TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS WITH A COMPLEX TWIST

Michael Warren
Department of Mathematics
Tarleton State University
Box T-0470
Stephenville, TX 76402
[email protected]
Dr. John Gresham
Department of Mathematics
Tarleton State University
Box T-0470
Stephenville, TX 76402
[email protected]
Dr. Bryant Wyatt
Department of Mathematics
Tarleton State University
Box T-0470
Stephenville, TX 76402
[email protected]

Abstract
In our previous paper, Real Polynomials with a Complex Twist [see
http://archives.math.utk.edu/ICTCM/VOL28/A040/paper.pdf], we used advancements
in computer graphics that allow us to easily illustrate more complete graphs of
polynomial functions that are still accessible to students of many different levels. In this
paper we examine the 3D graphical representations of selected transcendental functions
over subsets of the complex plane for which the functions are real-valued. We visualize
and find connections between circular trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions.
Introduction
In Warren, Gresham & Wyatt (2016), the authors established that students could benefit from a
three-dimensional visualization of polynomial functions with real coefficients whose domain
contains all complex inputs that produce real-valued outputs. Connections between the symbolic
and graphical representations can stimulate student comprehension of functions (Lipp, 1994;
Presmeg, 2014; Rittle-Johnson & Star, 2009). Students need to understand the concepts of domain,
range, and the graphical representation of functions in order to be prepared for advanced
mathematical study (Martinez-Planell & Gaisman 2012). The process of domain restriction
involved in creating three-dimensional graphical representations of commonly studied functions
provides a context for students to explore all these ideas.
When working with polynomial functions, instructors often introduce the existence of complex
roots via the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra followed by symbolic methods for finding those
roots. Traditional graphical representations do not always support the solutions obtained
symbolically. Domain restriction coupled with interactive 3D graphics in programs like GeoGebra
help students to make the essential connections between function representations. For a detailed
exploration of this process for polynomial functions along with instructions on creating the 3D
polynomial curves in GeoGebra, see Warren, Gresham & Wyatt (2016) at
http://archives.math.utk.edu/ICTCM/VOL28/A040/paper.pdf.
Unlike polynomial functions, it is rare for students to study the non-real roots of transcendental
functions outside of a complex variables course. In preparation for advanced mathematical study,
students could investigate some of the non-real behavior of transcendental functions through a
three-dimensional graphical representation. Within the context of roots for transcendental
equations, students can connect the concept of no real roots with the existence of non-real roots.
Utilizing the process of domain restriction and the 3D graphing capabilities of GeoGebra,
instructors can give students the tools to understand some of the complex behavior of
transcendental functions.
Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
Consider the function 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 2. The authors ask two simple questions, which inputs generate an output
of two and which inputs generate an output of zero? The first question and its solution set is common in a
Precalculus or Trigonometry course. The number of solutions is infinite and the solution set has symbolic
representation {𝑥𝑥|𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛} where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ. Students can verify the answers to this question by examining
the graph, see figure 1. The symbolic and traditional graphical representations are well-aligned and both
serve to strengthen student understanding of the function. The second question is also common but the
typical solution set needs explanation. An equation such as sin 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0 is said to have no solutions
because the domain is restricted to be all real numbers. This leads to a false understanding of the sine
function that influences student understanding throughout further mathematics study. The traditional
graphical representation supports this misunderstanding, see figure 1.

