Welcome

REFRIGERATION
&
AIR CONDITIONING
(PCC-ME –504/21)
5th Semester
LTP-3 0 0 Sessional –25 Marks
Credits-03 Theory -75 Marks
Exam Duration: 3 Hours
 Syllabus Refrigeration

• Pre-Requisite: Thermodynamics
• Successive: Air Conditioning Equipments, Estimation and Design of RAC
Plants
• Course Objectives:
• The objective of studying this course is to describe the refrigerants,
analyze refrigeration systems & various controls, estimation of the heating
& cooling load and design air conditioning systems.
• Course Outcomes (COs): At the end of the course, the student shall be
able to:
• CO 1- Classify the refrigerants and analyze the various conventional
refrigeration systems.
• CO 2- Describe the refrigeration systems other than the conventional
refrigeration systems.
• CO3- Analyze the different psychometric processes & evaluate cooling and
heating loads.
• CO 4- Illustrate the different devices used in RAC systems.
 Course contents

• Unit 1
• Basic of Refrigeration and Air refrigeration: Methods of refrigeration, Industrial
Refrigeration; Unit of refrigeration; Coefficient of performance (COP) Refrigerants- Definition,
Classification, Nomenclature, Desirable properties, Comparative study, secondary
refrigerants, Introduction to eco-friendly new Refrigerants and their analysis Refrigerants
mixtures: properties and characteristics - Ozone depletion and global warming issues. Air
Refrigeration Systems: Brayton refrigeration or the Bell Coleman air refrigeration cycle; Air-
craft refrigeration systems, Simple cooling and Simple evaporative types, Boot strap and Boot
strap evaporative types, Regenerative type and Reduced Ambient type system, comparison of
different air refrigeration systems, advantages and disadvantages of air refrigeration cycle,
Actual air conditioning system with controls, Numerical Problems (7)

• Unit 2
• Vapour Compression Refrigeration: VC cycle on P-V, T-S and PH diagrams; Effects of
operating conditions on COP; Cooling and superheating; Comparison of VC cycle with Air
Refrigeration cycle. Super critical vapour compression cycle. Multistage Vapour Compression
(VC) Refrigeration Systems: Necessity of compound compression, Compound VC cycle,
Multistage compression with flash inter-cooling and / or water inter-cooling; systems with
individual or multiple expansion valves; Production of low temperatures: Introduction to
Cryogenics, Multistage refrigeration system, Two and three stage cascade systems. Numerical
Problems. (7) Course Contents:
• Unit 3
• Other Refrigeration Systems: Vapour Absorption Systems, Practical
Ammonia Absorption System, COP of the Absorption System, Lithium
Bromide-Water Absorption Refrigeration Systems and Electrolux
Refrigeration system, Solar energy (Solar Concentrator) based absorption
refrigeration systems, Vapour jet, thermoelectric and Vortex tube
refrigeration, Relative merits and demerits, Applications. (5)

• Unit 4
• Psychometric & Air Conditioning Processes: Properties of moist Air, Gibbs
Dalton law, Specific humidity, Degree of saturation, Relative humidity,
Enthalpy, Humid specific heat, Wet bulb temp., Thermodynamics wet bulb
temp, Psychometric chart; Psychometric of air-conditioning processes,
Psychometric processes in air washer, Numerical Problems. (5)
• Unit 5
• Heating and cooling load calculation for HVAC system design: Outside
and inside design conditions; Sources of cooling load and heating load,
Heat transfer through structure, Solar radiation, Electrical appliances,
Infiltration and ventilation, Heat generation inside conditioned space;
Comfort and industrial air conditioning, Load calculations and Heat
pumps, Numerical Problems. (6)
• Unit 6
• Equipment selection for HVAC system: Air distribution system; Basic of
Duct systems design; Filters; Refrigerant piping; Design of summer air-
conditioning and Winter air conditioning systems; Temperature sensors,
Pressure sensors, Humidity sensors, Actuators, Safety controls;
Accessories, Different types of compressor used in refrigeration. (6)
• Recommended/ Reference Books:
• 1. Refrigeration & Air conditioning –R.C. Jordan and G.B. Priester, Prentice Hall of
India.
• 2. Refrigeration & Air conditioning –C.P. Arora, TMH, New Delhi.
• 3. A course in Refrigeration & Air Conditioning –Arora & Domkundwar, Dhanpat Rai
& sons.
• 4. Refrigeration & Air conditioning –W.F. Stocker and J.W. Jones, TMH, New Delhi.
• 5. Refrigeration & Air conditioning-Manohar Prasad Wiley Estern limited, New
Delhi.
• 6. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by D.S.Kumar, S.K.Kataria & Sons, New Delhi
 Unit 1

