I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 1

I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell

Debojyoti Banerjee 23BMH1070

Jaknel George V 23BMH1107
Manu Jayaprakash 23BMH1042
Muhammed Riza K 23BMH1088
Neeraj Rao B R 23BMH1147
Shreyan Majumdar 23BMH1083
Siddharth Balaji 23BMH1120
Sindhu Bommareddy 23BMH1035
Swarnim Jaiswal 23BMH1074
Toshan Jagani 23BMH1067
Vellore Institute of Technology Chennai Campus
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 2

Contents

Abstract 3
Introduction 4
Literature Review 9
Methods 13
Observations and Results 16
Discussion 19
Conclusion 20
References 21
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 3

Abstract
At present, much attention is paid to the use of solar energy. Solar energy, in addition to
traditional energy, is ecologically clean while changing. The rarity and the rising cost of fuel is
one of the main problems of the scientific technique, which is the acquisition of infinite
resources of solar energy. Further research and experiments on the use of solar energy, as well as
the use of solar power plants in several countries, shows that solar energy can be widely used
today based on modern technical capacities. In order to determine the need to use a charger, it is
necessary to know a few parameters: short circuit current, no-load voltage, efficiency, etc. The
solar cell happens to be one of the few semiconductor devices used to harness solar energy. Solar
cells, also known as photovoltaic cells, are devices that directly convert the energy of light into
electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. They do not use chemical reactions to produce
electric power, and they have no moving parts. Most solar cells are designed for converting
sunlight into electricity. In this experiment, we've shown the V-I characteristics of such
solar cells.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 4

Introduction
Solar cell is a key device that converts the light energy into the electrical energy in
photovoltaic energy conversion. In most cases, semiconductors are used for solar cell material.
The energy conversion consists of absorption of light (photon) energy producing electron–hole
pairs in a semiconductor and charge carrier separation. A p–n junction is used for charge carrier
separation in most cases. It is important to learn the basic properties of semiconductors and the
principle of conventional p–n junction solar cell to understand not only the conventional solar
cell but also the new type of solar cell. The comprehension of the p–n junction solar cell will
give you hints to improve solar cells regarding efficiency, manufacturing cost, consuming energy
for the fabrication, etc. This chapter begins with the basic semiconductor physics, which is
necessary to understand the operation of p–n junction solar cell, and then describes the basic
principles of p–n junction solar cell. It ends with the concepts of solar cells using nanocrystalline
materials. Because the solar cells based on nanocrystalline materials are complicated compared
with the conventional p–n junction solar cell, the fundamental phenomena are reviewed.

Construction and Working of a Solar Cell

Solar cell is made of two types of semiconductors, called p-type and n-type silicon. The
p-type silicon is produced by adding atoms—such as boron or gallium—that have one less
electron in their outer energy level than does silicon. Because boron has one less electron than is
required to form the bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms, an electron vacancy or “hole” is
created.

The n-type silicon is made by including atoms that have one more electron in their outer
level than does silicon, such as phosphorus. Phosphorus has five electrons in its outer energy
level, not four. It bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but one electron is not involved in
bonding. Instead, it is free to move inside the silicon structure.

A solar cell consists of a layer of p-type silicon placed next to a layer of n-type silicon
(Fig. 1). In the n-type layer, there is an excess of electrons, and in the p-type layer, there is an
excess of positively charged holes (which are vacancies due to the lack of valence electrons).
Near the junction of the two layers, the electrons on one side of the junction (n-type layer) move
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 5

into the holes on the other side of the junction (p-type layer). This creates an area around the
junction, called the depletion zone, in which the electrons fill the holes.

When all the holes are filled with electrons in the depletion zone, the p-type side of the
depletion zone (where holes were initially present) now contains negatively charged ions, and the
n-type side of the depletion zone (where electrons were present) now contains positively charged
ions. The presence of these oppositely charged ions creates an internal electric field that prevents
electrons in the n-type layer to fill holes in the p-type layer.

