UNIT I - INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION:

Computer security, cybersecurity or information technology security (IT security) is the

protection of computer systems and networks from the theft of or damage to
their hardware, software, or electronic data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the
services they provide.

Computer and network security is essentially a battle of wits between a culprit who tries to
find holes and the designer or administrator who tries to close them.

Computer security is a series of protocols that a company or an individual follows to ensure

information maintains its “ICA” – integrity, confidentiality and availability.

CRYPTOGRAPHY:

Cryptography is the art and science of making a cryptosystem that is capable of providing
information security. Cryptography deals with the actual securing of digital data. It refers to
the design of mechanisms based on mathematical algorithms that provide fundamental
information security services.

CRYPTOSYSTEM

A cryptosystem is an implementation of cryptographic techniques and their accompanying

infrastructure to provide information security services. A cryptosystem is also referred to as a
cipher system.

Figure.1. Cryptosystem
Cryptosystem shown in fig.1, is th study of secure communications techniques that allow only
the sender and intended recipient of a message to view its contents. When transmitting
electronic data, the most common use of cryptography is to encrypt and decrypt email and
other plain-text messages. It reformats and transform our data, making it safer on its trip
between computers. The technology is based on the essentials of secret codes, augmented by
modern mathematics that protects our data in powerful ways.
Network Security - measures to protect data during their transmission
Internet Security - measures to protect data during their transmission over a collection of
interconnected networks
Computer Security: The protection afforded to an automated information system in order to
attain the applicable objectives of preserving the integrity, availability, and confidentiality of
information system resources (includes hardware, software, firmware, information/data, and
telecommunications).
This definition introduces three key objectives that are at the heart of computer security:
Confidentiality (C): Preserving authorized restrictions on information access and disclosure,
including means for protecting personal privacy and proprietary information. A loss of
confidentiality is the unauthorized disclosure of information.
Integrity(I): Guarding against improper information modification or destruction, including
ensuring information nonrepudiation and authenticity. A loss of integrity is the unauthorized
modification or destruction of information.
Availability (A): Ensuring timely and reliable access to and use of information. A loss of
availability is the disruption of access to or use of information or an information system.
These three concepts form what is often referred to as the CIA triad. The three concepts
embody the fundamental security objectives for both data and for information and computing
services.
Confidentiality: This term covers two related concepts:
Data1 confidentiality: Assures that private or confidential information is not made available
or disclosed to unauthorized individuals.
Privacy: Assures that individual’s control or influence what information related to them may
be collected and stored and by whom and to whom that information may be disclosed.
Integrity: This term covers two related concepts:
Data integrity: Assures that information and programs are changed only in a specified and
authorized manner.
System integrity: Assures that a system performs its intended function in an unimpaired
manner, free from deliberate or inadvertent unauthorized manipulation of the system.
Availability: Assures that systems work promptly and service is not denied to authorized
users. Although the use of the CIA triad to define security objectives is well established,
some in the security field feel that additional concepts are needed to present a complete
picture. Two of the most commonly mentioned are as follows:
Authenticity: The property of being genuine and being able to be verified and trusted;
confidence in the validity of a transmission, a message, or message originator. This means
verifying that users are who they say they are and that each input arriving at the system came
from a trusted source.
Accountability: The security goal that generates the requirement for actions of an entity to
be traced uniquely to that entity. This supports nonrepudiation, deterrence, fault isolation,
intrusion detection and prevention, and after-action recovery and legal action.
THE OSI SECURITY ARCHITECTURE:
To assess effectively the security needs of an organization and to evaluate and choose various
security products and policies, the manager responsible for security needs, some systematic
way of defining the requirements for security and characterizing the approaches to satisfying
those requirements. The OSI security architecture was developed in the context of the OSI
protocol architecture by ITU-T.
ITU-T: The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Telecommunication
Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is a United Nations sponsored agency that develops
standards, called Recommendations, relating to telecommunications and to open systems
interconnection (OSI).
Recommendation X.800, Security Architecture for OSI, defines a systematic
approach. The OSI security architecture is useful to managers as a way of organizing the task
of providing security.
The OSI security architecture focuses on security attacks, mechanisms, and services. These
can be defined
briefly as
 Security attack
 Security mechanism.
 Security service

