CE 726

Low Cost Construction

By
Dr. Ankesh Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
SVNIT Surat
[email protected]
1. Concepts of low cost materials
Soil, Fly ash, Ferro cement, Lime, Fibers, Stone Dust, Boulders and oversize metal,
Bitumen etc.

2. Low cost building material products

Walls; Stabilized and sun dried, soil blocks & bricks, Hollow concrete blocks, stone
masonry blocks, Ferro cement partitions. Roofs ; Precast R.C. Plank & Joists roof, Precast
channel roof, Precast L-panel roof, Precast Funicular shells, Ferro cement shells, Filler
Slab, Seasal Fiber roof, Improved country tiles, Thatch roof.

3. Low cost construction Techniques and Equipment

Techniques; Rat trap bond construction, Precast R.C. and Ferro cement technique, Mud
Technology. Equipments ; Brick molding machine, Stabilized soil block making machine
and plants for the manufacturing of concrete blocks, Low Cost Roads.

4. Low cost sanitation

Waste water disposal system, Low cost sanitation for rural and urban areas, Ferro
cement Drains

5. Cost analysis and comparison

Low cost materials, Low cost techniques
REFERENCES:

1. Lal, K (2011) Handbook of Low Cost Housing, 1st Edition. New Age
International Publisher

2. NBO, Handbook of Housing Statistics, Government of India.

 Low Cost Construction
WHAT???

WHY???

HOW???

FOR WHOM???
1. What is low cost construction??
2. Why we have to study about low cost construction??
 Low Cost Construction
• Housing is a basic need of human being (To stay healthy, Entire life).
• But this is out of the means of low income house holder who constitute majority of
population in our country.
• In India maximum affordability of household was defined to be 5.1 times the
household’s total gross income as compared to the developed countries.
• With an annual population growth rate of 1.64 % as compared to world population
growth rate of 1.23 % during the last decade there would be a great demand to fulfill
housing needs in coming years.
• Low cost housing is a different concept which deals with effective costing and
following of sustainable building techniques.
• Low cost housing is done by proper management of resources
• Low cost housing ( Is it for weaker section only???) (Income level, size of dwelling
unit and affordability).
• There is a huge misconception that low cost housing is suitable for only sub normal
works and they are built by using cheap building materials of low quality.
• It has now became a necessity to adopt cost effective, innovative and
environment-friendly housing technologies for the construction of houses and
buildings and availing them at low cost comparatively.
Factors on which the cost will depend
Shape of house (to be square which is the most economical shape), Time, materials used and
techniques
Factors Considered for the Construction
Strength and durability, safety and mental satisfaction are factors that assume top priority
during cost reduction
Construction of Houses – Enormous demand of building materials like steel, cement
and wood etc (Traditional materials).
• The continuous exploitation and depletion of natural resources is harming the
environment.
• More- over, different toxic substances such as carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides and suspended particulate matter are invariably emitted in the atmosphere during
manufacturing processes of traditional construction materials.
• Contaminates the air, water, soil, and aquatic life which influence the human health and
the standard of living
• To reduce this dependence on conventional building material there is a need to review
alternate building materials and formulate guidelines for their application in construction
industry.
Low cost house - Effective budgeting and use of techniques which help in reducing the cost
of construction by the use of locally available materials along with improved skills and
technology without compromising the strength, performance and life of the structure.
Seeing the past constructions one can see the use of natural materials like straw, bamboo, fibres
(jute, coir), earth etc. as an old practice in India (easy workability and speedy construction).

• Reducing plinth area by using thinner wall concept

• Using locally available material in an innovative form
• Use of energy efficiency materials which consume less energy.
• Using environmental friendly materials which are substitute for conventional
• building components
• Preplanning every component of a house and rationalizing the design procedure
• Extensive planning of each and every component in a house the wastage of materials due
to demolition of the unplanned component of the house can be avoided.
• Every component should be analyzed for its usability in the house if not needed then the
component can be done away with totally.
 Concepts of low cost materials
• Low-cost and sustainable building materials for housing
• The applicability of building materials (local circumstances):
1. The availability of raw materials;
2. The culture of making building materials;
3. The construction methods;
4. The power of individuals, households, and residents’ groups;
5. The willingness of entrepreneurs to participate in house construction.
• All the housing could be built by corporations or building companies.
• However, in the low-cost housing market, housing is usually built by the households
themselves, by local communities, and by small businesses and craftsmen.
• Three types of sustainability:
1. Technical sustainability (durability),
2. Climate friendly sustainability,
3. Social sustainability.
• The use of sustainable building materials is important for the incremental processes of
self-managed house construction and home improvement.
• When households and communities participate in house construction, they can significantly
lower the building costs.
 Sustainable Building Materials and Housing

• High-quality building materials must always be used (long-lasting, have nice features,
and require only a little maintenance) ‘basic durability’

• A home must provide protection against the effects of the regional climate condition, such
as coldness and heat, wind, rain, etc. In addition, the house must offer the residents safety
and privacy, and it should never collapse.

• Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, tropical storms, and floods, place unique technical
demands on the dwellings’ structures and materials.

• In areas that are seriously threatened, the construction of houses must be prohibited,
through adequate planning regulations, especially in areas that can’t be protected by
technical measures such as dikes in flood areas.

• Due to climate change, natural phenomena are becoming more violent, and thus the
requirements for the durability of a building’s structure and its materials need more
attention.
 Durability and Sustainability
• Sustainable house building - Protecting the environment, the climate and the natural
resources.
• Objective - Housing does not contribute to climate change or emissions of greenhouse
gases - CO2 gas in particular.
• If the import of concrete building materials and the associated high transport costs can be
avoided, the (climate) benefits are immediate.
• If the use of fossil fuels can be avoided, both in the procurement of raw-materials and in
the production and the transport of materials, environmental benefits are gained.
• For example, in the production of bricks and roof tiles, clay is often collected locally and
fired with wood in kilns, but then one can’t speak of sustainable building materials even
though they may be long-lasting or durable.
• In general, the use of concrete is not sustainable (energy used and transport)
• The conditions in the region determine the construction techniques that are needed
regarding strength and resilience. (In earthquake zones - earthquake resistant, For house
building in flood plains, specially adapted technical requirements may be applied.
• The safety of the buildings must always have priority. (fire safety)
• In all cases, adequate building codes and building control must be available and applied,
which is not always the case.
 • Applying new technologies to local building materials can facilitate the improvement of
traditional techniques in local communities. Professional assistance for individual
households and local communities should be available in order to
1. Avoid disinvestments and apply sustainable materials and techniques,
2. Find financing for the construction of a house or parts of it,
3. Make safety arrangements for those areas threatened by major natural phenomena.
• Building materials, construction techniques, and building cultures are present in a
particular district.
• Research should be performed regarding the presence and quality of local raw materials
such as wood, bamboo, sand, gravel, clay, loam, lime, etc.
• Mostly, these materials are not found in urbanized areas, but in the surrounding rural areas
one can find them.
• The extraction of the raw materials must be done in a sustainable manner, and physical
planning and management are necessary.
• Local residents, craftsmen, and local companies can be involved in the procurement of
raw materials and their processing into ready-to-use building materials.
• Preferably, the (future) residents are involved in designing their houses by creating the
floor plan, choosing the building materials, and participating in the house construction or
the home improvement. (NGOs should involve )
Promising Building Materials for Low-cost Housing
Construction

The construction aspect must always be well attended, meaning it requires adequate
foundations and structures. Below, attention is given to the following five groups of building
materials.

1. Bamboo and timber

2. Compressed earth bricks/blocks
3. Adobe blocks
4. Interlocking blocks of recycled materials
5. Improved concrete panels.
 Bamboo and timber

• Bamboo has a lot of potential as a building material for low-cost housing.

• Latin America and Asia,
• Bamboo housing - rural phenomenon, based on local production and processing of the
raw material.
• City - Develop vast bamboo plantations to provide the urban housing markets with
bamboo for construction.
• Bamboo can be used in countries where it has a natural presence.
• One must choose the right sort of bamboo. For example, the species Guadua angustifolia
is native to South America and has the best properties for construction.
• Gradual development of the area reduces the use of Bamboo – the squatters’ bamboo
houses are transformed into concrete houses
• Families see bamboo as ‘the poor man’s construction material’
• The use of bamboo as a construction material in urban settlements is still limited, but the
material is sustainable
• Bamboo house is earthquake resistant if constructed well
• The construction of complete houses of bamboo, with a strengthening framework,
requires technical expertise. If it is done by self-builders, there should be technical
assistance by specialized carpenters.
• Bamboo treatment with preservers, often chemicals, to prevent termites from destroying it (30
to 35 years). If not treated - replaced within 5-10 years.
• The outer walls of the bamboo homes are plastered, in order to give protection against the
influences of the climate and insects. (looks like ordinary house)
• Strengthening corner joints, and pre-fabricated wall panels that can be used for exterior walls.
• Dividing walls and woven bamboo mats for covering floors can be used in urban housing
• Costa Rica the National Bamboo Project (1986-1995) - started as a new technological
approach to preventing deforestation.
• Replace the use of wood with an alternative, cost-effective and seismically sound building
material.
• 700 low-cost houses were built and 200 hectares of bamboo have been cultivated
• A building training program enables local families to learn skills in building
earthquake-resistant houses.
• Using timber in house construction is comparable to using bamboo, but it is easier to handle.
• A structure of timber can be combined with bamboo walls that will be plastered, and of course
also with other materials.
• One must take into account transportation costs and the replanting of trees in the area where
the wood was harvested
• Completely wooden houses in dense urban areas is not recommended because of the danger of
fires
 SCIENTIFIC DESIGN OF BAMBOO STRUCTURES