When sunlight strikes a solar cell, electrons in the silicon are ejected, which results in the
formation of “holes”—the vacancies left behind by the escaping electrons. If this happens in the
electric field, the field will move electrons to the n-type layer and holes to the p-type layer. If
you connect the n-type and p-type layers with a metallic wire, the electrons will travel from the
n-type layer to the p-type layer by crossing the depletion zone and then go through the external
wire back of the n-type layer, creating a flow of electricity.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic and the Solar Cell I-V Curve

The Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curves shows the current and voltage (I-V)
characteristics of a particular photovoltaic (PV) cell, module, or array. It gives a detailed
description of Its solar energy conversion ability and efficiency. Knowing the electrical I-V
characteristics (more importantly Pmax) of a solar cell, or panel is critical in determining the
device’s output performance and solar efficiency.
The main electrical characteristics of a PV cell or module are summarized in the
relationship between the current and voltage produced on a typical solar cell I-V characteristics
curve. The intensity of the solar radiation (insolation) that hits the cell controls the current (I),
while the increases in the temperature of the solar cell reduces its voltage (V).
Solar cells produce direct current (DC) electricity and current times voltage equals
power, so we can create solar cell I-V curves representing the current versus the voltage for a
photovoltaic device.
Solar Cell I-V Characteristics Curves are basically a graphical representation of the
operation of a solar cell or module summarizing the relationship between the current and voltage
at the existing conditions of irradiance and temperature. I-V curves provide the information
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 6

required to configure a solar system so that it can operate as close to its optimal peak power point
(MPP) as possible.

Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

Figure 1
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

The above graph shows the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a typical silicon PV
cell operating under normal conditions. The power delivered by a single solar cell or panel is the
product of its output current and voltage (I x V). If the multiplication is done, point for point, for
all voltages from short-circuit to open-circuit conditions, the power curve above is obtained for a
given radiation level.
With the solar cell open-circuited, that is not connected to any load, the current will be at
its minimum (zero) and the voltage across the cell is at its maximum, known as the solar cells
open circuit voltage, or Voc. At the other extreme, when the solar cell is short circuited, that is the
positive and negative leads connected together, the voltage across the cell is at its minimum
(zero) but the current flowing out of the cell reaches its maximum, known as the solar cells short
circuit current, or Isc.
Then the span of the solar cell I-V characteristics curve ranges from the short circuit
current (Isc) at zero output volts, to zero current at the full open circuit voltage (Voc). In other
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 7

words, the maximum voltage available from a cell is at open circuit, and the maximum current at
closed circuit. Of course, neither of these two conditions generates any electrical power, but
there must be a point somewhere in between were the solar cell generates maximum power.
However, there is one particular combination of current and voltage for which the power
reaches its maximum value, at Imp and Vmp. In other words, the point at which the cell generates
maximum electrical power and this is shown at the top right area of the green rectangle. This is
the maximum power point or MPP. Therefore, the ideal operation of a photovoltaic cell (or
panel) is defined to be at the maximum power point.
The maximum power point (MPP) of a solar cell Is positioned near the bend in the I-V
characteristics curve. The corresponding values of Vmp and Imp can be estimated from the open
circuit voltage and the short circuit current: Vmp ≅ (0.8–0.90) Voc and Imp ≅ (0.85–0.95) Isc. Since
solar cell output voltage and current both depend on temperature, the actual output power will
vary with changes in ambient temperature.
Thus far we have looked at Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve for a single solar cell or
panel. But a photovoltaic array is made up of smaller PV panels interconnected together. Then
the I-V curve of a PV array is just a scaled up version of the single solar cell I-V characteristic
curve as shown.
Figure 2
Solar Cell I-V Characteristic Curve

