Principles of

Electronic
Communication Lab
Aim- Harmonic analysis of a square wave of modulated waveform: measures
modulation index

APPARATUS:
1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation trainer kit.

2. C.R.O (20MHz)

3. Function generator (1MHz).

4. Connecting chords & probes..

THEORY: Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which the

amplitude of the carrier wave c(t) is varied about a mean value, linearly with
the baseband signal. An AM wave may thus be dscribed, in the most general
form, as a function of time as follows. S(t)=Ac{1+Kam(t)}cos(2πfct) Where Ka-
Amplitude sensitivity of the modulator S(t) –Modulated signal Ac- carrier signal
m(t) –modulating signal The amplitude of Ka m(t) is always less than unity, that
is Ka m(t) 1 for any carrier wave becomes over modulated ,resulting in carrier
phase reversal whenever the factor 1+Kam(t) crosses zero. The modulate wave
then exhibits envelope distortion. The absolute maximum value of Ka m(t)
multiplied by 100 is referred to as the percentage modulation.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the trainer kit and check the O/P of the carrier generator on oscilloscope.

2. Connect around 1KHz with 2Volts .A.F signal at A.F I/P to the modulator circuit.

3. Connect the carrier signal at carrier I/P of the modulator circuit.

4. Observe the modulator output signal at AM O/p Spring by making necessary changes in A.F signal
5. Vary the modulating frequency and amplitude and observe the effects on the modulated
waveform.

6. The depth of modulation can be varied using the variable knob provided at A.F input.

7. The percentage modulation can be calculated using the formula.

APPLICATIONS:
1. Tele communications.

2. TV Transmitters.
 Experiment No.- 02
Aim-To modulate a high frequency carrier with sinusoidal signal to obtain FM signal
Apparatus Required: FM Modulator kit, Connecting wires,CRO.
Theory: In frequency modulation, the information-bearing signal or the message signal we wish
to transmit is used to modulate the frequency of another signal that is the carrier signal rather than
amplitude variations in the carrier signal as in case of amplitude modulation.Frequency Modulation
is part of a more general class of modulation schemes known as angle modulation. Angle modulation
includes both phase modulation and frequency modulation. Theories and concepts are similar for
phase modulation and frequency modulation, but we will only refer to frequency modulation in this
lab.

Single frequency FM modulation In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the

modulated carrier signal is kept constant while its frequency is varied by the modulating message
signal. The basic idea of frequency modulation is shown in figure (1). The carrier frequency is
controlled at each instant by the voltage of the modulating signal. The frequency of the modulated
signal is increased if the input signal is positive, whereas the frequency is reduced if the input signal
is negative. The general definition of frequency modulated signal SFM(t) is given by the formula
where, W is the highest modulation frequency, m(t) is the message signal and Kf is the frequency-
deviation constant.

The deviation ration D plays the same role for arbitrary modulation that the modulation index f
plays for the case of a single sinusoidal modulation. From a practical viewpoint, Carson‟s rule
somewhat underestimated the bandwidth.

Result: Study of Frequency modulation is completed.

 Experiment No.- 03
Aim- To study and observe the operation of a super heterodyne receiver
 Experiment No.- 04

Aim- To modulate apulse carrier with sinusoidal signal to obtain PWM signal and demodulate it

Apparatus required: PCM modulator/demodulator kit, connecting wires.

Theory: Pulse Code Modulating (PCM) is different from Amplitude Modulating (AM) and
Frequency Modulating (FM) because, those two are continuous forms of modulation. Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) is used to convert analog signals into binary form. In the absence of noise and
distortion it is possible to completely recover a continuous analog modulated signals.

But in real time they suffer from transmission distortion and noise to an appreciable extent. In the
PCM system, groups of pulses or codes are transmitted which represent binary number
corresponding to Modulating Signals Voltage levels. Recovery of the transmitter information does
not depend on the height, width, or energy content of the individual pulses, but only on their
presence or absence. Since it is relatively easy to recover pulses under these conditions, even in the
presence of large amounts of noise and distortion, PCM systems tend to be very immune to
interference and noise. Regeneration of the pulse enroute is also relatively easy, resulting in system
that produce excellent result for long distance communication.