• SCIENCE OF PROVIDING AND MAINTAING

THE LOW TEMPERATURE THAN THAT OF
SURROUNDING.
• DEVELOPMENT OF TEMPERATURE
DIFFERANTIALS.
• CONTROLS ONLY TEMPERATURE NOT OTHER
FACTORS LIKE HUMIDITY ETC.
• SCIENCE UTILISES SEVERAL METHODS FOR
LOW TEMPERATURE PRODUCTION.
 Continued

• Ice Refrigeration
• Evaporative Refrigeration
• Vapor Refrigeration systems
• Vapor Absorption Refrigeration System
• Steam-jet Refrigeration systems
• Refrigeration by Using Liquid Gases
• Dry Ice Refrigeration
 Unit of Refrigeration

• Mechanical equipment power generally given in

• H.P.
• Electrical power generally given in Kw or MW.
• Similarly unit of Refrigeration is “Ton of Refrigeration”.

• A ton of refrigeration is defined as the quantity of heat required to be removed

from one ton of ice within the 24 hours when the initial condition of water is zero
degrees centigrade, because same cooling effect will be given by melting the same ice
and denoted by TR.

• Hence
• 1x 2,000 lb x144 Btu / lb
• 1TR= --------------------------------
• 24 hr
• =12,000 Btu / hr =200 Btu / min
• 12,000Btu/hr
• = -------------- ≈ 50 kcal/ min
• 3.968
• =12,000x 1.055 kJ =3.517 kW
 HEAT ENGINE, HEAT PUMP AND REFRIGERATING MACHINE

• Systems having thermodynamic importance

are classified in the two classes:-
• Work developing systems.
All types of engines producing power using
the thermal energy, Heat Engines.
• Work absorbing systems.
Compressors, Refrigerators and Heat pumps
 COP of Refrigerator
COP= Heat Extracted (Q)/ Work done(W)
Theoretical COP= Q/W
COP=1/Ƞ
COP always >1

Relative COP= Actual COP/ Theoretical

COP
 Heat Engine, Heat Pump, and Refrigerator

 W orkDone COPHeatPump o rEPR

HeatEngine Q1
HeatSupplied C OP r efr iger ator  Q2 Q2
W WR  
 E Q1 WP Q2  Q1
Q2 
Q2  Q1 Q1
Q  Q1
 2
  1COPRe fr iger ator  1
Q2 Q2  Q1
 Heat Engine, Heat Pump and refrigerator
• For Heat Pump TS ,i.e. source temperature will be
atmospheric temperature and sink temperature
• TA will be room temperature.
• *Heat pump is a reverse of Refrigerator.
• *Heat pump extract the heat from atmosphere
and supply the same to the space to be heated.
• *All the above cycles are the thermodynamic
systems and based on the reversed carnot cycle
except heat engine which is based on carnot
cycle.
 Performance of a system:-

• ------------------------------------
• Heat supplied by the source =Q
• Temperature of source = TS
• Amount of work done by the engine =W
• Heat rejected by the engine to the sink =q
• Temperature of the sink =TA

Engine

Then the ratio W/Q is the known as the efficiency of

Heat engine denoted by “η”