threat and attack are commonly used to mean more or less the same thing. The definitions
taken from RFC 4949, Internet Security Glossary.
Threat
A potential for violation of security, which exists when there is a circumstance, capability,
action, or event that could breach security and cause harm. That is, a threat is a possible
danger that might exploit a vulnerability.
Attack
An attack on system security that derives from an intelligent threat; that is, an intelligent act
that is a deliberate attempt (especially in the sense of a method or technique) to evade security
services and violate the security policy of a system.
SECURITY ATTACK:
Any action that compromises the security of information owned by an organization. There are
four general categories of attack which are listed below.
Interruption
An asset of the system is destroyed or becomes unavailable or unusable. This is an attack on
availability.
e.g., destruction of piece of hardware, cutting of a communication line or disabling of file
management system.

Figure.2a
Interception
An unauthorized party gains access to an asset. This is an attack on confidentiality.
Unauthorized party could be a person, a program or a computer. e.g., wiretapping to capture
data in the network, illicit copying of files.

Figure. 2b
Modification
An unauthorized party not only gains access to but tampers with an asset. This is an attack on
integrity.
e.g., changing values in data file, altering a program, modifying the contents of messages
being transmitted in a network.

Figure. 2c
Fabrication
An unauthorized party inserts counterfeit objects into the system. This is an attack on
authenticity.
e.g., insertion of spurious message in a network or addition of records to a file.

Figure.2d
The attack is majorly classified into two types:
 Active attack
 Passive Attack
PASSIVE ATTACK:
Passive attacks (Fig.3) are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions.
The goal of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted.
 Figure.3
Passive attacks are of two types:
Release of message contents: A telephone conversation, an e-mail message and a transferred
file may contain sensitive or confidential information. We would like to prevent the opponent
from learning the contents of these transmissions.
Traffic analysis: If we had encryption protection in place, an opponent might still be able to
observe the pattern of the message. The opponent could determine the location and identity of
communication hosts and could observe the frequency and length of messages being
exchanged. This information might be useful in guessing the nature of communication that
was taking place.
Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any alteration of data.
However, it is feasible to prevent the success of these attacks.
ACTIVE ATTACKS:
These attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream.