WHY BAMBOO FOR CONSTRUCTION

Construction industry is one of the most polluting industries of the world

Production of 1 ton of
cement emits > 1 ton
of CO2 in the
Atmosphere

Production of 1 ton of
steel emits > 2 ton of
CO2 in the atmosphere
Bamboo
offers
competitive
strength to
mass ratio.
Mechanical Properties of Bamboo, a Natural Composite
(S. C. LAKKAD, J. M. PATEL, 1980)
 Timber
• Wood
– Hard, fibrous material that makes up tree under bark
• Trunk of tree accounts for 80% of total bulk of wood
• Timber
– Wood which retains its natural physical structure and
chemical composition and is suitable for various engineering
works
 Timber
• Classification
– On the basis of (IS 399)
• Position
• Modulus of Elasticity
• Availability
• Durability
• Seasoning Characteristics
• Treatability
– On the basis of Grading (IS 6534)
 Timber
• Characteristics of Good Timber
– Principal
• Strength
• Durability
• Finished appearance
– Narrow annual rings
• Closer the rings greater the strength
– Compact medullary rays
– Dark colour
– Uniform texture
 Timber
• Characteristics of Good Timber
– Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
– When struck sonorous sound is produced
– Free from defects in timber
– Heavy weight
– No wooliness at fresh cut surface
 Timber
• Seasoning of Timber
– Process of reducing moisture content (drying) of timber to
prevent possible fermentation and suitable for use (or)
– Process of drying wood to average humidity of surroundings

– Rapid seasoning should be avoided

• Becomes hard and resist the penetration of
preservatives
 Timber
• Seasoning of Timber
– Significance
• Reduce shrinkage and warping after placement in
structure
• Increases strength, durability and workability
• Reduce its tendency to split and decay
• Make it suitable for painting
• Reduce its weight
 Timber
• Seasoning of Timber
– Methods
• Natural or air seasoning
• Artificial seasoning
• Water seasoning
• Boiling
• Kiln seasoning
 Timber
• Preservation of Timber (IS 401)
– To avoid
• Water absorption
• Decay and
• Other undesirable effects
– Methods
• Oil type preservatives
• Organic solvent preservatives
• Water soluble preservatives
 Timber
• Various Treatment Processes (IS 401)
– Surface application
– Soaking treatment
– Hot and cold process
– Boucherie process
– Full cell or Bethel process
– Empty cell process
– Diffusion process
 Timber
• Fire Resistance of Timber
– Fire proofing makes timber resistant to fire to a degree that it
is difficult to ignite and support its own combustion

