?

1.( ) Liquid penetrant NDT is a sensitive method for detecting discontinuities

provided they are clean and open to the surface. However, the method should not
be used with exceedingly porous surfaces.

2.( ) The main limitations of ultrasonic NDT are the impossibility of producing and a
permanent record of the weld assessment and, perhaps more importantly, the
inherent safety hazard posed by the high-frequency ultrasonic waves produced in
the process.

3.( ) One of the advantages of gamma ray radiography NDT is the possibility of
adjusting the wavelength, and therefore the energy output, in accordance with the
depth of the weld to be inspected.

4.( ) One of the main advantages of eddy current NDT is the possibility of detecting
deep flaws in the metal, especially in low-electric-conductivity metals such as
stainless steel.

5.( ) Magnetic particle NDT is based on the principle that magnetic lines of force
will be distorted by a change in material continuity. Unlike liquid penetrants,
magnetic particle can detect some near surface discontinuities. However, the
method is restricted to ferromagnetic materials.

SOLUTIONS
P.1 ■ Solution
High-electrical-resistivity metals require lower currents to produce the
large amounts of heat associated with welding. A low melting point allows the
engineer to liquefy the metal more easily. In addition, materials with low thermal
conductivity allow heat to be contained in a small area (the HAZ) rather than being
conducted away from the welding surface. Accordingly, the best combination of
properties is P, S.
♦ The correct answer is B.

P.2 ■ Solution
Submerged arc welding produces the largest HAZ, whereas laser beam
welding, with its inherent precision, produces the smallest. Gas metal arc welding
produces intermediate results.
♦ The correct answer is C.
P.3 ■ Solution
The heat generated by a resistance welding process such as the present one
is, for process 1,

H = I 2 × R × t → H1 = 10, 0002 × (100 ×10−6 ) × 0.1

1000 J
∴ H1 =
whereas for process 2,

H=
2 30, 0002 × (100 ×10−6 ) × 0.005
450 J
∴ H2 =
The mass of metal melted is

π 
m = Volume × Density =  × 7 2 ×1.5  × ( 8.36 ×10−3 ) = 0.483 g
4 
The amount of heat required to melt this amount of steel is

1g 0.483 g
= →
= Q 667 J
1380 J Q

Accordingly, process 1 supplies enough heat to melt the steel, but process
2 does not.

♦ The correct answer is B.

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P.4 ■ Solution
The solution is started by computing the theoretical heat required to melt a
given volume of metal, which, given 𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = 1460oC, can be approximated as

(=
Tm + 273) (1460 + 273)
2 2

=Q = 10.0 J/mm3
300, 000 300, 000
The cross-section of metal melted in the process follows as

f1 f 2 EI 0.9 × 0.3 × 250 × 25

=Aw = = 21.1 mm 2
QV 10 × 8

♦ The correct answer is A.

P.5 ■ Solution
The heat input is given by

f1 f 2 EI
H=
v
Here, the volume of base metal melted in each second is 8 × 18 = 144
mm³/s and the heat required for melting is 𝐻𝐻 = 5.6 × 144 = 806 J. Solving for the
heat transfer efficiency 𝑓𝑓1 and substituting, we obtain

f1 f 2VI Hv
H
= f1
→=
v f 2VI
806
=∴ f1 = 0.720
0.85 × 20 × 200
Since 𝑓𝑓1 ∈ (0.70; 0.85), we surmise that the weld is being executed with the
plasma arc method.

♦ The correct answer is C.

P.6 ■ Solution
1. True. All the characteristics of SMAW mentioned in the statement are
valid. Indeed, SMAW is considered one of the most versatile welding techniques. It
is suitable for the welding of both low and high alloy steel, iron, and nonferrous
materials such as copper and nickel.

2. False. The heat of the SMAW arc is quite high – especially if the
electrode is too long or the current is too high – and can in fact produce the
immediate vaporization of metals with low phase transition temperatures such as
lead, tin, and zinc. In addition, SMAW should not be used with reactive metals (e.g.,
titanium and zirconium) and refractory metals (e.g., niobium and tantalum) because
the shielding provided is not sufficient to prevent weld contamination. The most
extensively used technique for welding of reactive and refractory materials is gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW).

