Department of Civil Engineering

5th Semester

Soil Mechanics Presented by

Er. Ravi Ghimire
1
 Chapter: 5

Compaction of Soil

2
Compaction
Removal of air voids from soil to increase the density of soil by bringing particles
close to each other by mechanical method.

Most common and important method of soil

improvement.

Air during the compaction is expelled from the

void space in the soil space.

 Mass density is increased after the

compaction.

Used in construction of highway,

embankments, earth dams and many other
engineering structures. 3
Objective of Compaction

To increase the shear strength of soil and hence increase the bearing capacity of soil.

To reduce compressibility. (Undesirable volume change)

To minimize the undesirable settlement of structures.

To reduce permeability of soil.

To reduce swelling and shrinkage potential.

To improve the engineering properties of soil.

To increase the stability of slopes.

4
Degree of Compaction

The degree of compaction is measured in terms of dry unit weight.

It correlates with the degree of packing of the soil grains.

Dry unit weight is the ratio of weight of solid particles (Ws) to its total volume (V).

The more compacted a soil is:

(i) the smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
(ii) the higher its dry unit weight (‫ץ‬d) will be.
5
Compaction Curve or Moisture Density Graph
Compaction curve is relationship between a soil water content and dry unit weight.

6
Air Void Line
A line which shows the relation between water content and dry density of compacted
soil having constant percentage of air voids is known as air-void line.

Where,
w = water content
G = specific gravity
na = percentage air void
‫ץ‬w = unit wt of water

7
Zero Air Void Line
Zero air void line is the line that shows the
relationship between the water content and the
dry unit weight of the soil with a 100% degree of
saturation or at zero void is called the zero air void
line or 100% degree of saturation line

A condition where all air is expelled from the voids

such that the soil is fully saturated.

This condition is idealistic which cannot be

achieved through compaction in actual practice.

All compaction curve fall at the left hand side of

the zero air void line.

8
Saturation Line
A line which shows the relation between water content and dry density of
compacted soil having constant degree of saturation (S%) is known as saturation line.

9
Optimum Moisture Content
Water content corresponding to maximum dry density.

10
11
Line of Optimums

Line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves at different
compaction efforts for the same soil.

Almost parallel to a zero air voids curve.

12
 Factors Affecting Compaction

Lime Water
Content
Cement
Bitumen
Admixture Type of
Soil

Amount of Kneading Action

Compaction Method of
Compaction Dynamic Action
Static Action 13
Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soil

Soil
Structure Permeability

Swelling

Shear Pore Water

Strength Pressure

Compressibility Shrinkage

14
Laboratory Compaction Test

Provides relationship between dry density and moisture content.

Optimum moisture content at which a given soil type will become most dense and
achieve its maximum dry density.

Standard Proctor Test

Modified Proctor Test (AASTHO Test)

15
Standard Proctor Test

No of blow per layer = 25

No of layer = 3
Weight of hammer = 2.5kg
Height of drop = 30.48 cm
Volume of mould = 945 ml

16
17
 E = 6.05 kg-cm/ml

Modified Proctor Test

No of blow per layer = 25

No of layer = 5
Weight of hammer = 4.54 kg
Height of drop = 45.72 cm
Volume of mould = 945 ml

E = 27.46 kg-cm/ml

18
S.N Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test
1 Mass of rammer is 2.5 kg Mass of rammer is 4.54 kg

2 Compactive effort is less. Compactive effort is about 4.5

times higher.
3 Lower compaction is attained. Heavier compaction is attained.

4 OMC is higher is this case. OMC is lower in this case.

5 Maximum dry density of soil is Maximum dry density of soil is

lower. higher.
6 Soil is compacted in 3 layers. Soil is compacted in 5 layers.

7 Height of drop is less. Height of drop is high.

19
Method of Compaction in Field

Smooth wheeled roller

• Well graded coarse grained soil

Sheep foot roller

• Suitable for cohesive soil (fine grained soil)

Pneumatic roller
• Both coarse and fine grained soil

Vibratory roller
• Only for coarse grained soils

Impact rammers
• All type of soils, mostly used in small area
20
Fig: Smooth wheeled roller Fig: Sheep foot roller

21
Fig: Pneumatic roller Fig: Vibratory roller

22
Fig: Impact rammer

23
Compaction Control at Field

Soil after compaction in the field should be checked for specified dry density.