η=W/Q
η=1- (TA/TS)
 Refrigerator and Heat pump

• *REFRIGERATOR:-
• C.O.P.=Q1 / WR
• C.O.P=TS/(TS-TA)
Interest is to maintain the low temperature by extracting the
maximum heat with minimum work input, hence ratio is
known as “co-efficient of performance” C.O.P.
• HEAT PUMP:-Interest is to extract heat from the atmosphere
and supply the same to the space to be heated. QS is heat
supplied to the room.
• COP= Q2 /WP
• COP=TA/(TS-TA)
Eco-friendly Refrigerants
 History Of Refrigeration
• Refrigeration relates to the cooling of air or liquids, thus providing lower
temperature to preserve food, cool beverages, make ice and for many
other .
• Most evidence indicate that the Chinese were the first to store natural ice
and snow to cool wine and other delicacies.
• Ancient people of India and Egypt cooled liquids in porous earthen jars.
• In 1834, Jacob Perkins, an American, developed a closed refrigeration
system using liquid expansion and then compression to produce cooling.
He used Ether as refrigerant, in a hand- operated compressor, a water-
cooled condenser and an evaporator in liquid cooler.
 Refrigerantion Principle
• Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning
equipment is dominated by vapour compression
refrigeration technology built upon the
thermodynamic principles of the reverse Carnot
cycle.
• Refrigerant Changes phases during cooling and used
again and again.
 What is a Refrigerant
• Refrigerants are used as working substances in a Refrigeration
systems.
• Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified into
primary and secondary refrigerants.
• Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used directly
as working fluids, for example in vapour compression and
vapour absorption refrigeration systems.
• These fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase
change process in the evaporator.
• Secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which are used for
transporting thermal energy from one location to other.
Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name brines
or antifreezes
 What is ChloroFloroCarcons
• Today’s refrigerants are predominantly from a
group of compounds called halocarbons
(halogenated hydrocarbons) or specifically
fluorocarbons.
• Chlorofluorocarbons were first developed by
General Motor’s researchers in the 1920’s and
commercialized by Dupont as “Freons”.
 Halocarbon Refrigerants
• Halocarbon Refrigerant are all synthetically
produced and were developed as the Freon
family of refrigerants.

Examples :
– CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
 Freon Group Refrigerants Application and ODP
Values
Refrigerant Areas of Application ODP
CFC 11(R11) Air-conditioning Systems ranging from 200 to 1.0
2000 tons in capacity. It is used where low
freezing point and non-corrosive properties are
CFC 12 ( R 12 important.
) It is used for most of the applications. Air- 1.0
conditioning plants, refrigerators, freezers, ice-
cream cabinets, water coolers, window air-
conditioners, automobile air conditioners.
CFC 13 (R 13) For low temp refrigeration up to – 90 C in 1.0
cascade system

CFC113 ( R113 Small to medium air-conditioning system and 1.07

) industrial cooling
0.8
CFC114 ( R114 In household refrigerators and in large industrial 0.34
) cooling
Blend of R22 Frozen food ice-cream display cases and
and R115 warehouses and food freezing plants. An
(R502) excellent general low temp refrigerant
 What is Ozone Layer
• Ozone is an isotope of oxygen with three atoms
instead of normal two. It is naturally occurring gas
which is created by high energy radiation from the
Sun.
• The greatest concentration of ozone are found from
12 km to 50 km above the earth forming a layer in
the stratosphere which is called the ozone layer.
• This layer, which forms a semi-permeable blanket,
protects the earth by reducing the intensity of
harmful ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the sun.
 Ozone Layer Depletion
• In the early70’s,scientists Sherwood Roland and
Mario Molina at the University of California at Irvine
were the first to discover the loss of ozone in
stratosphere while investigating the ozone layer from
highflying aircraft and spacecraft.
• They postulated the theory that exceptionally stable
chlorine containing fluorocarbons could, overtime,
migrate to the upper reaches of the atmosphere and
be broken by the intense radiation and release
chlorine atoms responsible for catalytic ozone
depletion.
OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

