Chapter 6

Dynamic Response
Characteristics
of
More Complicated Systems
 More General Transfer Function Models

K ( τ a s + 1)
G (s) = (6-14)
( τ1s + 1)( τ 2 s + 1)
Chapter 66

• Poles and Zeros:

• The dynamic behavior of a transfer function model can be
characterized by the numerical value of its poles and zeros.
• General Representation of a TF:
There are two equivalent representations:
m

Y (s)
∑i
b s i

i =0
G (s) = = (4-40)
U (s) n
∑i
a s i

i =0 2
 bm ( s − z1 )( s − z2 )K( s − zm )
G (s) = (6-7)
an ( s − p1 )( s − p2 )K ( s − pn )
Chapter 66

where {zi} are the “zeros” and {pi} are the “poles”.

• We will assume that there are no “pole-zero” cancellations. That

is, that no pole has the same numerical value as a zero.

• Review: n ≥ m in order to have a physically realizable system.

3
 Figure 11.26
Contributions of
characteristic
Chapter 6

equation roots to
closed-loop
response.

bm ( s − z1 )( s − z2 )K ( s − zm )
G (s) =
an ( s − p1 )( s − p2 )K( s − pn )

4
 Summary: Effects of Pole and Zero Locations

1. Poles
• Pole in “right half plane (RHP)”: results in unstable system
(i.e., unstable step responses)
Chapter 66

Imaginary axis
x x = unstable pole
x Real axis
x

• Complex pole: results in oscillatory responses

Imaginary axis
x = complex poles
p = a + bj x
Real axis
(j= −1 ) x
5
 • Pole at the origin (1/s term in TF model): results in an
“integrating process”

2. Zeros
Note: Zeros have no effect on system stability.
Chapter 66

• Zero in RHP: results in an inverse response to a step change in

the input
Imaginary axis

Real inverse
x ⇒ y 0 response
axis

• Zero in left half plane: may result in “overshoot” during a step

response (see Fig. 6.3).
6
 Example 6.2

For the case of a single zero in an overdamped second-order

transfer function,
K ( τ a s + 1)
Chapter 66

G (s) = (6-14)
( τ1s + 1)( τ 2 s + 1)
calculate the response to the step input of magnitude M and plot
the results qualitatively.

Solution
The response of this system to a step change in input is
 τ a − τ1 −t / τ τ a − τ 2 −t / τ 
y ( t ) = KM 1 + e 1 + e 2
 (6-15)
 τ −
1 2τ τ −
2 1τ 
7
 Note that y ( t → ∞ ) = KM as expected; hence, the effect of
including the single zero does not change the final value nor does
it change the number or location of the response modes. But the
Chapter 66

zero does affect how the response modes (exponential terms) are
weighted in the solution, Eq. 6-15.
 τ a − τ1 −t / τ τ a − τ 2 −t / τ 
y ( t ) = KM 1 + e 1 + e 2
 (6-15)
 τ1 − τ 2 τ 2 − τ1 
A certain amount of mathematical analysis (see Exercises 6.4, 6.5,
and 6.6) will show that there are three types of responses involved
here:
Case a: τ a > τ1
Case b: 0 < τ a ≤ τ1
Case c: τa < 0 8
 bm ( s − z1 )( s − z2 )K( s − zm )
G (s) = (6-7)
an ( s − p1 )( s − p2 )K( s − pn )

 τ a − τ1 −t / τ τ a − τ 2 −t / τ 
y ( t ) = KM 1 + e 1 + e 2
 (6-15)
 τ −
1 2τ τ −
2 1τ 
Chapter 66

Case a: τa > τ1
Case b: 0 < τa ≤ τ1
Case c: τa < 0

9
Chapter 66 Inverse Response Due to Two Competing Effects

An inverse response occurs if:

K2 τ2
− > (6-22)
K1 τ1
10
 Time Delays
Time delays occur due to:
1. Fluid flow in a pipe
2. Transport of solid material (e.g., conveyor belt)
Chapter 66

3. Chemical analysis
- Sampling line delay
- Time required to do the analysis (e.g., on-line gas
chromatograph)
Mathematical description:
A time delay, θ, between an input u and an output y results in the
following expression:
 0 for t < θ
y (t ) =  (6-27)
u ( t − θ ) for t ≥ θ 11
 Example: Turbulent flow in a pipe