Core
Cutter
Method
Sand
Replacement
Method

24
Relative Compaction

Compacted field dry unit weight should be 90-95% of maximum dry unit weight
determined in the lab.

Ratio of dry unit weight in the field to maximum dry unit weight in the laboratory is
known as relative compaction.

Where, R = Relative Compaction

25
Numerical
# Problem 1
The maximum dry density of a sample by light compaction test is 1.78 gm/cc at
optimum moisture content of 15%. Find air voids and degree of saturation. What
would be the corresponding value of dry density on zero air void line at OMC ?
Assume G = 2.67

26
# Problem 2

In a standard proctor test on a soil having specific gravity as 2.7, the following
results were obtained.
Water Content (%) 5 8 10 12 15 20
Bulk Unit Weight (kg/m3) 1890 2130 2200 2210 2160 2080
Plot the dry density versus water content curve. Determine the values of void ratio,
porosity, and degree of saturation for soil at optimum moisture condition (OMC).

27
# Problem 3 2019 Fall

The following results were obtained from standard compaction test:

Mass of Compacted Soil (gm) 1929.5 2051.5 2138.5 2147 2128 2058
Water Content (%) 11 12.4 12.9 13.8 14.9 16.7

The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.65, and the volume of mould is 1000 cm3. Plot the
compaction curve and obtain the maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content. Plot also 0%, 5%, 10% air voids curves. At the maximum dry density, calculate
the void ratio, degree of saturation and air content.

28
# Solution:
Given:
Specific Gravity (G) = 2.65 Volume of mould (V) = 1000 cm3
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:
Mass of Water
Soil, M Content,
(gm) w (%) (At 0% air) (At 5% air) (At 10% air)
1929.5 11 1.9295
2051.5 12.4 2.0515
2138.5 12.9 2.1385
2147 13.8 2.147
2128 14.9 2.128
2058 16.7 2.058
29
# Problem 4
Given standard soil compaction test results as follows: 2018 Fall
Trail No. Moisture Content Wet Unit Weight of
(% by dry weight) Compacted Soil (kN/m3)
1 8 19
2 10 21.2
3 11.4 21.9
4 12.6 21.1
5 13.9 20.2
The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.65. Plot the following:
(i) Moisture-dry density curve
(ii) Zero air voids curve, and
(iii) Ten percent air content curve. (90% Saturation Curve)
30
# Solution:
Given: Specific Gravity (G) = 2.65
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:

Wet Unit Weight, Water

‫(ץ‬kN/m3) Content, w (%)
(At 0% air void) (At 10% air
(kN/m3) content)
19 8
21.2 10
21.9 11.4
21.1 12.6
20.2 13.9
31
# Problem 5
2017 Spring

In a Standard Proctor Test the mould of 1 liter capacity weighs 12.5N when empty.
Successive trials gave the following results:
Water Content (%) 16.7 18.6 21.0 21.7 23.5
Weight of mould + Wet soil (N) 29.6 30.1 31.5 31.2 30.8
Take G = 2.7
Determine the maximum dry density and optimum water content.

32
# Problem 6 2018 Spring
The following data refers to a compaction test.
Water Content (%) 8.5 12.2 13.75 15.5 18.2 20.2
Weight of Wet Sample (Kg) 1.8 1.94 2.0 2.05 2.03 1.98
If the specific gravity of soil grains was 2.7
i. Plot the compaction curve and obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the
optimum moisture content.
ii. Plot the 80% and 100% saturation lines.
iii. If it is proposed to secure a relative compaction of 95% in the field, what is the
range of water content that can be allowed.
iv. Would the 20% air voids curve be same as the 80% saturation curve.