Figure.4
These attacks can be classified in to four
categories:
Masquerade – One entity pretends to be a different entity.
Replay – involves passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent transmission to produce
an unauthorized effect.
Modification of messages – Some portion of message is altered or the messages are delayed
or recorded, to produce an unauthorized effect.
Denial of service – Prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of communication
facilities. Another form of service denial is the disruption of an entire network, either by
disabling the network or overloading it with messages so as to degrade performance. It is
quite difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely, because to do so would require physical
protection of all communication facilities and paths at all times. Instead, the goal is to detect
them and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.
Security mechanism: A process (or a device incorporating such a process) that is designed
to detect, prevent, or recover from a security attack.
Cryptanalysis: Cryptanalysis is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted
information, without access to the secret information that is typically required to do so.
Typically, this involves knowing how the system works and finding a secret key.
Cryptanalysis is also referred to as codebreaking or cracking the code.
Brute-force attack: The attacker tries every possible key on a piece of ciphertext until an
intelligible translation into plaintext is obtained. On average, half of all possible keys must be
tried to achieve success.
SECURITY SERVICE: A processing or communication service that enhances the security
of the data processing systems and the information transfers of an organization. The services
are intended to counter security attacks, and they make use of one or more security
mechanisms to provide the service.
X.800 defines a security service as a service that is provided by a protocol layer of
communicating open systems and that ensures adequate security of the systems or of data
transfers. X.800 divides these services into five categories
Confidentiality: Ensures that the information in a computer system and transmitted
information are accessible only for reading by authorized parties.
Eg., printing, displaying and other forms of disclosure.
Authentication: Ensures that the origin of a message or electronic document is correctly
identified, with an assurance that the identity is not false.
Integrity: Ensures that only authorized parties are able to modify computer system assets and
transmitted information. Modification includes writing, changing status, deleting, creating
and delaying or replaying of transmitted messages.
Non repudiation: Requires that neither the sender nor the receiver of a message be able to
deny the transmission.
Access control: Requires that access to information resources may be controlled by or the
target system.
Availability: Requires that computer system assets be available to authorized parties when
needed.
AUTHENTICATION:
The authentication service is concerned with assuring that a communication is Authentic, the
function of the authentication service is to assure the recipient that the message is from the
source that it claims to be from. In the case of an ongoing interaction, such as the connection
of a terminal to a host, two aspects are involved. Two specific authentication services are
defined in X.800:
Peer Entity Authentication
Used in association with a logical connection to provide confidence in the identity of the
entities connected.
Data Origin Authentication
In a connectionless transfer, provides assurance that the source of received data is as claimed.
ACCESS CONTROL
The prevention of unauthorized use of a resource (i.e., this service controls who can have
access to a resource, under what conditions access can occur, and what those accessing the
resource is allowed to do).
DATA CONFIDENTIALITY
The protection of data from unauthorized disclosure. Confidentiality is the protection of
transmitted data from passive attacks. With respect to the content of a data transmission,
several levels of protection can be identified.
Connection Confidentiality: The protection of all user data on a connection.
Connectionless Confidentiality: The protection of all user data in a single data block
AUTHENTICATION
The confidentiality of selected fields within the user data on a connection or in a single data
block.
Traffic Flow Confidentiality: The protection of the information that might be derived from
observation of traffic flows.
DATA INTEGRITY
The assurance that data received are exactly as sent by an authorized entity (i.e., contain no
modification, insertion, deletion, or replay).
Connection Integrity with Recovery
Provides for the integrity of all user data on a connection and detects any modification,
insertion, deletion, or replay of any data within an entire data sequence, with recovery
attempted.
Connection Integrity without Recovery: As above, but provides only detection without
recovery.
Selective-Field Connection Integrity: Provides for the integrity of selected fields within the
user data of a data block transferred over a connection and takes the form of determination of
whether the selected fields have been modified, inserted, deleted, or replayed.
Connectionless Integrity: Provides for the integrity of a single connectionless data block
and may take the form of detection of data modification. Additionally, a limited form of
replay detection may be provided.
Selective-Field Connectionless Integrity: Provides for the integrity of selected fields within
a single connectionless data block; takes the form of determination of whether the selected
fields have been modified.
NONREPUDIATION
Provides protection against denial by one of the entities involved in a communication of
having participated in all or part of the communication.
Nonrepudiation, Origin: Proof that the message was sent by the specified party.
Nonrepudiation, Destination: Proof that the message was received by the specified party.
SECURITY MECHANISMS
One of the most specific security mechanisms in use is cryptographic techniques. Encryption
or encryption-like transformations of information are the most common means of providing
security.
SPECIFIC SECURITY MECHANISMS
May be incorporated into the appropriate protocol layer in order to provide some of the OSI
security services.
Encipherment: The use of mathematical algorithms to transform data into a form that is not
readily intelligible. The transformation and subsequent recovery of the data depend on an
algorithm and zero or more encryption keys.
Digital Signature: Data appended to, or a cryptographic transformation of, a data unit that
allows a recipient of the data unit to prove the source and integrity of the data unit and protect
against forgery (e.g., by the recipient).
Access Control: A variety of mechanisms that enforce access rights to resources
Data Integrity: A variety of mechanisms used to assure the integrity of a data unit or stream
of data units
Authentication Exchange: A mechanism intended to ensure the identity of an entity by
means of information exchange.
Traffic Padding: The insertion of bits into gaps in a data stream to frustrate traffic analysis
attempts.
Routing Control: Enables selection of particular physically secure routes for certain data and
allows routing changes, especially when a breach of security is suspected.
Notarization: The use of a trusted third party to assure certain properties of a data exchange.
PERVASIVE SECURITY MECHANISMS
Mechanisms that are not specific to any particular OSI security service or protocol layer.
Trusted Functionality: That which is perceived to be correct with respect to some criteria
(e.g., as established by a security policy).
Security Label: The marking bound to a resource (which may be a data unit) that names or
designates the security attributes of that resource.
Event Detection: Detection of security-relevant events.
Security Audit Trail: Data collected and potentially used to facilitate a security audit, which
is an independent review and examination of system records and activities.
Security Recovery: Deals with requests from mechanisms, such as event handling and
management functions, and takes recovery actions.
NETWORK SECURITY MODEL:
A model for a network security is shown in the below figure. 5