Let, u = fluid property (e.g., temperature or composition) at

point 1
y = fluid property at point 2
Chapter 66

Fluid In Fluid Out

Point 1 Point 2
Figure 6.5

Assume that the velocity profile is “flat”, that is, the velocity
is uniform over the cross-sectional area. This situation is
analyzed in Example 6.5 and Fig. 6.6.
12
 Chapter 66

13
 Example 6.5

For the pipe section illustrated in Fig. 6.5, find the transfer
functions:
(a) relating the mass flow rate of liquid at 2, w2, to the mass flow
Chapter 66

rate of liquid at 1, w1,

(b) relating the concentration of a chemical species at 2 to the
concentration at 1. Assume that the liquid is incompressible.
Solution
(a) First we make an overall material balance on the pipe
segment in question. Since there can be no accumulation
(incompressible fluid),

material in = material out ⇒ w1 ( t ) = w2 ( t )

14
 Putting (6-30) in deviation form and taking Laplace transforms
yields the transfer function, W2′ ( s )
=1
W1′( s )
Chapter 66

(b) Observing a very small cell of material passing point 1 at time

t, we note that in contains Vc1(t) units of the chemical species of
interest where V is the total volume of material in the cell. If, at
time t + θ, the cell passes point 2, it contains Vc2 ( t + θ ) units of
the species. If the material moves in plug flow, not mixing at all
with adjacent material, then the amount of species in the cell is
constant:
Vc2 ( t + θ ) = Vc1 ( t ) (6-30)
or
c2 ( t + θ ) = c1 ( t ) (6-31)
15
 An equivalent way of writing (6-31) is
c2 ( t ) = c1 ( t − θ ) (6-32)
Chapter 66

if the flow rate is constant. Putting (6-32) in deviation form and

taking Laplace transforms yields
C2′ ( s )
= e −θθss (6-33)
C1′ ( s )
Time Delays (continued)
Transfer Function Representation:
Y (s)
= e − θs (6-28)
U (s)
Note that θ has units of time (e.g., minutes, hours) 16
 Polynomial Approximations to e −θs :

For purposes of analysis using analytical solutions to transfer

functions, polynomial approximations for e −θs are commonly
Chapter 66

used. Example: simulation software such as MATLAB and

Matrix.
Two widely used approximations are:
1. Taylor Series Expansion:

θ 2 s 2 θ3 s3 θ 4 s 4
e − θs = 1 − θs + − + +K (6-34)
2! 3! 4!
The approximation is obtained by truncating after only a few
terms.
17
 2. Padé Approximations:
Many are available. For example, the 1/1 approximation is,
Chapter 66

θ
1− s
e − θs ≈ 2 (6-35)
θ
1+ s
2

Implications for Control:

Time delays are very bad for control because they involve a
delay of information.

18
 Approximation of Higher-Order Transfer
Functions
In this section, we present a general approach for approximating
high-order transfer function models with lower-order models that
have similar dynamic and steady-state characteristics.
Chapter 66

In Eq. 6-4 we showed that the transfer function for a time delay
can be expressed as a Taylor series expansion. For small values of
s,
θ 2 s 2 θ3 s3 θ 4 s 4
e − θs = 1 − θs + − + +K (6-34)
2! 3! 4!
e −θ 0 s ≈ 1 − θ 0 s (6-57)

19
 • An alternative first-order approximation consists of the transfer
function,
1 1
Chapter 66

e −θ 0 s = θ0 s
≈ (6-58)
e 1 + θ0 s

where the time constant has a value of θ 0 .

• Equations 6-57 and 6-58 were derived to approximate time-
delay terms.
• However, these expressions can also be used to approximate
the pole or zero term on the right-hand side of the equation by
the time-delay term on the left side.

20
 Skogestad’s “half rule”

• Skogestad (2002) has proposed a related approximation method

for higher-order models that contain multiple time constants.
Chapter 66

• He approximates the largest neglected time constant in the

following manner.
• One half of its value is added to the existing time delay (if any)
and the other half is added to the smallest retained time
constant.
• Time constants that are smaller than the “largest neglected time
constant” are approximated as time delays using (6-58).