3. True. In addition to the most usual choices of inert gases – namely,

helium and argon – some noninert gases such as pure nitrogen (N2) and pure carbon
dioxide (CO2) are sometimes added to the shielding gas mixture. These gases are
introduced to improve some characteristic of the arc or weld pool, including heat
intensity (from effects on ionization potential of the mixture); globular-to-spray
transfer transition current (e.g. by using CO2); and weld pool fluidity (as affected by
surface-activating agents such as oxygen). The choice of gas is, among other
requirements, dependent on the possibility of unwanted chemical interactions
between the gas and the metal (for instance, CO2 might react with steel to cause a
degree of carburization, while N2 might react to cause nitride formation in
aluminum).

Albeit being relatively inactive at room temperature, carbon dioxide

decomposes into carbon monoxide and oxygen when heated to arc temperature,

2 CO 2 → 2CO + O 2

In the case of steel, molten iron reacts with CO2 and produces iron oxide and
carbon monoxide according to the reaction

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 Fe + CO 2  FeO + CO
At red heat temperatures, some of the carbon monoxide dissociates to
carbon and oxygen, as follows,
2 CO  2 C + O 2
In short, carbon dioxide, as applied in welding engineering, is anything but an
inert gas.

4. False. FCAW has not at all been rejected in modern welding engineering
practice. In fact, there are application contexts in which it offers superior protection
against contamination, including many instances of field welding. The protection
comes in the form of an inert gas (gas-shielded FCAW) or the electrode itself (self-
shielded FCAW). In the case of the latter, the high-temperature decomposition of
some of the electrode core ingredients provides an excellent degree of protection.
In addition, the wire contains a large proportion of scavengers (deoxidizers and
denitrifiers) that combine with undesirable elements that might contaminate the
weld pool. A slag cover protects the metal from the air surrounding the weld.

5. False. While it is true that SAW is usually used to weld thick parts, there
is nothing that hinders its application on thinner materials. Further, the process can
in fact be carried out with multiple electrodes (as much as five in some applications,
including with combinations of DC and AC power supplies). The statement is correct
when it mentions that SAW is traditionally restricted to horizontal welds, even
though companies and universities have since began devising adaptations for other
directional configurations – see, for example, Sakamoto and Kobayashi (2012).

6. False. The statement is entirely wrong. For starters, a weld obtained with
ESW must necessarily be carried out in a single pass. Because of the single-pass
welding and very high deposition rate, distortion is minimal when compared to arc
welding techniques under equivalent conditions. Lastly, electroslag welding is
restricted to the vertical position because of the very large pools of molten metal
and slag.

7. False. While it is true that oxyfuel welding is applicable to most metals,

its scope of application certainly does not include refractory materials, reactive
materials, and high-strength heat-treatable steels. In the latter case, welding
quenched and tempered steels with an oxyfuel flame, which has an inherently slow
heat input rate, may induce unwanted metallurgical changes in the HAZ and ruin
the microstructure achieved with prior heat treatment.

8. False. Since the electrode of the plasma arc torch is normally recessed
inside the arc-constricting nozzle, it is not possible for the electrode to touch the
workpiece. This feature greatly reduces the possibility of contaminating the weld
with electrode metal and damaging the electrode. In turn, tungsten electrode
contamination is a significant source of downtime in GTAW; this emphasizes a
major advantage of PAW. Plasma welding has several other advantages over
GTAW; for instance, the fact that the arc in plasma welds is constricted as it passes
through a small orifice gives greater directional stability to the process, whereas a
gas tungsten arc under the same conditions could be easily deflected by a low-
strength magnetic field.

9. True. Indeed, YAG lasers, which have wavelength ten times lower than
CO2 lasers, are known to produce reliable results in most metals. (On the other
hand, the small wavelength of YAG lasers inhibits its ability to be absorbed by
nonmetallic materials such as wood and plastics; CO2 lasers are a better choice for
organic materials.)

10. False. Indeed, CV power supplies allow for a fast control over process
variables. However, this is not true for short-circuited conditions. Short-circuiting
an electrode with such a power source would drop the arc length and the voltage to
zero; this causes the current to heat by Joule heating with great rapidity and
explosive force, causing severe spatter and, possibly, lengths of unmelted wire stuck
in the weld pool. To prevent this from occurring, impedance is built into such power
supplies to limit the rate of current change, thereby reducing the likelihood of
electrode overheating and explosion, and ultimately allowing short-circuiting
transfer to take place.