Figure.5 Network Security Model

A message is to be transferred from one party to another across some sort of Internet service.
The two parties, who are the principals in this transaction, must cooperate for the exchange to
take place. A logical information channel is established by defining a route through the
Internet from source to destination and by the cooperative use of communication protocols
(e.g., TCP/IP) by the two principals.
Security aspects come into play when it is necessary or desirable to protect the information
transmission from an opponent who may present a threat to confidentiality, authenticity, and
so on. All the techniques for providing security have two components:
• A security-related transformation on the information to be sent. Examples include the
encryption of the message, which scrambles the message so that it is unreadable by the
opponent, and the addition of a code based on the contents of the message, which can be used
to verify the identity of the sender.
• Some secret information shared by the two principals and, it is hoped, unknown to the
opponent. An example is an encryption key used in conjunction with the transformation to
scramble the message before transmission and unscramble it on reception.
A trusted third party may be needed to achieve secure transmission. For example, a third
party may be responsible for distributing the secret information to the two principals while
keeping it from any opponent. Or a third party may be needed to arbitrate disputes between
the two principals concerning the authenticity of a message transmission.
This general model shows that there are four basic tasks in designing a particular security
service:
1. Design an algorithm for performing the security-related transformation. The
algorithm should be such that an opponent cannot defeat its purpose.
2. Generate the secret information to be used with the algorithm.
3. Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information.
4. Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of the security
algorithm and the secret information to achieve a particular security service.
However, there are other security-related situations of interest that do not neatly fit this model
but are considered. A general model of these other situations is illustrated in Figure.6 which
reflects a concern for protecting an information system from unwanted access.
 Figure.6 Network Access Security Model

Another type of unwanted access is the placement in a computer system of logic that exploits
vulnerabilities in the system and that can affect application programs as well as utility
programs, such as editors and compilers. Programs can present two kinds of threats:
Information access threats: Intercept or modify data on behalf of users who should not have
access to that data.
Service threats: Exploit service flaws in computers to inhibit use by legitimate users.

Classical Encryption Techniques: A SYMMETRIC CIPHER MODEL:

Symmetric encryption, also referred to as conventional encryption or single-key encryption,
was the only type of encryption in use prior to the development of public key encryption in
the 1970s.
Some basic terminologies used:
 ciphertext - the coded message
 cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
 key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
 encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
 decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext from plaintext
 cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods
 cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - the study of principles/ methods of deciphering
ciphertext without knowing key
 cryptology - the field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis

A symmetric encryption scheme has five ingredients

A symmetric encryption scheme has five ingredients (Fig.7). Here the original
message, referred to as plaintext, is converted into apparently random nonsense, referred to as
cipher text. The encryption process consists of an algorithm and a key.
The key is a value independent of the plaintext. Changing the key changes, the output of the
algorithm. Once the cipher text is produced, it may be transmitted. Upon reception, the cipher
text can be transformed back to the original plaintext by using a decryption algorithm and the
same key that was used for encryption.
The security depends on several factors. First, the encryption algorithm must be powerful
enough that it is impractical to decrypt a message on the basis of cipher text alone. Beyond
that, the security depends on the secrecy of the key, not the secrecy of the algorithm.