21
 Example 6.4

Consider a transfer function:

K ( −0.1s + 1)
G (s) = (6-59)
( 5s + 1)( 3s + 1)( 0.5s + 1)
Chapter 66

Derive an approximate first-order-plus-time-delay model,

− θs
Ke
G% ( s ) = (6-60)
τs + 1
using two methods:
(a) The Taylor series expansions of Eqs. 6-57 and 6-58.
(b) Skogestad’s half rule

Compare the normalized responses of G(s) and the approximate

models for a unit step input.
22
 K ( −0.1s + 1)
Solution G (s) = (6-59)
( 5s + 1)( 3s + 1)( 0.5s + 1)
Chapter 66

(a) The dominant time constant (5) is retained. Applying

the approximations in (6-57) and (6-58) gives:
−0.1s + 1 ≈ e−0.1s (6-61)
and
1 1
≈ e −3s ≈ e −0.5s (6-62)
3s + 1 0.5s + 1
Substitution into (6-59) gives the Taylor series approximation, G%TS ( s ) :
−0.1s −3s −0.5 s −3.6 s
Ke e e Ke
G%TS ( s ) = = (6-63)
5s + 1 5s + 1 23
 (b) To use Skogestad’s method, we note that the largest neglected
time constant in (6-59) has a value of 3.
• According to his “half rule”, half of this value is added to the
Chapter 66

next largest time constant to generate a new time constant

τ = 5 + 0.5(3) = 6.5.
• The other half provides a new time delay of 0.5(3) = 1.5.
• The approximation of the RHP zero in (6-61) provides an
additional time delay of 0.1.
• Approximating the smallest time constant of 0.5 in (6-59) by
(6-58) produces an additional time delay of 0.5.
• Thus the total time delay in (6-60) is, θ = 1.5 + 0.1 + 0.5 = 2.1
K ( −0.1s + 1)
G (s) = (6-59)
( 5s + 1)( 3s + 1)( 0.5s + 1)
24
 and G(s) can be approximated as:
−2.1s
Ke
G% Sk ( s ) = (6-64)
6.5s + 1
Chapter 66

The normalized step responses for G(s) and the two approximate
models are shown in Fig. 6.10. Skogestad’s method provides better
agreement with the actual response.

Figure 6.10
Comparison of the
actual and
approximate models
for Example 6.4.

25
 Example 6.5

Consider the following transfer function:

K (1 − s ) e − s
G (s) = (6-65)
(12s + 1)( 3s + 1)( 0.2s + 1)( 0.05s + 1)
Chapter 66

Use Skogestad’s method to derive two approximate models:

(a) A first-order-plus-time-delay model in the form of (6-60)
− θs
Ke
G% ( s ) = (6-60)
τs + 1
(b) A second-order-plus-time-delay model in the form:
− θs
Ke
G% ( s ) = (6-66)
( τ1s + 1)( τ 2 s + 1)
Compare the normalized output responses for G(s) and the
approximate models to a unit step input. 26
 Solution

(a)For the first-order-plus-time-delay model, the dominant time

constant (12) is retained.
Chapter 66

• One-half of the largest neglected time constant (3) is allocated to

the retained time constant and one-half to the approximate time
delay.
• Also, the small time constants (0.2 and 0.05) and the zero (1) are
added to the original time delay.
• Thus the model parameters in (6-60) are:
3.0
θ = 1+ + 0.2 + 0.05 + 1 = 3.75
2
3.0
τ = 12 + = 13.5
2
27
 (b) An analogous derivation for the second-order-plus-time-delay
model gives:
Chapter 66

0.2
θ = 1+ + 0.05 + 1 = 2.15
2
τ1 = 12, τ 2 = 3 + 0.1 = 3.1

In this case, the half rule is applied to the third largest time
constant (0.2). The normalized step responses of the original and
approximate transfer functions are shown in Fig. 6.11.

28
 Interacting vs. Noninteracting Systems

• Consider a process with several input variables and several

output variables. The process is said to be interacting if:
- Each input affects more than one output directly.
Chapter 66

or
- A change in one output affects the other outputs.

Otherwise, the process is called noninteracting.

• As an example, we will consider the two liquid-level storage

systems shown in Figs. 4.3 and 6.13.
• In general, transfer functions for interacting processes are more
complicated than those for noninteracting processes.

29
 Figure 4.3. A noninteracting system:
two surge tanks in series.
Chapter 66

Figure 6.13. Two tanks in series whose liquid levels interact.

30
 Figure 4.3. A noninteracting system:
two surge tanks in series.
Chapter 66

dh1
Mass Balance: A1 = qi − q1 (4-48)
dt
1
Valve Relation: q1 = h1 (4-49)
R1

Substituting (4-49) into (4-48) eliminates q1:

dh1 1
A1 = qi − h1 (4-50)
dt R1 31
 Putting (4-49) and (4-50) into deviation variable form gives

dh1′ 1
A1 = qi′ − h1′ (4-51)
dt R1
1
q1′ = h1′ (4-52)
R1
Chapter 66

The transfer function relating H1′ ( s ) to Q1′i ( s ) is found by

transforming (4-51) and rearranging to obtain

H1′ ( s ) R1 K1
= = (4-53)
Qi′ ( s ) A1R1s + 1 τ1s + 1

where K1 = R1 and τ1 = A1R1. Similarly, the transfer function

relating Q1′ ( s ) to H1′ ( s ) is obtained by transforming (4-52).