33
# Solution:
Given:
Specific Gravity (G) = 2.7 , Assume volume of mould = 1 liter
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:

Weight of Water
Wet Sample, Content,
M (kg) w (%) S = 0.8 S=1
1.8 8.5
1.94 12.2
2.0 13.75
2.05 15.5
2.03 18.2
1.98 20.2
34
Is 80% saturation and 20% air content the same or not for soil
compaction?

35
# Problem 7 2020 Spring
When road pavement is under construction, Geotechnical consultant tested the base of
pavement from standard compaction test and the result obtained is tabulated as:

The Volume of the mould is used was 950 ml. Make necessary calculation and draw
compaction curve along with 100% and 80% saturation line. Calculate void ratio and
degree of saturation for maximum dry density. Take G=2.7.

36
# Solution:
Given:
Specific Gravity (G) = 2.7 Volume of mould (V) = 950 ml = 950 cm3
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:
Weight, Water
M (kg) Content,
w (%)
(At S = 1) (At S = 0.8)
1.70 7.70
1.89 11.5
2.03 14.6
1.99 17.5
1.96 19.5
1.92 21.2 37
# Problem 8

38
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End of Chapter 5....
ANY

QUESTIONS ?

42
 Soil Mechanics

Chapter-5
Compaction of Soil
Compaction
Compaction is any process by which the soil particles are artificially rearranged and packed
together into a closer state of contact by mechanical method. It is most common and important
method of soil improvement. Air during the compaction is expelled from the void space in the
soil space and therefore mass density is increased. It is extensively used in the construction of
highway, embankments, earth dams and many other engineering structures.

Objectives:

 To increase the shear strength of soil and hence increase the bearing
capacity of soil.
 To reduce compressibility. (Undesirable volume change)
 To minimize the undesirable settlement of structures.
 To reduce permeability of soil.
 To reduce swelling and shrinkage potential.
 To improve the engineering properties of soil.
 To increase the stability of slopes.

Degree of Compaction:
Degree of compaction is measured in terms of dry unit weight. It correlates with the degree of
packing of the soil grains. Dry unit weight is the ratio of weight of solid particles (Ws) to its total
volume (V).
The more compacted a soil is:
(i) the smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
(ii) the higher its dry unit weight (‫ץ‬d) will be.

Compaction curve is relationship between a soil water content and dry unit weight. It is drawn
keeping the water content in X-axis and the respective dry density in Y-axis. The observation
will be initially an increase of dry density with an increase in the water content. Once it reaches a
particular point a decrease of dry density is observed. The maximum peak point of the soil
compaction curve obtained is called the Maximum dry density value. The water content
corresponds to this point is called the Optimum water content (O.W.C) or optimum moisture
content (O.M.C).

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 Soil Mechanics

Initially for water content lesser than O.M.C the soil is rather stiffer in nature that will have lots
of void spaces and porosity. This is the reason for lower dry density attainment. When the soil
particles are lubricated with the increase in the water content, the soil particles will be densely
packed resulting in increased density. Now beyond a limit (OMC) the addition of water will not
bring a change in dry density or will decrease the dry density.

Air Void Line:

A line which shows the relation between water content and dry density of compacted soil having
constant percentage of air voids is known as air-void line.

Where,
w = water content
G = specific gravity
na = percentage air void
‫ץ‬w = unit wt of water

Zero Air Void Line:

The zero air void line is a condition where all air is expelled from the voids such that the soil is
fully saturated. This condition is idealistic which cannot be achieved through compaction in
actual practice. All compaction curve fall at the left hand side of the zero air void line.

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 Soil Mechanics

The graph is plotted for dry density versus water content as shown in above figure. To draw the
zero-air void line, the dry density is to be calculated and that is expressed as below.

Saturation Line:

A line which shows the relation between water content and dry density of compacted soil having
constant degree of saturation (S %) is known as saturation line and represented by the equation:

Where,
w = water content
G = specific gravity
S = degree of saturation
‫ץ‬w = unit wt of water

Note: Is 80% saturation and 20% air content the same or not for soil compaction?
Air content and percentage air voids are different. Therefore, 80% saturation is not equal to 20%
air voids but it is equal to the 20% air content.