• N0RMAL REACTION
• O2 = O + O
• O2 + O = O 3

• But CFC refrigerants leaked during the manufacturing and normal operation or at
the time of servicing or repair, mix with surrounding air and rise to troposphere
and then into stratosphere due to normal wind or storm. The Ultraviolet rays act
on CFC releasing Cl atom, which retards the normal reaction:

• RETARDED REACTION
• O3 = O2 + O
• CCL2F2 = CCLF2 + CL
• O3 + CL = CLO + O2
• O + CLO = CL + O2
 Harmful consequences of ozone
depletion
• For Humans Increase in
• skin cancer
• snow blindness
• cataracts
• Less immunity to
• infectious diseases
• malaria
• herpes
• For plants
• smaller size
• lower yield
• increased toxicity
• altered form
•
• For marine life
• Reduced
• plankton
• juvenile fish
• larval crabs and shrimps
MONTREAL PROTOCOL

• SIGNED IN 1987 UNDER THE ‘UNEP’, AFTER MUCH DISCUSSIONS

• MORE THAN 170 COUNTRIES HAVE RATIFIED

• INDIA RATIFIED ON SEPT 17,1992

• ONE OF MOST SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

IN UN HISTORY
 Montréal Protocol- Control Schedule

ozone depleting developed countries developing countries

substance

CFCs phased out end of total phase out by

1995 2010

halons phased out end of total phase out by

1993 2010

HCFCs total phase out by total phase out by

2020 2040
 CFC Phase-out in India
• What is to be phased out?
• CFC-11, CFC-12 & CFC-113a.
• How much and when?

• Year 1999 22,588 MT

• 2005 11,294 MT
• 2010 o MT
• How to achieve the target?
• Production is controlled through a production quota allocated to each producer
every year. The Ozone Cell conducts audits twice a year to monitor the
production.
• How much has been Phaseout? CFC has been completely phased out as on 1st
August, 2008
 Vapor compression refrigeration
System

• In 1834 an American inventor named Jacob Perkins

obtained the first patent for a vapor-compression
refrigeration system, it used ether in a vapor
compression cycle.
• Joule-Thomson (Kelvin) expansion
• Low pressure (1.5 atm) low temperature (-10 to
+15 ℃) inside
• High pressure (7.5 atm) high temperature (+15 to
+40 ℃) outside
 Components

• Refrigerant
• Evaporator/Chiller
• Compressor
• Condenser
• Receiver
• Thermostatic
expansion valve (TXV)
 Circulation of Refrigerant
• Compressor
cold vapor from the evaporator is compressed, raising it temperature and boiling point
adiabatic compression
T, b.p. ~ P
work done on the gas
• Condenser
hot vapor from the compressor condenses outside the cold box, releasing latent heat
isothermal, isobaric condensation (horizontal line on PV diagram)
high temperature
T (hot)
latent heat of vaporization Q (hot)
• Expansion valve (throttling valve)
hot liquid from the condenser is depressurized, lowering its temperature and boiling point
adiabatic, isochoric expansion (vertical line on PV diagram)
T, b.p. ~ P
no work done W = 0
• Evaporator
cold liquid from the expansion valve boils inside the cold box, absorbing latent heat
isothermal, isobaric boiling (horizontal line on PV diagram)
low temperature
T (cold)
latent heat of vaporization Q (cold)
 Importance of Refrigerant
• The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration system
depends mainly on its operating temperatures.
• However, important practical issues such as the system
design, size, initial and operating costs, safety, reliability, and
serviceability etc. depend very much on the type of
refrigerant selected for a given application.
• Due to several environmental issues such as ozone layer
depletion and global warming and their relation to the various
refrigerants used, the selection of suitable refrigerant has
become one of the most important issues in recent times.
 Refrigerant selection criteria
• Selection of refrigerant for a particular
application is based on the following
requirements:
– i. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties

– ii. Environmental and safety properties

– Iii. Economics
Thermodynamic and thermo-physical
properties
• The requirements are:
• a) Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the saturation
pressure should be above atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture
ingress into the system and ease of leak detection. Higher suction
pressure is better as it leads to smaller compressor displacement
• b) Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the discharge
pressure should be as small as possible to allow light-weight construction
of compressor, condenser etc.
• c) Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high volumetric
efficiency and low power consumption
• d) Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as possible so that the
required mass flow rate per unit cooling capacity will be small
Thermodynamic and thermo-physical
properties
• In addition to the above properties; the following properties are also
important:
• e) Isentropic index of compression: Should be as small as possible so that
the temperature rise during compression will be small
• f) Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that degree of subcooling will be
large leading to smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator inlet
• g) Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree of
superheating will be small
• h) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity in both liquid as well as
vapour phase should be high for higher heat transfer coefficients
• i) Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and vapour phases for
smaller frictional pressure drops
• The thermodynamic properties are interrelated and mainly depend on
normal boiling point, critical temperature, molecular weight and structure.
 Halocarbon Refrigerants
• Halocarbon Refrigerant are all synthetically
produced and were developed as the Freon
family of refrigerants.

Examples :
– CFC’s : R11, R12, R113, R114, R115
– HCFC’s : R22, R123
– HFC’s : R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a
 HFCs
• Remain a popular choice
– especially for R22 phase out
• Good efforts at improving leakage
performance
– e.g. Real Zero project
• Interest in R407A to replace R404A
– 50% reduction in GWP

F Gas Stakeholder Group, 14th October 2009 Slide 39

 HCFC
• Transitional compounds with low ODP
• Partially halogenated compounds of
hydrocarbon
• Remaining hydrogen atom allows Hydrolysis
and can be absorbed.
• R22, R123
 HCFC
• Production frozen at 1996 level
• 35% cut by 2005,65% by 2010
• 90% by 2015,100 % by 2030
• 10 year grace period for developing countries.
 R22
• ODP-0.05, GWP-1700
• R22 has 40% more refrigerating capacity
• Higher pressure and discharge temp and not suitable
for low temp application
• Extensively used in commercial air-conditioning and
frozen food storage and display cases
 HFC
• Zero ODP as no chlorine atom contains only
Hydrogen and Flurodine
• Very small GWP values
• No phase out date in Montreal Protocol
• R134a and R152 a – Very popular refrigerants
• HFC refrigerants are costly refrigerants
 R134a
• ODP-0, GWP-1300
• Used as a substitute for R12 and to a limited
range for R22
• Good performance in medium and high temp
application
• Toxicity is very low
• Not miscible with mineral oil
 Hydrocarbon
• Very promising non-halogenated organic compounds
• With no ODP and very small GWP values
• Their efficiency is slightly better than other leading
alternative refrigerants
• They are fully compatible with lubricating oils
conventionally used with CFC12.
 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

• Extraordinary reliability- The most convincing argument is the reliability of

the hydrocarbon system because of fewer compressor failures.
• But most of the hydrocarbons are highly flammable and require additional
safety precaution during its use as refrigerants.
• Virtually no refrigerant losses
• Hydrocarbons have been used since the beginning of the century and now
being considered as long term solutions to environmental problems,
 Hydrocarbons

• Dominant in domestic market like household

refrigerators and freezers
• Growing use in very small commercial systems like
car air-conditioning system

• Examples: R170, Ethane, C2H6

R290 , Propane C3H3
R600, Butane, C4H10
R600a, Isobutane, C4H10
Blends of the above Gases
F Gas Stakeholder Group, 14th October 2009 Slide 48
 R 600a
• ODP-0,GWP-3
• Higher boiling point hence lower evaporator
pressure
• Discharge temp is lowest
• Very good compatibility with mineral oil
 Flammability
• Approximate auto ignition temperatures
• R22 630 ºC
• R12 750 ºC
• R134a 740 ºC
• R290 465 ºC
• R600a 470 ºC
•
Modifications of Electrical Equipment