32
 Q1′ ( s ) 1 1
= = (4-54)
H1′ ( s ) R1 K1

The same procedure leads to the

corresponding transfer functions
for Tank 2,
Chapter 66

H 2′ ( s ) R2 K2
= = (4-55)
Q2′ ( s ) A2 R2 s + 1 τ 2 s + 1
Q2′ ( s ) 1 1
= = (4-56)
H 2′ ( s ) R2 K 2 Figure 4.3. A noninteracting system:
two surge tanks in series.

where K 2 = R2 and τ 2 = A2 R2. Note that the desired transfer

function relating the outflow from Tank 2 to the inflow to Tank 1
can be derived by forming the product of (4-53) through (4-56).

33
 Q2′ ( s ) Q2′ ( s ) H 2′ ( s ) Q1′ ( s ) H1′ ( s )
= (4-57)
Qi′ ( s ) H 2′ ( s ) Q1′ ( s ) H1′ ( s ) Qi′ ( s )
or
Chapter 66

Q2′ ( s ) 1 K 2 1 K1
= (4-58)
Qi′ ( s ) K 2 τ 2 s + 1 K1 τ1s + 1

which can be simplified to yield

Q2′ ( s ) 1
= (4-59)
Qi′ ( s ) ( τ1s + 1)( τ 2 s + 1)
a second-order transfer function (does unity gain make sense on
physical grounds?). Figure 4.4 is a block diagram showing
information flow for this system.
34
 Block Diagram for Noninteracting
Surge Tank System
Chapter 6

Figure 4.4. Input-output model for two liquid surge tanks in

series.

35
 Dynamic Model of An Interacting Process
Chapter 66

Figure 6.13. Two tanks in series whose liquid levels interact.

1
q1 = ( h1 − h2 ) (6-70)
R1

The transfer functions for the interacting system are:

36
 H 2′ ( s ) R2
= 2 2 (6-74)
Qi′ ( s ) τ s + 2ζτs + 1

Q2′ ( s ) 1
= 2 2
Qi′ ( s ) τ s + 2ζτs + 1
Chapter 66

H1′ ( s ) K1′ ( τ a s + 1)
= 2 2 (6-72)
Qi′ ( s ) τ s + 2ζτs + 1
where
τ1 + τ 2 + R2 A1
τ= τ1τ 2 , ζ = , and τ a =R R A
1 2 2 / ( R1 + R2 )
2 τ1τ 2

In Exercise 6.15, the reader can show that ζ>1 by analyzing the
denominator of (6-71); hence, the transfer function is
overdamped, second order, and has a negative zero.
37
 Model Comparison
Noninteracting system
Q 2′ ( s ) 1
= (4-59)
Qi′ ( s ) ( τ1 s + 1)( τ 2 s + 1)
Chapter 6

where τ1 = A1 R1 and τ 2 = A2 R 2 .
Interacting system
Q 2′ ( s ) 1
= 2 2
Qi′ ( s ) τ s + 2ζτ s + 1

where ζ > 1 and τ = τ1 τ 2

General Conclusions
The interacting system has a slower response.
(Example: consider the special case where τ = τ1= τ2.)
38
 Multiple-Input, Multiple Output (MIMO)
Processes

• Most industrial process control applications involved a number

of input (manipulated) and output (controlled) variables.
Chapter 66

• These applications often are referred to as multiple-input/

multiple-output (MIMO) systems to distinguish them from the
simpler single-input/single-output (SISO) systems that have
been emphasized so far.
• Modeling MIMO processes is no different conceptually than
modeling SISO processes.

39
Chapter 66

Figure 6.14. A multi-input, multi-output thermal mixing process.

40
 • For example, consider the system illustrated in Fig. 6.14.
• Here the level h in the stirred tank and the temperature T are to
be controlled by adjusting the flow rates of the hot and cold
Chapter 66

streams wh and wc, respectively.

• The temperatures of the inlet streams Th and Tc represent
potential disturbance variables.
• Note that the outlet flow rate w is maintained constant and the
liquid properties are assumed to be constant in the following
derivation.

(6-88)
41
 Chapter 66

42