– To enhance fire resistance of wood

• Soak in chemicals
– Phosphates of ammonia, mixture of ammonium phosphate and
ammonium sulphate, borax and boric acid, sodium arsenate,
sodium tetra-borate
• Design wood to provide slow burning construction
 Timber
• Testing of Timber (IS 1708)
– Specific gravity test
– Volumetric shrinkage test
– Radial and Tangential shrinkage test
– Fibre saturation test
– Static bending strength test
– Impact bending strength test
– Compressive strength test
– Hardness under static indentation test
– Shear strength test
– Tensile strength test
– Cleavage strength test
 Timber
• Testing of Timber (IS 1708)
– Brittleness test
– Torsional strength test
– Moisture content test
 Timber
• Uses of Timber
S.No. Purpose Requirements
1 Houses (a) Sufficiently close grained
(b) Takes good polish
(c) Toughness and durability
(d) Pleasing colour
(e) Easy to work with
2 Bridges (a) Strength and hardness
(b) Resistance to salt water action
(c) Durability in moist places and under water
3 Railway (a) Hardness, toughness and strength
sleepers (b) Durability under moist conditions
 Timber
• Uses of Timber
S.No. Purpose Requirements
4 Columns, (a) Hardness and durability
beams, door(b) Should take good polish
frames, etc. (c) Flexibility
(d) Light in weight
(e) Easy to work
(f) Lasts under water
5 Scaffolding(a) Strength and durability
(b) Flexible
(c) Easy to work
6 Shuttering (a) Hardness and durability
(b) Easy to work
(c) Durability in moist conditions
 Timber
• Applications
 Timber
• Applications
– Rafter type roof
 Timber
• Applications
– Houses
 Timber
• Applications
– Commercial buildings
 Timber
• Applications
– Bridges
 Timber
• Applications
– Buildings and wharf structures
 Timber
• Applications
– Fender piles
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 • Traditional building materials such as clay, loam, and sand can be used in new ways, such
as with uniform, rectangular compressed earth blocks (CEB) and (interlocking) stabilized
soil (earth) blocks (SSB or ISSB).
• Minimum or no use of cement.
• CEB and SSB blocks are used for the construction of houses, latrines, schools, community
facilities, etc.
• Africa, Asia and Latin America
• Good thermal features, reducing heating and cooling costs.
• If constructed well, buildings made with CEB can be sustainable and durable.
• Technological improvements - small-scale and at the local level, potentially contributing
to local economic development.
• UN-Habitat stimulated in Darfur an early recovery of stabilized soil blocks for sustainable
urban growth.
• The stabilized soil block production process is a technique consisting of mixing at least 5
per cent cement (less than that of normal bricks) or lime stabilizer with soil and a minimal
amount of water (and possibly waterproofing agents).
• The blocks are compressed using steel hand press machines or mechanical presses
machines to produce good quality blocks.
• Compared with burned bricks, the benefits of this technology include greater energy
efficiency and savings on money and on firewood. Other good qualities include the ability
for local production; flexible sizing; labor intensiveness that can create jobs; as well as
good stability and strength”.

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 Building materials facility for CEBs and community training center in Jinja,
Uganda
• facilitate local initiatives to improve the daily living conditions of the poor in
Jinja, in particular through the establishment of community savings groups
• These initiatives include the establishment of a community center in Walukuba
East Settlement
The provision of space where local slum dwellers can meet, or live temporarily;
Teaching and training facility for people who want to improve their
house-building skills;
Vocational training for income-generating activities.
• The facility in Jinja produces sustainable building materials with which homes
can be built or improved by means of selfhelp.
• Sells the building materials, provides technical assistance for the proper and
professional use of the materials in self-help construction, training in
construction skills and Students of local technical schools can also do
internships in this project and thus acquire practical skills.

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 Sustainability aspects of compressed earth blocks: In Uganda, the walls of houses are usually
built with fired bricks.
• Clay is extracted from the soil, and that the bricks are fired in kilns. Wood is used to fuel the
kilns, which leads to deforestation and the emission of CO2 among other things. This is far
from sustainable, certainly because this happens on a large scale and also in urban areas.
• Moreover, the process results in uneven bricks and 20 percent waste as the bricks
• closest to the heat source are over-fired while those farther away are under-fired. Building
walls with uneven bricks leads to excessive use of mortar.
Technological development of CEBs: Technological development of compressed earth blocks
(CEBs) can be achieved by using CEB machines to make the bricks or blocks.
• This ensures the bricks are consistently sized and highly pressure resistant. Another
advantage is that bricks can be produced in larger volumes.
• A CEB machine is costly and demands the use of fossil fuel, but only a very limited amount
compared to fired bricks.
• Homes made with CEBs have better moisture regulation and are more comfortable than
homes made with hollow concrete blocks.
• Press, mixer, and pulveriser, spraying system, screens and dosage equipment.
• Production capacity is 360 blocks per hour, for a block size of 295 × 140 × 90 mm.
Operation of the CEB machine requires the labour of 8-10 people.