The decoding process reshapes the incoming pulses and eliminates most of the transmission noise. A
serial to parallel circuit passes the bits in parallel groups to a digital to analog convertor (D/A) for
decoding. Thus decoded signal passes through a sample and hold amplifier which maintains the
pulses level for the duration of the sampling period, recreating the staircase waveform
approximation of the modulating signals. A low-pass filter may be used to reduce the quantization
noise

Features:

Low cost

± 10 V input ranges

No missing codes

Ratiometer conversion

Tri-State outputs

Fast (Tc = 50µs) Contains outputs

TTL compatible

Supply voltages (5 VDC and -12 VDC)

Resolution (8-bits)

Linearity (±1 LSB)

Conversion speed (40 clock periods)

Clock Range (50 to 800 kHz)

PROCEDURE
STEP-1: PCM MODULATION WITH D.C. INPUT

1. „Switch ON‟ the experimental kit.

2. Observe the Basic clock generator outputs and sampling pulse output.

3. Connect the sampling pulse generator output to CH1 of the CRO and trigger CRO w.r.t. CH1 only.
4. Observe the output of the parallel to serial convertor output (PCM data) on the CH2 of the CRO.

5. Make sure that CRO is triggered with the positive going edge of the sample pulse generator.

6. Now connected the variable DC output to the input of the PCM Modulator.

7. Adjust the Time/div Switch of the CRO such that two samples can be seen at a time on the screen.
8. Now vary the D.C. voltage from its minimum to the maximum.

9. At each step observe the parallel data displayed by the LEDs at the ADC output and compare the
PCM output (Parallel to serial converter), which is the same of ADC output but is in serial form. Note
: Between two samples, 8-bit serial data will transmitted.

STEP-II : PCM DEMODULATION WITH DC INPUT

1. Connect the PCM output to the PCM demodulator.

2. Output of the serial to parallel convertor displayed by the LEDs is the same with is displayed by
the ADC output LEDs.

3. Observe the output of the D/A converter.

4. Observe the output of the low pass filter and adjust the potentiometer such that the output D.C.
voltage is equal to the D.C. input at the PCM Modulator.

Note: Output D.C output is 1800 out of phase to the input because D to A convertor introduce 1800
out of phase and low pass filter also introduces some delay. Because in all practical PCM systems
negative logic is used to reduce the noise in transmission.

STEP-III : PCM MODULATION WITH AC INPUT

1. Now remove DC input and connect the AC voltage to the input of the PCM modulator.

2. Observe the PCM output with follows the sequence of the AC input.

3. Here one has to make sure that like DC input, we cannot see the stable digital output at the PCM
modulator output. Because this is dynamic process and with AC input, we cannot send same PCM
 Experiment no. – 05
Aim- To modulate a pulse carrier with sinusoidal signal to obtain PPMsignal and demodulate it
Generation of PPM waves:

• The PPM signal which is generated is shown in fig. The message signal m(t)
is first converted into a PAM signal by means of a sample and hold circuit,
generating a staircase waveform u(t), which is shown in figure for the
message signal m(t)
 Experiment No. – 06
Aim-To observe pulse amplitude modulated waveform and its demodulation.
Objective: Perform amplitude modulation of a signal, plot the waveform and calculate modulation
index

Apparatus Required: CRO, CRO probes, Function Generator (2 nos.), Power supply,
Breadboard, connecting wires. Transistor: - BC548/549 (1 nos.),Resistor: - 330W (2 nos.), Inductor: -
1mH (1 nos.)

Theory: The message signal x(t) is modulated by a carrier waveform Ac cos(2πfct). The amplitude
modulated waveform xc(t) is.

xc(t) = Acx(t) cos(2πfct) + Ac cos(2πfct) = Ac[1 + x(t)] cos(2πfct) (2) = A(t) cos(2πfct)

where A(t)j is the envelope of the AM signal. The message signal amplitude must be small and must
have aDC component equal to zero in order to use simple demodulation schemes. The spectrum of
the modulatedsignal is
 Experiment No. – 07
Aim- To observe the operation of a PCM encoder and decoder. To consider reason for using
digital signal x-missions of analog signals

Apparatus required: PCM modulator/demodulator kit, connecting wires.