Photovoltaic panels can be wired or connected together in either series or parallel

combinations, or both to increase the voltage or current capacity of the solar array. If the array
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 8

panels are connected together in a series combination, then the voltage increases and if
connected together in parallel then the current increases.
The electrical power in Watts, generated by these different photovoltaic combinations
will still be the product of the voltage times the current, ( P = V x I ). However the solar panels
are connected together, the upper right hand corner will always be the maximum power point
(MPP) of the array.
A commonly used parameter that characterizes the solar cell is called the Fill Factor (FF).
It is defined as the ratio of the Pmax to the area of the rectangle formed by Voc and Isc, FF= (Pmax /
(Voc) x (Isc)) (No Unit) The Efficiency of the solar cell is the ratio of the electrical power it
delivers to the load by the optical power incident on the cell. Maximum efficiency is when power
delivered to solar cell is Pmax. Η = (Pmax / (A × I0)) × 100 % 22 where A is the area of the solar
cell in m, and I0 is the intensity of solar light radiation (Watts/m).
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 9

Literature Review
Solar cells, as the fundamental power conversion units in photovoltaic systems, are
constructed from semiconductors and function as minimum power conversion state devices,
encompassing diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits. These cells are typically assembled into
modules for practical deployment.
Photovoltaic cells operate based on three fundamental attributes. They absorb light,
resulting in the creation of electron-hole pairs or excitations; separate charge carriers of opposite
types and extract these carriers to an external circuit.
Applications
In addition to types of power arrays used on space satellites, there are now many different
types of SPV (solar photovoltaic) systems used here on Earth, including remote stand-alone
without battery storage, remote stand-alone with battery storage, small modules for calculators
and toys, residential grid-connected with DC to AC inverters, commercial grid-connected with
inverters, PV fields for utility power generation.
Remote Solar Water Pumping is a notable application of stand-alone solar cell electricity
where batteries are not used. It is commonly used for crop irrigation, livestock drinking water,
and home use. The system is reliable and doesn’t require an operator. In many remote areas,
underground water is accessible using deep well submersible pumps that need minimal
maintenance. However, a significant challenge in large-scale solar photovoltaic (SPV) systems,
especially in regions with no other energy sources, is theft or vandalism during nighttime when
there is no one around to guard the installations. Despite these challenges, the future for SPV
systems looks promising as people recognize the benefits of clean and economical energy
provided by the sun. Currently, amorphous silicon cells find common application in consumer
products like calculators, watches, radios, and small TVs, which require low power but need a
continuous energy source when turned on.
Working of Solar Cells
A solar cell comprises two semiconductor layers: an n-type layer with an excess of
electrons and a p-type layer with an excess of positively charged holes (which are vacancies due
to the lack of valence electrons). At the junction of these layers, electrons from the n-type side
move into the holes on the p-type side, creating a region called the depletion zone. In this zone,
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 10

electrons fill the holes, resulting in negatively charged ions on the p-type side and positively
charged ions on the n-type side. This charge separation generates an internal electric field.
When sunlight strikes the solar cell, electrons in the silicon are ejected, leaving behind
holes. If this happens within the electric field, the field moves electrons to the n-type layer and
holes to the p-type layer. By connecting the n-type and p-type layers with a metallic wire,
electrons flow from the n-type layer, cross the depletion zone, and create an electric current, thus
generating electricity.
Characteristics of Solar Cells
Understanding the impact of temperature on solar cell performance is essential for
designing efficient photovoltaic systems. Researchers and engineers can use this knowledge to
optimize solar cell designs and improve overall energy conversion efficiency. Solar cells exhibit
variations in their electrical parameters (such as maximum output power, open-circuit voltage,
short-circuit current, and fill factor) with changes in temperature. As the temperature increases,
solar cell performance tends to decrease. This decline is primarily due to increased internal
carrier recombination rates caused by higher carrier concentrations. The operating temperature
also plays a crucial role in the photovoltaic conversion process. Both the electrical efficiency and
the power output of a photovoltaic (PV) module depend linearly upon the operating temperature.
Economic situation
Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, play a crucial role in the global
renewable energy landscape. The economic dynamics of solar cells are influenced by various
factors including technological advancements, manufacturing costs, policy incentives, and
market demand.
Cost Trends: Over the past decade, the cost of solar cells has experienced a significant
decline, largely driven by improvements in manufacturing processes, economies of scale, and
technological innovations. The levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from solar photovoltaics has
become increasingly competitive compared to conventional fossil fuel sources in many regions.
Technological Advancements: Advancements in solar cell technologies, such as the
development of thin-film PV, perovskite solar cells, and bifacial panels, have contributed to
lowering manufacturing costs and improving efficiency. These innovations have widened the
scope of applications for solar energy, making it more economically feasible across various
market segments.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 11