11. False. In reality, SMA welding with a short arc length (i.e., with a low arc
voltage) is better with a DC configuration, as it provides better operating
characteristics with a more stable arc. In addition, striking an arc is generally easier
with DC, particularly if small diameter electrodes are used. With AC, welding current
passes through zero during each half cycle, which requires periodic re-ignition of the
arc; this presents problems with arc starting and arc stability. Lastly, the statement

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is correct when it implies that arc blow is less of a problem with an AC power
supply, which is a reasonable conclusion given the fact that, with this equipment,
the magnetic field imparted with the current is constantly and continuously
reversing. In addition to reduced susceptibility to arc blow, the other main
advantage of DC power sources is cost: an AC transformer costs less than an
equivalent DC power source.

12. False. The density of helium is much lower than that of air, which makes
it difficult to maintain the gas on the work when the welding is being carried out.
Argon is sensibly heavier than air and hence can exclude air very effectively.
Nevertheless, it is true that helium has a higher ionization potential than argon,
since its two 1s2 electrons are more strongly confined to the atomic nucleus than
the 3p6 subshell of argon. This allows for the achievement of hotter arcs. Lastly, the
choice between the two gases is not necessarily a discrete one, as combinations of
both gases can be employed to achieve intermediate levels of arc heat or intensity,
lower cost, and better coverage than pure helium. Some of the properties of He and
Ar at room temperature are listed below.

Ionization
Molar Mass Specific Gravity with Density
Gas Potential
(g/mol) Respect to Air at 1 atm (g/L)
(eV)
He 4.00 0.137 0.178 24.5
Ar 39.95 1.38 1.784 15.7

13. False. Due to the effect of voltage variations, control of the chemical
composition of the weld is in general not a feature of submerged arc welding.
Furthermore, the high heat input, slow solidification of the weld metal, stainless
steel’s low thermal conductivity and propensity to thermal expansion of stainless
steel make for terrible microstructural results, including large grain size, low
toughness, and greater sensitivity to distortion when the material is welded. Ferrite
contents of at least 4% are nearly inevitable. Because of low thermal conductivity
and high electric resistivity, stainless steel requires 20 to 30% less heat input than
equivalent welds in carbon steels.

14. False. There is not a single correct point in this statement. For one,
preheating lessens, not increases, shrinkage stresses that would otherwise increase
cracking and distortion. Further, the fact that preheating slows the cooling rate is in
fact an asset, as it allows for the reduction of hardness in the HAZ and leads to a
more ductile weld. A slower cooling rate also allows the engineer to induce desired
microstructural transformations in the HAZ – for example, in the case of steel, by
enabling the formation of pearlite or bainite instead of martensite. Further, a slower
cooling rate allows hydrogen to escape the weld puddle and hence minimizes
hydrogen cracking.

15. True. Indeed, solidification cracking can be prevented with use of low
linear heat input, high-energy-density processes such as PAW, LBW, and EBW, and
use of grain-refining agents (including Ti in Zr in the case of aluminum).

16. True. A basicity index lower than unity is considered acidic; a basicity
index between 1.0 and 1.2 is considered neutral; a basicity index greater than 1.2 is
considered basic. It has been found that low values of BI are associated with better
control of weld pool and covering slag, better bead shape, and higher deposition
rate.

17. True. All it takes is a quick inspection of the graphs: increasing the
shield gas composition from pure argon to a mixture of Ar and CO2 causes the
diffusible hydrogen level to decrease correspondingly, be it in GMAW or FMAW.

P.7 ■ Solution
The transverse shrinkage is given by

A
∆ =k
t
where 𝑘𝑘 = 0.2 is an empirical factor, 𝐴𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the weld, and 𝑡𝑡
= 12 mm is the thickness of plate. Suppose we divided the cross-sectional area of
the weld as shown.

It follows that

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 1 1
A = A1 + A2 + A3 = × 5 × (12 + 3) + 3 ×12 + ×12 ×12 = 146 mm 2
2 2
and, backsubstituting in the equation for Δ,

146
= 0.2 ×
∆ = 2.43 mm
12
♦ The correct answer is D.

P.8 ■ Solution
It can be shown that the maximum temperature attained for a thick sheet
welding, considering two-dimensional flow of heat in a section perpendicular to the
welding section, is given by

1 π eρ C p ( r 2 − R 2 ) 1
= +
Tmax − T0 2q v Tf − T0

Accordingly, we can infer the proportion 𝑇𝑇max ∝ 𝑟𝑟 −2 , i.e., the maximum

temperature in the HAZ varies with the inverse square of the distance 𝑟𝑟 from the
fusion line. This trend is illustrated in the following graph, which shows analytically
calculated and empirical results.