Theory: Pulse Code Modulating (PCM) is different from Amplitude Modulating (AM) and
Frequency Modulating (FM) because, those two are continuous forms of modulation. Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) is used to convert analog signals into binary form. In the absence of noise and
distortion it is possible to completely recover a continuous analog modulated signals. But in real
time they suffer from transmission distortion and noise to an appreciable extent. In the PCM system,
groups of pulses or codes are transmitted which represent binary number corresponding to
Modulating Signals Voltage levels. Recovery of the transmitter information does not depend on the
height, width, or energy content of the individual pulses, but only on their presence or absence.
Since it is relatively easy to recover pulses under these conditions, even in the presence of large
amounts of noise and distortion, PCM systems tend to be very immune to interference and noise.

Regeneration of the pulse enroute is also relatively easy, resulting in

system that produce excellent result for long distance communication. The decoding process
reshapes the incoming pulses and eliminates most of the transmission noise. A serial to parallel
circuit passes the bits in parallel groups to a digital to analog convertor (D/A) for decoding. Thus
decoded signal passes through a sample and hold amplifier which maintains the pulses level for the
duration of the sampling period, recreating the staircase waveform approximation of the modulating
signals. A low-pass filter may be used to reduce the quantization noise.
6. Now connected the variable DC output to the input of the PCM Modulator.

7. Adjust the Time/div Switch of the CRO such that two samples can be seen at a time on the screen.
8. Now vary the D.C. voltage from its minimum to the maximum.

9. At each step observe the parallel data displayed by the LEDs at the ADC output and compare the
PCM output (Parallel to serial converter), which is the same of ADC output but is in serial form. Note
: Between two samples, 8-bit serial data will transmitted.
 Experiment no.- 08
Aim-To study & observe the amplitude response of automatic gain controller(AGC)
Theory- Automatic Gain Control (AGC) was implemented in first radios for the reason of fading
propagation (defined as slow variations in the amplitude of the received signals) which required
continuing adjustments in the receiver’s gain in order to maintain a relative constant output signal.
Such situation led to the design of circuits, which primary ideal function was to maintain a constant
signal level at the output, regardless of the signal’s variations at the input of the system. Now AGC
circuits can be found in any device or system where wide amplitude variations in the output signal
could lead to lose of information or to an unacceptable performance of the system

The main feature of a control system is that there should be a clear mathematical relationship
between input and output of the system.

• When the relation between input and output of the system can be represented by a linear
proportionality, the system is called a linear control system.

• When the relationship between input and output cannot be represented by single linear
proportionality, rather the input and output are related by some non-linear relation, the system is
referred to as a non-linear control system.

Closed-Loop Control System

• Any system that can respond to the changes and make corrections by itself is known as a
closedloop control system.

• Automatic Gain Control (AGC) system is a closed-loop control system.

• The main difference between open-loop and closed-loop systems is the feedback action. An open-
loop control system doesn't use a feedback action network, when a close-loop control system uses
feedback action.

• AGC using closed-loop control are accurate, can use wide bandwidths, but may become unstable
under certain conditions.

• An AGC control system it adjusts itself to the changes in the system, providing a reduced effect of
non-linearity in these systems.

• An AGC system is deterministic if the response is predictable and repeatable. If not, the control
system is a stochastic control system that involves random variable parameters.

• An AGC system is called dynamic or time-dependent if its present output depends on past input,
whereas, a static system is the one whose current output depends only on the current input.
• If the control time constants are determined primarily by the detector circuit and the additional
amplifier has a wider bandwidth than the detector, then the attack and decay times will be
shortened by the amount of the post-amplification

• An AGC circuit in the receiver provides a substantially constant signal level to the demodulator
independent of the input signal level

Automatic Gain Switch In order to further improve the dynamic range of the input
amplifier, some form of automatic gain control is required. A continuous gain variation, controlled
by the magnitude of the largest output signals of the amplifier, is not feasible, since the noise and
distortion performance of optimally designed variable-gain stages is not consistent with our
requirements. A better solution is to switch the gain to a lower value as soon as a certain input level
is exceeded. Several methods can be used to switch the gain from one value to another. A single
switch, which should have no detrimental effect on the noise and distortion performance, is
preferred. Therefore, a solution is to switch the feedback capacitor values