Two requirements for secure use of symmetric encryption:

 A strong encryption algorithm
 A secret key known only to sender / receiver
 Y = EK(X)
 X = DK(Y)
assume encryption algorithm is known implies a secure channel to distribute key

Fig.8. conventional cryptosystem

A source produces a message in plaintext, X = [X1, X2, …, XM] where M are the number of
letters in the message. A key of the form K = [K1, K2, …, KJ] is generated. If the key is
generated at the source, then it must be provided to the destination by means of some secure
channel. With the message X and the encryption key K as input, the encryption algorithm
forms
the cipher text Y = [Y1, Y2, …, YN]. This can be expressed as Y = EK(X)
The intended receiver, in possession of the key, is able to invert the transformation: X =
DK(Y) An opponent, observing Y but not having access to K or X, may attempt to recover X
or K or both. It is assumed that the opponent knows the encryption and decryption
algorithms. If the opponent is interested in only this particular message, then the focus of
effort is to recover X by generating a plaintext estimate. Often if the opponent is interested
in being able to read future messages as well, in which case an attempt is made to
recover K by generating an estimate.
Substitution Encryption Techniques:
Substitution encryption technique is one type of classic encryption technique, A substitution
technique is one in which the letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by numbers
or symbols. If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves
 replacing plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit patterns.
 (i)Caesar cipher (or) shift cipher
 The earliest known use of a substitution cipher and the simplest was by Julius Caesar.
 The Caesar Cipher is a type of shift cipher. Shift Ciphers work by using the modulo
operator to encrypt and decrypt messages. The Shift Cipher has a key K, which is
an integer from 0 to 25. We will only share this key with people that we want to see
our message
 The Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter
standing 3 places further down the alphabet.
 e.g., Plain text: pay more mone Cipher text: SDB PRUH PRQHB
 Note that the alphabet is wrapped around, so that letter following „z‟ is „a‟.
 Note that the alphabet is wrapped around, so that the letter following Z
is A.
 We can define the transformation by listing all possibilities, as
follows: plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w
x y z cipher: D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A B C

Let us assign a numerical equivalent to each letter:

For Encrypt each plaintext letter p, substitute the cipher text letter c such that
C = E(p) = (p+3) mod 26,
a shift may be any amount, so that general Caesar algorithm is
C = E (p) = (p+k) mod 26
where k takes on a value in the range 1 to 25.
The decryption algorithm is simply P = D(C) = (C-k) mod 26 (or) to Encrypt a message
M. Convert the letter into the number that matches its order in the alphabet starting from
0, and call this number X, (A=0, B=1, C=2, ..., Y=24, Z=25).
Calcúlate: Y = (X + K) mod 26
Convert the number Y into a letter that matches its order in the alphabet starting from 0.
Example:
By using the Shift Cipher with key K=19 for our message.
We encrypt the message "KHAN", as follows
  So, after applying the Shift Cipher with key K=19 our message text "KHAN" gave
us cipher text "DATG".
 For every letter in the cipher text C, convert the letter into the number that matches
its order in the alphabet starting from 0, and call this number Y.
 If it is known that a given ciphertext is a Caesar cipher, then a brute-force
cryptanalysis is easily performed: Simply try all the 25 possible keys.
Monoalphabetic Ciphers:
With only 25 possible keys, the Caesar cipher is far from secure. A dramatic increase in the
key space can be achieved by allowing an arbitrary substitution. Before proceeding, the term
permutation can be defined.
A permutation of a finite set of elements S is an ordered sequence of all the elements of S,
with each element appearing exactly once.
For example, if S = {a, b, c}, there are six permutations of S: abc,

acb, bac, bca, cab, cba

In general, there are n! permutations of a set of n elements, because the first element can be
chosen in one of n ways, the second in n - 1 ways, the third in n – 2 ways, and so on.
plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Caesar cipher:
defghijklmnopqrsTuvwxyzabc