In contrast, the maximum temperature attained in the case of a thin sheet

welding (unidirectional flow of heat in a section perpendicular to the welding
direction) is given by

1 2π e ρ C p hr 1
= +
Tmax − T0 q v T f − T0

Thus, the maximum temperature in the HAZ varies in approximately inverse

proportion to the distance 𝑟𝑟 to the fusion line (i.e., in thin materials) or to its square
(i.e., in thick materials).

♦ The correct answer is B.

P.9 ■ Solution
The peak temperature is given by

1 2π e ρ C p hy 1
= +
Tp − T0 H net Tm − T0
Substituting 𝑇𝑇0 = 30oC, 𝜌𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝 = 0.0044 J/mmoC, ℎ = 6 mm, 𝐻𝐻net = 700 J/mm,
𝑇𝑇𝑚𝑚 = 1530oC, and a distance from the fusion boundary of 𝑦𝑦 = 3.0 mm yields

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 1 2π e × 0.0044 × 6 × 3.0 1
= +
Tp − 30 700 1530 − 30

912o C
∴ Tp ,3 =

Likewise, for a distance from the fusion boundary 𝑦𝑦 = 6.0 mm, we obtain

1 2π e × 0.0044 × 6 × 6.0 1
= +
Tp − 30 700 1530 − 30

654o C
∴ Tp ,6 =

♦ The correct answer is A.

P.10 ■ Solution
Assume first a travel speed of 10 mm/s. Given the arc efficiency 𝑓𝑓1 = 0.9
and other variables, the heat input is calculated as

f1VI 0.9 × 20 × 320

H
= net = = 576 J/mm
v 10
The equation to be used in the calculation of cooling rate depends on the
value of parameter 𝜏𝜏, which is given by

ρ C p (Tc − T0 )
τ =h
H net

If 𝜏𝜏 < 0.75, the plate is considered thin and the cooling rate 𝑅𝑅 is given by

2π k (Tc − T0 )
3

R=
H net

If, on the other hand, 𝜏𝜏 > 0.75, the plate is considered thick and the cooling
rate 𝑅𝑅 is determined with the relation
2
 t 
 (Tc − T0 )
3
=R 2π k ρ C p 
 H net 
Accordingly, to check whether the plate is considered thin or thick, we must
compute parameter 𝜏𝜏, namely

ρ C p (Tc − T0 ) 0.0044 × ( 500 − 30 )

τ=
h 6×
= 0.360
=
H net 576

Since 𝜏𝜏 < 0.75, the plate is considered thin. The cooling rate is calculated as
2 2
 t   6 
 (Tc − T0 ) =2π × 0.028 × 0.0044 ×   × ( 500 − 30 ) =8.72 C/s
3 3
R =2π k ρ C p  o

H
 net   576 

This is greater than the limiting cooling rate of 7.5oC/s. Another iteration is
in order. Let the travel speed be 9 mm/s. The heat input now becomes

f1VI 0.9 × 20 × 320

H
= net = = 640 J/mm
v 9
The updated value of 𝜏𝜏 is

0.0044 × ( 500 − 30 )
τ=
6× 0.341
=
640
The plate is considered thin. The cooling rate now becomes

2
 6 
 × ( 500 − 30 ) =7.06 C/s
3
R =2π × 0.028 × 0.0044 ×  o

 640 
Since 𝑅𝑅 < 7.5oC/s, this is a satisfactory cooling rate; thus, the welding can
be finalized at a speed of 9 mm/s.

♦ The correct answer is B.

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P.11 ■ Solution
Given 𝐶𝐶 = 0.90 (the fraction of time the arc is on) and 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 2.4 kVA, the rate
of heat input is determined as

Q =CVI =0.90 × 2400 =2160 W

The minimum weld width to be maintained is 𝑤𝑤 = ����
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2 × √3 = 3.46 mm.
The heat input rate is approximated as

 Vw 
=Q 8kθ m h  0.2 + 
 4α 
Here, 𝑄𝑄 = 2160 W as computed above, thermal conductivity 𝑘𝑘 = 40
W/moC, ℎ = 3 × 10-3 mm, 𝑤𝑤 = 3.46 × 10-3 mm, and thermal diffusivity 𝛼𝛼 = 1.2 ×
10-5 m²/s. In addition, temperature difference 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 = 1530 – 30 = 1500OC.
Substituting and solving for the velocity 𝑉𝑉 brings to

 V × ( 3.46 ×10−3 ) 
2160 =8 × 40 ×1500 × ( 3 ×10 ) × 0.2 +
−3

 4 × (1.2 ×10−5 ) 

=∴V 0.0180
= m/sec 1.08 m min

♦ The correct answer is B.