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 Soil Mechanics

Optimum Moisture Content:

The Optimum Water Content of soil is the water content at which a maximum dry unit weight
can be achieved after a given compaction effort. A maximum dry unit weight would have no
voids in the soil. The Proctor compaction test (PCT) is a laboratory method of experimentally
determining the optimum moisture content at which a given soil type will become most dense
and achieve its maximum dry density.

Line of Optimums:
Line drawn through the peak points of several compaction curves at different compaction efforts
for the same soil is known as line of optimums. It is almost parallel to a zero air voids curve.

Factors Affecting Compaction

Compaction of soil is a process of densification of soil by displacing air from the pores by
applying external stress on soil at different moisture content. There are different factors which
affects compaction of soils. The effects of these factors on compaction of different types of soils
are discussed below:
i. Water Content: At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to
compaction. As the water content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated. The soil
mass becomes more workable and the particles have closer packing. Thus the higher dry

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 Soil Mechanics

density is achieved up to the optimum water content due to forcing air voids out from the
soil voids. After the optimum water content is reached, it becomes more difficult to force
air out and to further reduce the air voids.
ii. Type of Soil: The compaction of soil depends upon the type of soil. The maximum dry
density and the optimum water content for different soils are shown in figure. In general,
coarse grained soils can be compacted to higher dry density than fine-grained soils. With
the addition of even a small quantity of fines to a coarse-grained soil, the soils attain a
much higher dry density for the same compactive effort.
Cohesive soils have high air voids. These soils attain a relatively lower maximum dry
density as compared with the cohesionless soils. Such soils require more water than
cohesionless soils and therefore the optimum water content is high. Heavy clays of very
high plasticity have very low dry density and very high optimum water content.

iii. Amount of Compaction: The compaction of soil increases with the increase in amount
of compactive effort. With increase in compactive effort, the optimum water content
required for compaction also decreases. At water content less than the optimum, the
effect of increased compaction is more predominant. At water content more than the
optimum, the volume of air voids become almost constant and the effect of increased
compaction on soil is not significant.
It may be mentioned that the maximum dry density does not go on increasing with an
increase in the compactive effort. For a certain increase in the compactive effort, the
increase in the dry density becomes smaller and smaller. Finally a stage is reached
beyond which there is no further increase in the dry density with an increase in the
compactive effort.
iv. Method of Compaction: The dry density achieved depends not only upon the amount of
compactive effort but also on the method of compaction. For the same amount of

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 Soil Mechanics

compactive effort, the dry density will depend upon whether the method of compaction
utilizes kneading action, dynamic action or static action.
v. Admixture: The compaction characteristics of the soils are improved by adding other
material known as admixtures. The most commonly used admixture is lime, cement,
bitumen. The dry density achieved depends upon the type and amount of admixture.

Effect of Compaction on Properties of Soil

The engineering properties of soils are improved by compaction. The desirable properties are
achieved by proper selection of the soil type, the mode of placement and method of compaction.
The effect of compaction on various soil properties are discussed below:
 Permeability  Swelling of soil
 Compressibility  Shrinkage of soil
 Soil structure  Pore water pressure
 Shear strength  Stress-strain behavior of soil
i. Permeability: Compaction reduces the voids present in the soil hence permeability also
reduces. At a particular density, for the same soil sample, permeability is more for soils
which are compacted to dry of optimum than those compacted to wet of optimum.
ii. Compressibility: The Compressibility of compacted soil varies according to the amount
of pressure applied. For low-pressure range, compressibility is more for soils which are
compacted to wet of optimum than soil compacted to dry of optimum. Similarly, for
high-pressure ranges, compressibility is more for soils which are compacted to dry of
optimum than soil compacted to wet of optimum.
iii. Soil Structure: Soils compacted to dry of optimum have flocculated structure due to the
attraction between soil particles because of low water content. Similarly, soils compacted
to wet of optimum have dispersed structure due to repulsive force between soil particles
because of high water content.