• Replaced with solid state equivalents

• Sealed to ensure that any sparks do not come
into contact with leaking gas
• Relocated to a position where the component
would not come into contact with leaking gas
Modifications of Electrical Equipment
• Faulty components.
• Poor, corroded, loose, or dirty electrical
connections.
• Missing or broken insulation which could
cause arcing/sparks.
• Friction sparks, like a metal fan blade hitting a
metal enclosure.
 Carbon Dioxide
• Zero ODP & GWP
• Non Flammable, Non toxic
• Inexpensive and widely available
• Its high operating pressure provides potential for
system size and weight reducing potential.
• Drawbacks:
• Operating pressure (high side) : 80 bars
• Low efficiency
 Ammonia –A Natural Refrigerant
Ammonia is produced in a natural way by human beings and
animals; 17 grams/day for humans.

Natural production 3000 million tons/year

Production in factories 120 million tons/year

Used in refrigeration 6 million tons/year

 Ammonia as Refrigerant
• ODP = 0
• GWP = 0
• Excellent thermodynamic characteristics: small molecular
mass, large latent heat, large vapour density and excellent
heat transfer characteristics
• High critical temperature (132C) : highly efficient cycles at
high condensing temperatures
• Its smell causes leaks to be detected and fixed before reaching
dangerous concentration
• Relatively Low price
 Some Drawbacks of Ammonia as
Refrigerant
• Toxic
• Flammable ( 16 – 28% concentration )
• Not compatible with copper
• Temperature on discharge side of compressor
is higher compared to other refrigerants
 Water
• Zero ODP & GWP
• Water as refrigerant is used in absorption
system .New developing technology has
created space for it for use in compression
cycles also.
• But higher than normal working pressure
in the system can be a factor in restricted
use of water as refrigerant
 Application of New Eco-friendly Refrigerants

• Application HFCs used Possible Eco-friendly refrigerant

•
• Domestic refrigeration R134a,R152a HC600a and blends
• Commercial refrigeration R134a,R404A,R407C HC blends,NH3 ,CO2 **
• Cold storage ,food processing
• And industrial refrigeration R134a,R404A,R507A NH3 ,HCs,CO2 **
• Unitary air conditioners R410A,R407C CO2 , HC s
• Centralized AC (chillers) R134a,R410A,R407C NH3 ,HCs,CO2, water **
• Transport refrigeration R134a,R404A CO 2,
• Mobile air conditioner R134a CO2 ,HCs
• Heat pumps R134a,R152a,R404A NH3 ,HCs,CO2, water **
• R407C,R410A
 General Safety measures for refrigerating
plants

• Reduction of refrigerant contents:

– Components with reduced contents
– Indirect systems with secondary refrigerant: distinction between
generation and transport of cold

• Scheduled maintenance and leak testing

• Governmental surveillance – Refrigerant Audits for

systems operating with HFC’s. Recovery, Stock of used refrigerants,
Recycling of refrigerants.

• For the Netherlands, the combined measures resulted in a leak rate

reduction of 35% (1995) to 8% (2001) for R22-systems
 Survey Of Refrigerants
Refrigerant Group Atmospheri ODP GWP
c life
R11 CFC 130 1 4000
R12 CFC 130 1 8500
R22 HCFC 15 .05 1500
R134a HFC 16 0 1300
R404a HFC 16 0 3260
R410a HFC 16 0 1720
R507 HFC 130 1 3300
R717 NH3 - 0 0
R744 CO2 - 0 1
R290 HC <1 0 8
R600a HC <1 0 8
 Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to global warming
when released to the atmosphere

Indirect contribution based on the energy

consumption of among others the compressors ( CO2
produced by power stations )
 Conclusions
• In the aftermath of the Montreal protocole HFC’s have
predominantly replaced CFC’s and HCFC’s in RAC equipment.
• Due to their high GWP, HFC’s are not a good replacement
solution.
• The solution are the natural refrigerants :
Ammonia, Hydrocarbons and Carbon dioxide
• System need to have low TEWI factor
• High efficiency with ammonia and lower power consumption
with hydrocarbons
T-H diagram for water
 Refrigerants
A “refrigerant” is nothing but a heat-carrying medium, which absorbs heat from a low
temperature compartment and liberates into environment by executing a simple cycle
(i.e. compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation).