P.12 ■ Solution
The correct association is P-1, Q-4, R-2, S-3. The magnetic particle
method, for instance, cannot be used in a paramagnetic material such as aluminum,
and does not lend itself to detection of deep flaws such as inclusions in steels;
however, it is a viable method for assessment of surface cracks in most steels. The
X-ray radiography method, in turn, yields the deepest penetration of all four
methods, and as such can be used to assess inclusions in steels. Ultrasonic testing is
a viable choice for detection of hairline cracks in aluminum.
♦ The correct answer is D.

P.13 ■ Solution
Given the transmittance 𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝐼𝐼0 = 0.01, the initial film density is calculated as

 I0   1 
=FD1 log
= 10   log=
10   2.0
 It   0.01 
The following equation can be used to estimate the change in exposure
needed to produce a change in film density,

E1 E2 E
= → E2 = FD2 × 1
FD1 FD2 FD1
6.5
∴ E2 = 3.0 × = 9.75 mA-min
2.0

♦ The correct answer is C.

P.14 ■ Solution
1. True. Liquid penetrant NDT should not be used with porous surfaces
because the bleed out of liquid from porous surfaces can mask defects. This
technique can in fact be used with nonferrous metals so long as the surface is clean
and not exceedingly rough.
2. False. The frequency, and therefore the energy, of the ultrasonic waves
used in the NDE method in question are far too low to be considered a health
hazard, unlike, say, the dangerous ionizing radiation produced in gamma ray
radiography. Nevertheless, ultrasonic NDT does have its limitations, such as the
requirement of skilled labor, the need for a couplant (liquid) for adequate wave
transmission, and the difficult resolution of small defects near the surface.
3. False. Gamma sources have a constant energy output and cannot be
adjusted. X-ray radiography is somewhat superior in this regard as it allows for
adjustable energy levels and generally provides higher quality radiographs.
Nevertheless, both methods share the safety hazards associated with use of
radiation, such as control of facilities where the technique will be used and special
monitoring of exposure levels and dosages to personnel. Another drawback is the
relatively long time, compared to other methods, between the exposure process

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© 2020 Montogue Quiz
and the availability of results. The main advantage of radiography over, say,
ultrasonic testing is the fact that it provides a permanent record of the weld test for
future reference.
4. False. Eddy current relies on the flow of current through a material and
as such is very much dependent on a high electrical conductivity. Further, it
generally offers a low depth of penetration even when used to assess highly
conductive metals; the depth of examination is generally limited to 6 mm for
nonferromagnetic materials and 0.25 mm for ferromagnetic materials. The main
limitation of this technique, however, has to do with positioning: ECT current always
runs parallel to the surface, which means that a defect that does not come in direct
contact with the current cannot be detected.

5. True. Indeed, magnetic particle NDT is capable near surface

discontinuities that may go unnoticed in dye penetrant testing. The technique is
indeed limited to ferromagnetic materials (i.e., iron, cobalt, nickel, and some of their
alloys). Another limitation is that, in some applications, parts may have to be
demagnetized after inspection.

ANSWER SUMMARY

Problem 1 B
Problem 2 C
Problem 3 B
Problem 4 A
Problem 5 C
Problem 6 T/F
Problem 7 D
Problem 8 B
Problem 9 A
Problem 10 B
Problem 11 B
Problem 12 D
Problem 13 C
Problem 14 T/F

REFERENCES
• AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY. (2000). Welding Inspection Handbook.
3rd edition. Miami: AWS.
• KHAN, I. (2007). Welding Science and Technology. New Delhi: New Age
Publishers.
• MESSLER, R. (1999). Principles of Welding Processes. Hoboken: John
Wiley and Sons.
• O’BRIEN, R. (Ed.) (1991). Welding Handbook: Volume 2 – Welding
Processes. 8th edition. Miami: AWS.
• Sakamoto, R., Kobayashi, K., Iijima, T. et al. Weld World (2012) 56:64.
• SINGH, R. (2016). Applied Welding Engineering. 2nd edition. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.

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