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• CEBs are made from soil that is 15-40% non-expansive clay, 25-40% silt powder,
and 40-70% sharp sand to small gravel content. The more modern machines do not
require aggregate (rock) to make a strong soil block for most applications. Soil
moisture content ranges from 4-12% by weight. Clay with a plasticity index (PI) of
up to 25 or 30 would be acceptable for most applications. The PI of the mixed soil
(clay, silt and sand/gravel combined) should not exceed 12 to 15
• CEB can have a compressive strength as high as 2,000 pounds per square inch.
Blocks with compressive strengths of 1,200 to 1,400 p.s.i. are common

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 Rs. 11

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 (i) Common building bricks—3.43 MPa
(ii) Second class bricks— 6.9 MPa
(iii) First class bricks— 10.3 MPa

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 • Effect of the addition of coal-ash and cassava peels on the
engineering properties of compressed earth blocks
• Analysis of the mechanical properties of compressed earth block
masonry using the sugarcane bagasse ash
• The use of gypsum mining by-product and lime on the engineering
properties of compressed earth blocks
• Experimental Investigation on the Properties of Compressed Earth
Blocks Stabilised with a Liquid Chemical
• Earthen construction materials: Assessing the feasibility of
improving strength and deformability of compressed earth blocks
using polypropylene fibers
• Effect of Gypsum Stabilization on Mechanical Properties of
Compressed Earth Blocks
• Effect of Banana Fibers on the Compressive and Flexural Strength
of Compressed Earth Blocks

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 Adobe blocks
• Adobe blocks are made from a mixture of clay-based soil, water, and sometimes straw.
• Wet adobe is formed into bricks and then laid out to dry in the sun for several days.
• The greatest disadvantage of adobe is its vulnerability to water and rain.
• Sometimes adobe is locally regarded as ‘the material of the poor’, which may restrict its
application.
• Adobe blocks are used for the construction of walls, with wet adobe serving as the mortar.
• The use of this sustainable material is not very common in urban areas

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 • It is a material that is found and shaped in the rural villages.
• it is considered to be a sustainable and durable building material, in comparison with the
use of concrete, concrete blocks, and fired bricks.
• They offers insulation and can be earthquake resistant
• no cement is used and less CO2 is emitted
• The local and traditional construction methods in rural and isolated areas can be
well-preserved and re-developed.

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 • Experimental analysis of Pressed Adobe Blocks reinforced with Hibiscus
cannabinus fibers
• STABILISED ADOBE BLOCKS
• Performance of stabilized adobe blocks prepared using construction and
demolition waste
• Enhancing durability of adobe by natural reinforcement for propagating
sustainable mud housing

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 Due to the increasing cost of bitumen and
kerosene the cost of this treatment may be
as high as Rs. 10 per m2, A rural house
may have normally 40 m2 of outside wall
surface and the cost per household adds
upto Rs. 400/-; however, the durability of
the house will increase several fold.

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 Straw is derived from grasses and is regarded as a renewable building material since
71 its primary energy input is solar and it can be grown and harvested.
• Straw bales were first used for building over a century ago.
• Straw is the springy tubular stalk of grasses like wheat and rice that
are high in tensile strength.
• Straw is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins and silica
• Different grasses have slightly different qualities: rice straw for
instance has a significant amount of silica, which adds density and
resistance to decomposition.
• Straw bale walls are surprisingly resistant to fire, vermin and decay.
• The final appearance of rendered straw bale can be very smooth and
almost indistinguishable from rendered masonry
• The structural capability of straw bales is surprisingly good. In the
loadbearing (‘Nebraska’ style) strawbale method, walls of up to three
storeys have been constructed.
• Centimetre for centimetre, straw has similar insulation value to fibreglass
batts.
• A typical strawbale wall has an R-value greater than 10.
• Dollar for dollar, the insulation value of a strawbale wall exceeds
conventional construction.

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• Straw bales also provide cost effective sound insulation, which contributes
to the liveability of this kind of construction and can be quite marked
• Straw bales are tightly packed and covered with a skin of render. Fire can’t
burn without oxygen, and the dense walls provide a nearly airless
environment, so the fire resistance of compacted straw is very good.
• Provided the straw is protected and not allowed to get waterlogged,
strawbale buildings may have a lifetime of 100 years or more (Amazon
Nails 2001).
• The natural materials of strawbale construction are safe and
biodegradable. Some people are allergic to the dust created during
strawbale building. No toxic fumes are released when straw burns and
there is no toxic end to the strawbale construction cycle.
• Straw is a waste product; it cannot be used for feed, like hay, and much of
it is burned at the end of the season. Using straw for building reduces air
pollution and stores carbon.
• Straw bale is a low cost material but requires labour-intensive construction
techniques. Projects that incorporate some volunteer or workshop-based
construction can deliver cost savings.

https://www.yourhome.gov.au/materials/straw-bale
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 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid

Rs. 13/m2/mm thickness.

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 •High ductility
•High resistance to cracking width
•Ability to undergo large deflection
•Improved impact resistance and toughness
•Good fire resistance
•Good impermeability
•Low strength to weight ratio
•Low maintenance costs

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