Manufacturing Scale and Supply Chain: The expansion of global manufacturing

capacity, particularly in countries like China, has led to economies of scale and reduced
production costs. However, concerns over supply chain disruptions and trade tariffs have
periodically impacted the industry's stability and pricing.
Policy Support and Incentives: Government policies and incentives play a crucial role in
driving the economic viability of solar cells. Subsidies, tax credits, feed-in tariffs, and renewable
portfolio standards have spurred investment in solar energy projects, boosting demand and
market growth.
Market Demand and Growth: Increasing environmental awareness, coupled with the need
to diversify energy sources and reduce carbon emissions, has driven robust demand for solar
energy systems. Residential, commercial, and utility-scale installations continue to grow
globally, supported by declining costs and favorable policies.
Financial Considerations: The financial landscape for solar projects includes various
financing mechanisms such as power purchase agreements (PPAs), leasing options, and
innovative financing models. These mechanisms help overcome the high upfront costs associated
with solar installations, making them more accessible to a broader range of consumers and
businesses.
Challenges and Opportunities: Despite the impressive progress, challenges persist,
including intermittent issues (due to solar cell's reliance on sunlight), grid integration
complexities, and storage requirements. However, these challenges are also driving innovations
in energy storage technologies and grid management solutions, opening new opportunities for
solar PV systems.
In conclusion, the economic outlook for solar cells is promising, with continued
advancements in technology, supportive policies, and increasing market demand driving growth
and investment. As solar energy becomes more cost-effective and widespread, it is poised to play
an increasingly pivotal role in the global transition towards a sustainable energy future.
Nonetheless, ongoing innovation, policy stability, and robust financing mechanisms will be
essential to sustaining this momentum and realizing the full economic potential of solar cells.
Types of Solar Cell
Solar cells can be classified into first, second and third generation cells. The first
generation cells are primarily made of crystalline silicon, which is the most commercially
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 12

prevalent photovoltaic technology. These cells are manufactured with extremely pure silicon and
use a single junction to extract energy from photons. They are highly efficient, approaching their
theoretical maximum efficiency of 33%. The second generation cells are thin-film solar cells that
incorporate materials like amorphous silicon, CdTe, and CIGS. These cells play a crucial
commercial role in applications such as utility-scale photovoltaic power stations, building-
integrated photovoltaics, and small stand-alone power systems. The third generation of solar
cells includes a number of thin-film technologies often described as emerging photovoltaics—
most of them have not yet been commercially applied and are still in the research or development
phase.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 13