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 Soil Mechanics

iv. Shear Strength: Shear strength of soil compacted to dry of optimum is more than those
compacted to wet of optimum at lower strains. At higher strain, soil compacted to wet of
optimum will have more shear strength. Type of compaction, drainage conditions and
type of soil also influence the shear strength of compacted soil.
v. Swelling of Soil: When the soil is compacted to dry of optimum, the soil is in need of
water and it swells easily when contacted with water. When water is compacted to wet of
optimum, the soil particles are oriented in a dispersed manner and swelling does not
occur. So, to avoid swelling, soils should be compacted to wet of optimum.
vi. Shrinkage of Soil: Shrinkage is more for the soil compacted to wet of optimum than dry
of optimum. In case of dry of optimum compaction, soil particles are in random
orientation and they are in stable condition. But in case of wet of optimum, soil particles
are in parallel orientation and they are unstable which makes it easy for packing of
particles causing shrinkage.
vii. Pore Water Pressure: Pore water pressure is high for those soils whose water content is
high. Hence, soils compacted to wet of optimum compaction will exhibit more pore water
pressure than soil compacted dry of optimum.
viii. Stress-Strain Behavior of Soil: Soils compacted to dry side of optimum will take more
stress for little strain hence, stress-strain curve of this type of soil is much steeper and
elastic modulus is more. Brittle failure occurs in this case. Similarly, soils compacted to
wet of optimum will produce more stress even for smaller stress. Hence, Stress-Strain
curve, in this case, is much flatter and plastic-type failure occurs at a larger strain. These
types of soils have low elastic modulus.

Figure: Stress-Strain Relationship

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 Soil Mechanics

Laboratory Compaction Test

In order to study compaction characteristics, compaction test are done in the laboratory. The test
provides a relationship between the water content and dry density. The water content at which
the maximum dry density is attained is obtained from the relationship provided by the tests. Two
commonly laboratory compaction tests are:
 Standard Proctor Test
 Modified Proctor Test (Modified AASTHO Test)
a) Standard Proctor Test
The standard proctor compaction test is a laboratory method of experimentally determining
the optimum moisture content at which a given soil type will become most dense and achieve
its maximum dry density. It helps us to determine the optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density of a soil sample. In this test a cylindrical mould of internal diameter
102 mm and effective height of 117 mm with internal volume of 945 ml is filled up with soil
in 3 layers. Each layer is compacted by 25 blows of a standard hammer of weight 2.5 kg
falling through a height of 30.48 cm. Knowing the wet weight of the compacted soil and its
water content, dry unit weight of soil is obtained by using the formula given below:
ϒ𝐭
ϒd =
𝟏+𝒘

Where, ϒd : Dry Unit Weight (g/cm3 )

ϒt : Wet Unit Weight (g/cm3 )

w: Water Content (%)
Compactive energy used in standard proctor test
is given by the following relation:

b) Modified Proctor Test (Modified AASTHO Test)

The modified proctor test was developed to represent heavier compaction than that in the
standard proctor test. The test is used to simulate field conditions where heavy rollers are
used. The test was standardized by American association of State Highway Officials and is,
therefore also known as modified AASHO test. In this, the mould used is same as that in the
standard proctor test.

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 Soil Mechanics

However, the rammer used is much heavier and has a greater drop than that in the standard
proctor test. Its mass is 4.54 kg and the free drop is 45.72 cm. The soil is compacted in 5
equal layers; each layer is given 25 blows. Compactive energy used in modified proctor test
is 27.46 kg-cm/ml which is 4.53 times greater than that used in standard proctor test.

Type Volume of Weight of No. of Height of No. of blow Compactive

Mould Hammer Layer Drop per layer Energy
(ml) (kg) (cm) (kg-cm/ml)
Standard
Proctor 945 2.5 3 30.48 25 6.05

Modified
Proctor 945 4.54 5 45.72 25 27.46

Figure: Comparison of Compaction Curve

An example of comparison graph between standard and modified proctor test is shown in above
figure. From the plot it is observed that in case of modified proctor test, the maximum dry
density increases as compared to the standard proctor test. However, optimum moisture content
(OMC) is more in case of standard proctor test as compared to the modified proctor test. Thus, it
can be concluded that as the compaction energy increases maximum dry density increases with a
decreasing rate of optimum moisture content.