3 2 2 3

2
Figure 1. Graph of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 + 2. The solutions for sin 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 2 are easily verified.
The existence of solutions for sin 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0 are not apparent.
Domain restriction can be used to produce a three-dimensional visualization of the sine function. This
visualization shows all input-output pairs where each input is a complex numbers and each output is a real
number. All input-output pairs form a graphical representation of the function that can be visualized in a
three-dimensional coordinate system. The three-dimensional visualization of the sine function in figure 2
can be generated as follows.
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = sin 𝑧𝑧
where 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 for 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ∈ ℝ and 𝑖𝑖 2 = −1.
Then, 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = sin(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) =
(1) sin 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 cos 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦.
In order to produce a real output, cos 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦 = 0. So either cos 𝑥𝑥 = 0, which occurs when 𝑥𝑥 =
𝜋𝜋
(2𝑛𝑛 + 1) where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ, or sinh 𝑦𝑦 = 0, which occurs when 𝑦𝑦 = 0. The restricted domain is
2
therefore given by,
(2) 𝑦𝑦 = 0
and
𝜋𝜋
(3) 𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1) . 2

When 𝑦𝑦 = 0, the typical Cartesian graph of sin 𝑥𝑥 is generated. When 𝑥𝑥 is an odd multiple of
𝜋𝜋
2
, it appears that a hyperbolic cosine curve exists in that plane intersecting the real sine curve at
its maximum or minimum. These hyperbolic cosine curves are obtained by substituting
𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1) 2 into (1):
𝜋𝜋
cosh 𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = sin 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 cos 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦 = � 2
𝜋𝜋
− cosh 𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 𝑥𝑥 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1)
2
 Figure 2. Graph of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑧𝑧 + 2. The existence of solutions for sin 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0 are
and their values are easily verified.

This three-dimensional graphical representation allows a more complete understanding of the

sine function. There are answers to the question about the zeros of the function sin 𝑧𝑧 + 2 but
they are clearly all non-real and exist in conjugate pairs. The graphical representation gives
meaning to the statement no real solutions that students and instructors often take for granted in
trigonometric equations. It is interesting to note that the non-real curves for sin 𝑧𝑧 are not
trigonometric functions but hyperbolic cosines.
Next consider the secant function. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = sec 𝑧𝑧 = sec(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) =
1
(4) .
cos 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦+𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦

In order to produce a real output, sin 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦 = 0 and cos 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 ≠ 0. Either sin 𝑥𝑥 = 0,
which occurs when 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ, or sinh 𝑦𝑦 = 0, which occurs when 𝑦𝑦 = 0. Note that
none of these values make cos 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 = 0. The restricted domain is therefore given by
(5) 𝑦𝑦 = 0
and
(6) 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛.
1
When 𝑦𝑦 = 0, once again the typical Cartesian graph of cos 𝑥𝑥 = sec 𝑥𝑥 is generated. When 𝑥𝑥 is an
integer multiple of 𝜋𝜋, it appears that a hyperbolic secant curve exists in that plane intersecting
the real secant curve at its maximum or minimum. The symbolic form of the non-real hyperbolic
secant curves are obtained by substituting 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 into (4):
1 sech 𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) = =�
cos 𝑥𝑥 cosh 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑥𝑥 sinh 𝑦𝑦 − sech 𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Figure 3. 3D Graph of sec 𝑧𝑧. The non-real curves in red manifest as ± sech 𝑦𝑦
periodically when 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛.

Figure 3 illustrates the three-dimensional secant function. Note that the non-real hyperbolic
secant curves exist between the local maximum and minimum values of the real secant curve.
This behavior is similar to that observed in the sine function where the non-real hyperbolic
cosine curves exist above and below the local maximum and minimum values respectively. In a
sense, the non-real curves “fill in” the outputs missing from the real curves. Also similar to the
sine function, the non-real curves for sec 𝑧𝑧 are hyperbolic functions.
Since the sine and secant functions produce non-real hyperbolic curves, it is natural to follow
with an inspection of a typically real-valued hyperbolic function. Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = cosh 𝑧𝑧 =
cosh(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖) =
(7) cosh 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 sinh 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦.
In order to produce a real output, sinh 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 0. Either sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 0, which occurs when 𝑥𝑥 =
0, or sin 𝑦𝑦 = 0, which occurs when 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ. The restricted domain is therefore
given by
(8) 𝑥𝑥 = 0
and
(9) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛.
When 𝑦𝑦 = 0, the typical Cartesian graph of cosh 𝑥𝑥 is generated. When 𝑦𝑦 is any other integer
multiple of 𝜋𝜋, another hyperbolic cosine curve is generated in that plane. When 𝑥𝑥 = 0, there
exists a cosine curve in the 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦-plane where each hyperbolic cosine curve intersects at the local
maximum and minimum values. Figure 4 illustrates these curves. Note that all the output values
not included in the range of the real hyperbolic cosine are included in the range of the three-
dimensional hyperbolic cosine function. This behavior is consistent with the sine and secant
functions examined earlier, with the exception of a zero output for the secant.
It is left to the reader to investigate the remaining trigonometric and hyperbolic functions.