If, instead, the “cipher” line can be any permutation of the 26 alphabetic characters, then
there are 26! or greater than 4 * 1026 possible keys.
This is 10 orders of magnitude greater than the key space for DES and would seem to
eliminate brute-force techniques for cryptanalysis. Such an approach is referred to
as a mono alphabetic substitution cipher, because a single cipher alphabet
(mapping from plain alphabet to cipher alphabet) is used per message.
Monoalphabetic ciphers are easy to break because they reflect the frequency data of the
original alphabet.
A countermeasure is to provide multiple substitutes known as homophones, for a single letter.
For example, the letter e could be assigned a number of different cipher symbols, such as 16,
74, 35, and 21, with each homophone assigned to a letter in rotation or randomly.
Playfair Cipher:

The best-known multiple-letter encryption cipher is the Playfair, which treats diagrams in the
plaintext as single units and translates these units into cipher text diagrams

he Playfair algorithm is based on the use of a 5 * 5 matrix of letters constructed using a

keyword. Here is an example, solved by Lord Peter Wimsey in Dorothy Sayers‟s Have His
Carcase

In this case, the keyword is monarchy. The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of
the keyword (minus duplicates) from left to right and from top to bottom, and then filling in
the remainder of the matrix with the remaining letters in alphabetic order. The letters I and J
count as one letter.

Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time, according to the following rules:

Repeating plaintext letters that are in the same pair are separated with a filler letter, such as x,
so that balloon would be treated as ba lx lo on.

Two plaintext letters that fall in the same row of the matrix are each replaced by the letter to
the right, with the first element of the row circularly following the last. For example, ar is
encrypted as RM.

Two plaintext letters that fall in the same column are each replaced by the letter beneath, with
the top element of the column circularly following the last. For example, mu is encrypted as
CM.

Otherwise, each plaintext letter in a pair is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row and
the column occupied by the other plaintext letter. Thus, hs becomes BP and ea becomes IM

The Playfair cipher is a great advance over simple monoalphabetic ciphers. For one thing,
whereas there are only 26 letters, there are 26 * 26 = 676 digrams, so that identification of
individual digrams is more difficult. Furthermore, the relative frequencies of individual
letters exhibit a much greater range than that of digrams, making frequency analysis
much more difficult.
For these reasons, the Playfair cipher was for a long time considered unbreakable. It was
used as the standard field system by the British Army in World War I and still enjoyed
considerable use by the U.S. Army and other Allied forces during World War II.

Hill Cipher:

Another interesting multiletter cipher is the Hill cipher, developed by the mathematician
Lester Hill in 1929.

The Hill Algorithm

This encryption algorithm takes m successive plaintext letters and substitutes for them m
ciphertext letters. The substitution is determined by m linear equations in which each
character is assigned a numerical value (a = 0, b = 1,….., z = 25). For m = 3, the system can
be described as

c1 = (k11p1 + k21p2 + k31p3) mod 26 c2 = (k12p1 + k22p2 + k32p3) mod 26 c3 = (k13p1 + k23p2 +
k33p3) mod 26

This can be expressed in terms of row vectors and matrices:

𝑘11 𝑘12 𝑘13

𝑐 1𝑐 2𝑐 3 = 𝑝 1𝑝 2𝑝 3 𝑘22 𝑘23 𝑚𝑜𝑑 26
𝑘21
𝑘31 𝑘32 𝑘33

or

C = PK mod 26

Where C and P are row vectors of length 3 representing the plaintext and ciphertext, and K is
a 3 x 3 matrix representing the encryption key. Operations are performed mod 26.

Polyalphabetic ciphers
A polyalphabetic cipher is any cipher based on substitution, using multiple substitution
alphabets. The Vigenère cipher is probably the best-known example of a polyalphabetic
cipher.

Difference between monoalphabetic cipher and polyalphabetic cipher:

A monoalphabetic cipher is a substitution cipher in which the cipher alphabet is fixed
through the encryption process.....A polyalphabetic cipher is a substitution cipher in which
the cipher alphabet changes during the encryption process.