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 Soil Mechanics

Comparison between Standard and Modified Proctor Test

S.N Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test

1 Mass of rammer is 2.5 kg Mass of rammer is 4.54 kg

2 Compactive effort is less. Compactive effort is about 4.53 times higher.

3 Lower compaction is attained. Heavier compaction is attained.

4 OMC is higher is this case. OMC is lower in this case.

5 Maximum dry density of soil is lower. Maximum dry density of soil is higher.

6 Soil is compacted in 3 layers. Soil is compacted in 5 layers.

7 Height of drop is less. Height of drop is high.

Method of Compaction in Field

Several methods are used for compaction of soil in the field. The choice of method will depend
upon the soil type, the maximum dry density required and economic condition. Some of the
commonly used methods are discussed below:

• Well graded coarse grained soil

Smooth wheeled roller

• Suitable for cohesive soil (fine grained soil)

Sheep foot roller

• Both coarse and fine grained soil

Pneumatic roller

• Only for coarse grained soils

Vibratory roller

• All type of soils, mostly used in small area

Impact rammers

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 Soil Mechanics

a) Smooth Wheel Roller

A smooth-wheel roller generally consists of three wheels. There are two large wheels in the
rare part and one small in the front. The weight of smooth wheel roller varies from 2 to 15
tons. They are not suitable for deep layers of soil such as uniform sands and silty sands
because the resulting compaction pressures induced are low. In addition these rollers cause
stratification in deep layers due to non-uniform compaction. They are used to compact well-
graded coarse grained soils for use in highway base courses and non – plastic fine-grained
soils.
b) Sheep Foot Roller
Sheep foot rollers are named from sheep because, in ancient times, a flock of sheep were
used to compact a newly formed fill. The roller is similar to the smooth wheel roller except
that it contains numerous projecting feet about 200 mm to 250 mm long. The projections of
the roller penetrate the soil layers during rolling and cause compaction. These rollers are
suitable for both plastic and non-plastic fine-grained soils and for coarse-grained soils with
more than 20% fines.
c) Pneumatic Roller
The pneumatic roller is rubber tyred instead of steel tyred or drums. They are widely used for
compaction of sub grades, bases and bituminous mixes. These types of compaction
equipment are suitable for soft base materials or layers of loose soil and closely grained
sands. It can be used for compaction of the cohesive soils with the moisture content of 2-4%
below the plastic limit. It is very effective for bituminous layers where the design mix has a
high content of fines.
d) Vibratory Roller
In vibratory rollers a vibrator mounted on a drum. These rollers are available both in the form
of pneumatic tired type of smooth wheel type. These compactors are suitable for compacting
granular soils with thickness of layer about 30 cm. Vibratory compactors can compact the
granular soil to a very high maximum dry density.
e) Impact Rammers
Impact rammers consist of a block of iron about 3 to 5 kg wooden rod. The rammer is
lifted by about 30 cm and dropped on the soil to be compacted. A mechanical rammer is
operated by compressed air gasoline power. Power controlled or manually operated impact
rammers are used where the areas to be compacted are small, the area is inaccessible and use
of large equipment is not justified. They are also used for compacting backfill behind
retaining walls or small trenches. They can be used for all types of soils.