Methods
In this study, the methodology is intricately designed to embark on a thorough
investigation into the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of solar cells, especially when
configured in series and parallel connections. The central objective is to discern the impact of
various connection setups on solar cell electrical output under diverse load conditions. By
systematically manipulating load resistance and precisely measuring current and voltage outputs,
this research endeavors to reveal nuanced insights into solar cell behavior across different
configurations.
Experimental Setup
The experimental voyage commences with an exhaustive selection process to procure
three solar cells boasting identical specifications. This meticulous selection criterion ensures
uniformity and minimizes potential variability in cell characteristics. Subsequently, these
carefully chosen cells are interconnected in both series and parallel configurations. In series,
cells are linked to amplify total voltage output, whereas in parallel, they are connected to
enhance total current output while preserving a consistent voltage level across individual cells.
Consistent and uniform illumination throughout the experiment is imperative. Hence, a
light source is meticulously positioned at a fixed distance above the solar cells to ensure
standardized lighting conditions conducive to reliable data acquisition. The integration of a
variable load resistance into the circuit facilitates systematic variation of load on the solar cells.
This, in turn, enables precise measurement of current and voltage across a spectrum of load
conditions, thereby enriching the depth and comprehensiveness of the experimental dataset.
In addition to the experimental setup, precision measurement instruments such as an
ammeter and voltmeter are indispensable. These instruments provide accurate readings essential
for robust data collection and analysis.
The experimental procedure commences with meticulous calibration of both the ammeter
and voltmeter to ensure measurement accuracy. Solar cells in both series and parallel
configurations are then subjected to varying load conditions by adjusting load resistance. Current
and voltage readings are meticulously recorded for each load condition. To ensure reliability and
statistical robustness, each measurement is meticulously repeated three times.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 14

Connection Configuration:
Series Connection: The solar cells are interconnected in series by linking the positive
terminal of one cell to the negative terminal of the next. This arrangement creates a single
pathway for current flow, resulting in an increased total voltage output.
Parallel Connection: In contrast, parallel connection involves connecting all positive
terminals together and all negative terminals together. This configuration increases the total
current output while maintaining the voltage of a single cell.
Light Source Placement: A light source is positioned at a fixed distance of 50 cm above
the solar cells, ensuring consistent illumination across all cells throughout the experiment.
Variable Load Resistance: Introducing a variable load resistance into the circuit enables
us to systematically vary the load on the solar cells. This allows for the measurement of current
and voltage across different load conditions, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of the cells'
electrical characteristics.
Measurement Instruments: An ammeter and voltmeter are employed to measure the
current and voltage outputs of the solar cells, respectively. These instruments provide precise and
reliable readings, essential for accurate data collection and analysis.
Experimental Procedure
Baseline Calibration: Prior to commencing the experiment, both the ammeter and
voltmeter are meticulously calibrated to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the measurements
obtained throughout the experiment.
Series Connection Experiment: The solar cells configured in series are positioned under
the fixed light source. The variable load resistance is systematically adjusted to three distinct
values, representing low, medium, and high load conditions, respectively. Current and voltage
readings are recorded for each load condition, with each measurement repeated three times to
ensure consistency and reliability.
Parallel Connection Experiment: The same experimental procedure outlined for the
series connection experiment is meticulously followed for the solar cells configured in parallel.
Similarly, the variable load resistance is adjusted to the same three values as in the series
connection experiment, and current and voltage readings are recorded for each load condition,
with measurements repeated three times.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 15

Data Analysis
The collected data serve as the cornerstone for rigorous data analysis. Current-voltage (I-
V) characteristic curves are meticulously generated for both series and parallel connections.
These curves offer invaluable insights into solar cell performance under diverse configurations
and load conditions. Analysis of these curves facilitates comprehension of efficiency, voltage,
and current output variations. By delving deep into these characteristics, researchers can unravel
intricate nuances in solar cell behavior, thereby contributing to the advancement of renewable
energy technologies.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 16

Observations and Results

Table 1:
I-V Characteristics of Solar cell in Series Connection
Short circuit current (Isc) = 1.9 mA Open circuit voltage (Voc) = 2.75 V
A = 25 cm2 I0 = 103×10-2 W/m2

Resistance Current Voltage Power P= V×I

(kΩ) (mA) (V) (Watts)
1 1.2 1.10 1.32 × 10-3
2 1 1.80 1.8 × 10-3
3 0.9 2.00 1.8 × 10-3
4 0.8 2.25 1.8 × 10-3