Vigenere cipher:
🠶 Vigenere Cipher is a method of encrypting alphabetic text. It uses a simple form
of polyalphabetic substitution. A polyalphabetic cipher is any cipher based on
substitution, using multiple substitution alphabets .The encryption of the original
text is done using the Vigenère square or Vigenère table.
• The table consists of the alphabets written out 26 times in different rows, each
alphabet shifted cyclically to the left compared to the previous alphabet,
corresponding to the 26 possible Caesar Ciphers.
• At different points in the encryption process, the cipher uses a different alphabet
from one of the rows.
• The alphabet used at each point depends on a repeating keyword

The Vigenère cipher can be expressed in the following manner. Assume a sequence of
plaintext letters P = p0, p1, p2,.......,p n-1 and a key consisting of the sequence of letters K = k0,
k1, k2,......., k m-1, where typically m <n. The sequence of ciphertext letters C = C0, C1, C2,
……, C n-1 is calculated as follows:

C = C0, C1, C2, …..,C n-1 = E(K, P) = E[(k0, k1, k2, ….., k m-1), (p0, p1, p2…., p n-1)]
= (p0 + k0) mod 26, (p1 + k1) mod 26, ……, (p m-1 + k m-1) mod 26, (pm+ k0) mod 26, (p m+1 +
k1) mod 26, ……. , (p 2m-1 + k

m-1) mod 26,…..

Thus, the first letter of the key is added to the first letter of the plaintext, mod 26, the second
letters are added, and so on through the first m letters of the plaintext. For the next m letters
of the plaintext, the key letters are repeated. This process continues until all of the plaintext
sequence is encrypted. A general equation of the encryption process is

Ci= (pi+ k i mod m) mod 26

A general equation for decryption is

pi= (Ci– k i mod m) mod 26

To encrypt a message, a key is needed that is as long as the message. Usually, the key is a
repeating keyword. For example, if the keyword is deceptive, the message “we are discovered
save yourself” is encrypted as

Key :deceptivedeceptivedeceptive plaintext : wearediscoveredsaveyourself

ciphertext : ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ

The strength of this cipher is that there are multiple ciphertext letters for each plaintext letter,
one for each unique letter of the keyword. Thus, the letter frequency information is
obscured. However, not all knowledge of the plaintext structure is lost.

Vernam Cipher The ultimate defense against such a cryptanalysis is to choose a keyword that
is as long as the plaintext and has no statistical relationship to it. Such a system was
introduced by an AT&T engineer named Gilbert Vernam in 1918.

 The system can be expressed as:

 where

pi= ith binary digit of plaintext

ki= ith binary digit of key

ci= ith binary digit of ciphertext

s= exclusive-or (XOR) operation

 Thus, the ciphertext is generated by performing the bitwise XOR of the plaintext
and the key. Because of the properties of the XOR, decryption simply involves the
same bitwise operation

One Time Pad Cipher

It is an unbreakable cryptosystem. It represents the message as a sequence of 0s and 1s. this
can be accomplished by writing all numbers in binary, for example, or by using ASCII. The
key is a random sequence of 0‟s and 1‟s of same length as the message. Once a key is used, it
is discarded and never used again. The system can be expressed as follows:
Ci = Pi Ki
Ci - ith binary digit of cipher text Pi - ith binary digit of plaintext
Ki - ith binary digit of key – exclusive OR opearaiton
Thus, the cipher text is generated by performing the bitwise XOR of the plaintext and the
key. Decryption uses the same key. Because of the properties of XOR, decryption simply
involves the same bitwise operation:
Pi = Ci Ki
e.g., plaintext = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
Key = 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

ciphertext = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Advantage:
Encryption method is completely unbreakable for a ciphertext only attack.
Disadvantages
It requires a very long key which is expensive to produce and expensive to transmit.
Once a key is used, it is dangerous to reuse it for a second message; any knowledge on
the first message would give knowledge of the second.
STEGANOGRAPHY:
🠶 Steganography is the technique of hiding secret data within an ordinary, non-secret, file
or message in order to avoid detection; the secret data is then extracted at its
destination.
 The use of steganography can be combined with encryption as an extra step for hiding
or protecting data.
🠶 It stems from two Greek words, which are steganos, means covered
and graphia, means writing
🠶 Examples,
1. Playing an audio track backwards to reveal a secret message
2. Playing a video at a faster frame rate (FPS) to reveal a hidden image
3. Embedding a message in the red, green, or blue channel of an RGB image
4. Hiding information within a file header or metadata
5. Embedding an image or message within a photo through the addition of digital noise