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 Soil Mechanics

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 Soil Mechanics

Compaction Control at Field

Soil after compaction in the field should be checked for the dry density and the water content in
order to achieve proper quality control. Compaction control is done by measuring dry density
and water content of the compacted soil in the field. In the field dry density of soil can be
determined from sand replacement method or core cutter method and the water content can
be determined indirectly by using a proctor needle.
Objective of Field Compaction Control:
 To determine the in-situ dry density and water content immediately after the compaction
of each lift and to ensure that it satisfies the limits of relative compaction and placement
water content as per compaction specifications.
 To check and ensure that the soils from the prescribed borrow area, having the desired
properties, are used for compaction.
 To check and ensure that the required compaction energy is used in compacting the soil.
This consists of ensuring that the required type of roller suitable to the soils being
compacted is used as well as that the roller is of required capacity.
 It is also necessary to ensure that the required minimum number of passes of the roller is
used for compaction of each lift. The lift thickness, which is the thickness of each
compacted layer, is also to be controlled depending on the type of roller used as excessive
lift thickness that leads to ineffective compaction.
a) Sand Replacement Method
In this method a square tray with a circular hole is taken. The tray is placed on the level
ground. A small quantity of soil is excavated from the hole and is weighted. The water
content of the excavated soil is determined. The hole is filled by sand of known density from
a sand bottle. The weight of sand filling the cone of the sand bottle is taken separately.
Then,
Weight of soil in hole = W1
Weight of sand bottle before pouring = W2
Weight of sand bottle after pouring = W3
Weight of sand filling conical funnel = W4
Weight of sand filling the hole = W2-W3-W4
Unit weight of sand = ‫ץ‬
𝑊2−𝑊3−𝑊4
Volume of sand (V) =
‫ץ‬

𝑊1 ‫𝑡ץ‬
Bulk density (‫ץ‬t) = and Dry density (‫ץ‬d) = Figure: Sand replacement method
𝑉 1+𝑤

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b) Core Cutter Method

Core cutter is used for the determination of dry density of soil (mostly suitable for cohesive
soil). In this method a cylindrical core cutter with dolly of known dimension is used as
shown in figure below. The cylindrical is embedded into the ground for its full height and is
taken out. The surplus soil at both ends is trimmed and the weight of cylinder is found out.
From the known dimension of the cutter, volume and the moisture content of soil is
determined. The dry density of soil is computed as below:

Weight of cutter = W1
Weight of cutter and soil = W2
Weight of soil = W2 – W1
Volume of cutter = V
𝑊2−𝑊1
Bulk density (‫ץ‬t) =
𝑉
‫𝑡ץ‬
Dry density (‫ץ‬d) =
1+𝑤
Where, w = water content

c) Proctor’s Needle Method

The Proctor’s needle consists of a needle attached to a spring-loaded plunger. The needle
consists of a needle point attached to the bottom of a needle shank, as shown in figure. The
needle can be pushed into the compacted soil by pressing the loading plunger. The needle
shank has graduations to read the penetration of the needle into the compacted soil.
The stem of the loading plunger has graduations to show
the resistance offered by the compacted soil to the
penetration of the needle. The loading plunger is
calibrated to indicate the penetration resistance of the
compacted soil based on the deformation of the spring,
which depends on the load applied and the spring
constant. Needle points of different cross-sectional areas
are supplied along with the equipment such as 0.25, 0.5,
1.0, and 2.5 cm2 to use in compacted soils of increasing
penetration resistance. To use the Proctor’s needle to
determine the water content, it is required to prepare a
calibration chart with the soil used for compaction. To
determine the water content of a compacted soil in field,
the soil is compacted in standard compaction mould in the
field. The penetration resistance of the compacted soil is
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measured. The moisture content is then obtained from the calibration curve.

Relative Compaction
Ratio of dry unit weight in the field to maximum dry unit weight in the laboratory is known as
relative compaction. Compacted field dry unit weight should be 90-95% of maximum dry unit
weight determined in the lab.

Where, R = Relative compaction

Comparison between Compaction & Consolidation

S.N Compaction Consolidation
1 Compaction means pressing the soil Consolidation is a process of compression
particles close to each other by mechanical of saturated soil under a steady static
method. pressure.

2 It is almost an instantaneous phenomenon. It is a time dependent phenomenon.

3 The soil is always unsaturated. The soil is completely saturated.
4 Compaction occurs due to the application Consolidation occurs due to the application
of dynamic load. of static load.

5 Densification is due to the reduction in the Volume reduction is due to the expulsion of
volume of air voids at given water content. pore water from the voids.

6 Specified compaction techniques are used Consolidation occurs on account of a load

in this process. placed on the soil.