Figure 3:
I-V Characteristics of Solar cell in Series Connection Graph
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 17

Calculation
Pmax = VMP × IMP
FF = Pmax / (Voc × Isc)
η = Pmax / (A × I0) × 100
Pmax = 1.575 × 1.1 × 10-3 = 1.7325 × 10-3 Watts
FF = 1.7325 × 10-3 / (2.75 × 1.9 × 10-3) = 0.331
η = ( 1.7325 × 10-3 / (25 × 10-4 × 103 × 10-2) ) × 100 = 67.28 %

Table 2:
I-V Characteristics of Solar cell in Parallel Connection
Short circuit current (Isc) = 0.4 mA Open circuit voltage (Voc) = 1.15 V
A = 25 cm2 I0 = 103×10-2 W/m2

Resistance Current Voltage Power P= V×I

(kΩ) (mA) (V) (Watts)
1 0.35 0.10 0.035
2 0.30 0.35 0.105
3 0.25 0.50 0.125
4 0.20 0.55 0.11

Figure 3:
I-V Characteristics of Solar cell in Parallel Connection Graph
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 18

Calculation:
Pmax = VMP × IMP
FF = Pmax / (Voc × Isc)
η = Pmax / (A × I0) × 100
Pmax = 0.53 × 0.225 × 10-3 = 1.1925 × 10-4 Watts
FF = 0.11925 × 10-3 / (1.15 × 0.4 × 10-3) = 0.259
η = ( 0.11925 × 10-3 / (25 × 10-4 × 103 × 10-2) ) × 100 = 4.63 %

Results:
Series Connection:
Pmax = 1.7325 × 10-3 Watts
FF = 0.331
η = 67.28 %
Parallel Connection:
Pmax = 1.1925 × 10-4 Watts
FF = 0.259
η = 4.63 %
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 19

Discussion
During operation, the efficiency of solar cells is reduced by the dissipation of power
across internal resistances. These parasitic resistances can be modelled as a parallel shunt
resistance (RSH) and series resistance (RS). For an ideal cell, RSH would be infinite and would not
provide an alternate path for current to flow, while RS would be zero, resulting in no further
voltage drop before the load [7-8]. Decreasing RSH and increasing Rs will decrease the fill factor
(FF) and PMAX. If RSH is decreased too much, VOC will drop, while increasing RS excessively can
cause ISC to drop instead.
Effect of Diverging Rs & RSH From Ideality: It is possible to approximate the series and
shunt resistances, RS and RSH, from the slopes of the I-V curve at VOC and ISC, respectively. The
resistance at Voc, however, is at best proportional to the series resistance but it is larger than the
series resistance. RSH is represented by the slope at ISC. Typically, the resistances at ISC and at
VOC will be measured and noted.
Obtaining Resistances from the I-V Curve: If incident light is prevented from exciting the
solar cell, the I-V curve can be obtained. This I-V curve is simply a reflection of the “No Light”
curve about the V-axis. The slope of the linear region of the curve in the third quadrant (reverse-
bias) is a continuation of the linear region in the first quadrant, which is the same linear region
used to calculate RSH. It follows that RSH can be derived from the I-V plot obtained with or
without providing light excitation, even when power is sourced to the cell. It is important to note,
however, that for real cells, these resistances are often a function of the light level, and can differ
in value between the light and dark tests.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 20

Conclusion
The maximum power produced decreases by about 30% when solar irradiance decreases
from 1,000 W/m2 to 700 W/m2 level and further lowers by about 31% when solar irradiance
decreases from 700 W/m2 to 400 W/m2 level. The effect of operating temperature is also studied
on the Pmp, which shows that at the same irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, Pmp decreases by about 14%
when the cell operation temperature is lowered from 100°C to 50°C. The developed model can
accurately predict the performance of the PV solar panels.
I-V Characteristics of Solar Cell 21

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