Figure 4. 3D graph of cosh 𝑧𝑧. The graph of cos 𝑦𝑦 is produced in the 𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦-plane with
hyperbolic cosine curves intersecting at the local maximum and minimum values.

The Exponential Function

Another well studied transcendental function worthy of examination is the exponential function, 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 .
Consider the well-known equation 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 1 = 0. The traditional graphical representation, when the
domain is restricted to all real numbers, leads students to believe that such an equation has no solutions.
To combat this misconception, students can produce and explore the three-dimensional graphical
representation of the exponential function.
Let 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥+𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =

(10) 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 (cos 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑖𝑖 sin 𝑦𝑦)

In order to produce a real output, 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑦𝑦 = 0 which occurs when 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ. When 𝑦𝑦 = 0,
the typical Cartesian graph of 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 is generated. When 𝑦𝑦 is any other integer multiple of 𝜋𝜋, another
exponential curve is generated in that plane. By substituting 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ, (10) becomes
𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑦𝑦 , where 𝑦𝑦 ∈ {𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛|𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℤ}.
This produces the real and non-real curves shown in figure 5. Note that the exponential curves occur with
a period of 2𝜋𝜋. The three-dimensional representation of the exponential function allows students to
visualize the periodic behavior of the exponential function and gives meaning to the statement that there
are no real solutions.

Figure 5. 3D graph of 𝑒𝑒 𝑧𝑧 + 1

Conclusion

Students need to see the connections between the symbolic and graphical representations
of a function. Traditional graphs of transcendental functions do not reveal the assumptions
associated with claims that the equations sin 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 0 and 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 0 have no solutions.
Students fail to grasp the importance and necessity of stating there are no real solutions when
teachers do not allow them to explore the non-real behavior of functions. With the technology
available today, this ignorance is not necessary. Domain restriction, coupled with interactive 3D
graphics in programs like GeoGebra, provide an excellent laboratory for discovery. Students now
have the tools to investigate a more complete transcendental function with symbolic and graphical
representations that support each other.
 GeoGebra Links
The sine function illustrator used in this paper can be found at https://ggbm.at/u8fHcJdk.
The secant function illustrator used in this paper can be found at https://ggbm.at/Mgc7CEMc.
The hyperbolic cosine function illustrator used in this paper can be found at
https://ggbm.at/S8ZXU8bd.

The exponential function illustrator used in this paper can be found at https://ggbm.at/HD2JW5nZ.
 References
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from http://www.geogebra.org/
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notion of a function of two variables. Educational Studies In Mathematics, 81(3), 365-384.
Presmeg, N. (2014). Contemplating visualization as an epistemological learning tool in
mathematics. Zdm, 46(1), 151-157. doi:10.1007/s11858-013-0561-z
Rittle-Johnson, B., & Star, J. R. (2009). Compared With What? The Effects of Different
Comparisons on Conceptual Knowledge and Procedural Flexibility for Equation Solving.
Journal Of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 529-544. doi:10.1037/a0014224
Warren, M., Gresham, J., Wyatt, B. (2016). Real polynomials with a complex twist. The
Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual International Conference on Technology in
Collegiate Mathematics. http://archives.math.utk.edu/ICTCM/VOL28/A040/paper.pdf