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Numerical Problems
# Problem: 1
The maximum dry density of a sample by light compaction test is 1.78 gm/cc at optimum
moisture content of 15%. Find air voids and degree of saturation. What would be the
corresponding value of dry density on zero air void line at OMC? Assume G = 2.67

# Problem: 2
In a standard proctor test on a soil having specific gravity as 2.7, the following results were
obtained.

Water Content (%) 5 8 10 12 15 20

Bulk Unit Weight (kg/m3) 1890 2130 2200 2210 2160 2080

Plot the dry density versus water content curve. Determine the values of void ratio, porosity, and
degree of saturation for soil at optimum moisture condition (OMC).

# Problem: 3
Earth is required to be excavated from pits for building an embankment. The unit weight of soil
in wet condition is 18 kN/m3 and its water content is 8%. In order to build a 4 m high
embankment with top width of 2 m and side slope 1:1, estimate the quantity of earth required to
be excavated per meter length of embankments. The dry density required in the embankment is
15 kN/m3 with the moisture content 10%. Take specific gravity of solids as 2.67.

# Problem: 4
In a Standard Proctor Test the mould of 1 liter capacity weighs 12.5N when empty. Successive
trials gave the following results:

Water Content (%) 16.7 18.6 21.0 21.7 23.5

Weight of mould + Wet soil (N) 29.6 30.1 31.5 31.2 30.8

Take G = 2.7. Determine the maximum dry density and optimum water content.

# Problem: 5
The specific gravity of soil solids is 2.65, and the volume of mould is 1000 cm 3. Plot the
compaction curve and obtain the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content. Plot also
0%, 5%, 10% air voids curves. At the maximum dry density, calculate the void ratio, degree of
saturation and air content. The results obtained from standard compaction test are given below.

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Mass of Compacted Soil (gm) 1929.5 2051.5 2138.5 2147 2128 2058

Water Content (%) 11 12.4 12.9 13.8 14.9 16.7

# Solution (Hint)
Given:
Specific Gravity (G) = 2.65 Volume of mould (V) = 1000 cm3
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:

Mass of Water
Soil, M Content,
(gm) w (%) (At 0% air) (At 5% air) (At 10% air)
1929.5 11 1.9295
2051.5 12.4 2.0515
2138.5 12.9 2.1385
2147 13.8 2.147
2128 14.9 2.128
2058 16.7 2.058
176
Plot the graph based on the above calculated data.

# Problem: 6
Given standard soil compaction test results as follows:

Trail No. Moisture Content Wet Unit Weight of

(% by dry weight) Compacted Soil (kN/m3)

1 8 19

2 10 21.2

3 11.4 21.9

4 12.6 21.1

5 13.9 20.2

The specific gravity of the soil particles is 2.65. Plot the following:
(i) Moisture-dry density curve

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(ii) Zero air voids curve, and

(iii) Ten percent air content curve. (90% Saturation curve)

# Solution (Hint)
Given: Specific Gravity (G) = 2.65
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:

Wet Unit Weight, Water

(kN/m3) Content, w (%)
(At 0% air void) (At 10% air
(kN/m3) content) or
90% saturation
19 8
21.2 10
21.9 11.4
21.1 12.6
20.2 13.9
178

Plot the graph based on the above calculated data.

# Problem: 7
The following data refers to a compaction test.

Water Content (%) 8.5 12.2 13.75 15.5 18.2 20.2

Weight of Wet Sample (Kg) 1.8 1.94 2.0 2.05 2.03 1.98

If the specific gravity of soil grains was 2.7

i. Plot the compaction curve and obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content.

ii. Plot the 80% and 100% saturation lines.

iii. If it is proposed to secure a relative compaction of 95% in the field, what is the range of
water content that can be allowed?

iv. Would the 20% air voids curve be same as the 80% saturation curve?

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# Solution (Hint)
Given:
Specific Gravity (G) = 2.7, Assume volume of mould = 1 liter
The results of computations are tabulated as given below:

Weight of Water
Wet Sample, Content,
M (kg) w (%) S = 0.8 S=1
1.8 8.5
1.94 12.2
2.0 13.75
2.05 15.5
2.03 18.2
1.98 20.2
Plot the graph based on the above calculated data.

# Problem: 8

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# Problem: 8

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