• As the image depicts, both cover file(X) and secret message(M) are fed into
steganographic encoder as input.
• Steganographic Encoder function, f(X,M,K) embeds the secret message into a cover
file.
• Resulting Stego Object looks very similar to your cover file, with no visible changes.
• This completes encoding. To retrieve the secret message, Stego Object is fed into
Steganographic Decoder.
🠶 Steganography Techniques
🠶 Depending on the nature of the cover object (actual object in which secret data is
embedded), steganography can be divided into five types:
1. Text Steganography
2. Image Steganography
3. Video Steganography
4. Audio Steganography
 5. Network Steganography
🠶 Text Steganography: Text Steganography is hiding information inside the text
files. Various techniques used to hide the data in the text are:
• Format Based Method
• Random and Statistical Generation
• Linguistic Method
🠶 Image Steganography: Hiding the data by taking the cover object as the image is
known as image steganography. There are a lot of ways to hide information inside an
image. Common approaches include:
• Least Significant Bit Insertion
• Masking and Filtering
• Redundant Pattern Encoding
• Encrypt and Scatter
• Coding and Cosine Transformation
🠶 Audio Steganography: In audio steganography, the secret message is embedded into an
audio signal which alters the binary sequence of the corresponding audio file.
Different methods of audio steganography include:
• Least Significant Bit Encoding
• Parity Encoding
• Phase Coding
• Spread Spectrum
🠶 Video Steganography: In Video Steganography you can hide kind of data into digital
video format. Two main classes of Video Steganography include:
• embedding data in uncompressed raw video and compressing it later
• Embedding data directly into the compressed data stream
• Network Steganography (Protocol Steganography): It is the technique of embedding
information within network control protocols used in data transmission such TCP,
UDP, ICMP etc. For Example, you can hide information in the header of a
TCP/IP packet in some fields that are either optional.

Example:
(i) the sequence of first letters of each word of the overall message spells out the real (hidden)
message.
(ii) Subset of the words of the overall message is used to convey the hidden message.
Various other techniques have been used historically, some of them are:
Character marking – selected letters of printed or typewritten text are overwritten in pencil.
The marks are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held to an angle to bright light.
Invisible ink – a number of substances can be used for writing but leave no visible trace until
heat or some chemical is applied to the paper.
Pin punctures – small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visible unless the
paper is held in front of the light.
Typewritten correction ribbon – used between the lines typed with a black ribbon, the
results of typing with the correction tape are visible only under a strong light.
Drawbacks of steganography
Requires a lot of overhead to hide a relatively few bits of information.
Once the system is discovered, it becomes virtually worthless.
TRANSPOSITION TECHNIQUES:
All the techniques examined so far involve the substitution of a cipher text symbol for a
plaintext symbol. A very different kind of mapping is achieved by performing some sort of
permutation on the plaintext letters. This technique is referred to as a transposition cipher.
Rail fence is simplest of such cipher, in which the plaintext is written down as a sequence of
diagonals and then read off as a sequence of rows.
Plaintext = meet at the school house
To encipher this message with a rail fence of depth 2, we write the message as
follows:
meatecolos
etthsHohue
The encrypted message is MEATECOLOSETTHSHOHUE
Row Transposition Ciphers-A more complex scheme is to write the message in a rectangle,
row by row, and read the message off, column by column, but permute the order of the
columns. The order of columns then becomes the key of the algorithm.
e.g., plaintext = meet at the school
house Key = 4 3 1 2 5 6 7
PT = m e e t a t t
heschoo
lhouse
CT = ESOTCUEEHMHLAHSTOETO
A pure transposition cipher is easily recognized because it has the same letter frequencies
as the original plaintext. The transposition cipher can be made significantly more secure
by performing more than one stage of transposition. The result is more complex
permutation that is not easily reconstructed.