•The natural ice and mixture of ice and salt were first refrigerants
•VCRS has used following as refrigerants during the past

 Ether
Ammonia
Sulphur dioxide
Methyl chloride
Carbon dioxide etc

•Presently refrigerants used are

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Contains atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine
Halo-carbon compounds (Freon family), now phased pout
Hydro- carbon compounds (Ethane, propane etc.)
 What should be the desirable properties of an ideal
refrigerant?

An ideal refrigerant should have following

properties:-
1. Low boiling point.
2. High latent heat of evaporation.
3. low specific heat.
4. high critical temperature.
5. low specific volume of vapor.
6. Non-corrosive.
7. Non-flammable &non-explosive.
8. non-toxic etc.
 Classification Of Refrigerants
The refrigerants may be broadly
classified into:-
I. Primary refrigerants
II.. Secondary Refrigerants.
The Primary refrigerants may be
further divided into four
subgroups:
-
1. Halo-carbon refrigerants e.g. R-11,
R-12, R-115 etc.
2. Azeotrope refrigerants e.g. R-500,
R-502 ,R-505 etc.
3. Inorganic refrigerants. e.g. R-717
(ammonia), R-118 (Water)
4. Hydro-carbon refrigerants e.g. R-
170 (ethane) etc.
 Halo-Carbon Refrigerants/ Compounds/Organic refrigerants

• ASHRAE has identified 42 halo carbon refrigerants, but few are in use.
• These are synthetically produced and were developed as family of Freon
refrigerants and may contain one or more of three halogens-chlorine,
fluorine and bromine.
• The halogens are a group in periodic table consisting of five chemically
related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I),
and astatine (At).
• The name "halogen" means "salt-producing". When halogens react with
metals, they produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride,
sodium chloride(common table salt), silver bromide and potassium iodide.
• Freon is trade mark of E.I. Du Pont De Numours and Co. America.
• Most of halo carbons nowadays are available from other manufactures
under the trade names, such as Genetron, Isotron etc.
• First halo carbon refrigerant R-12 was developed by Dr. Thomas Midgley
in 1930.
 R11
• Trichlorofluoromethane, also Properties
called freon-11, CFC-11, or R-11, is Chemical formula CCl3F
a CFC. It is a colorless, faintly −1
Molar mass 137.36 g·mol
ethereal, stable, nontoxic, non-
flammble and sweetish-smelling Appearance Colorless liquid/gas
liquid that boils around room Odor nearly odorless
3
temperature. Density 1.494 g/cm
• Other names: Melting point −110.48 °C (−166.86 °F;
Trichlorofluoromethane 162.67 K)
Fluorotrichloromethane Boiling point 23.77 °C (74.79 °F;
Fluorochloroform 296.92 K)
Freon 11 Solubility in water 1.1 g/L (at 20 °C)
CFC 11 Latent heat (at -15O C) 195KJ/Kg
R 11
Vapor pressure 89 kPa at 20 °C
Arcton 9 131 kPa at 30 °C
Freon 11A
Freon 11B
Freon HE
Freon MF
• Now phased out
• Alternate refrigerant: R-123 (HCFC)
 R12

Dichlorodifluoromethane is a colorless gas usually sold under the brand name Freon-12,
and a chlorofluorocarbon halomethane used as a refrigerant and aerosol spray
propellant

The best replacement for R12 is considered to be R-134a. The chemical name of R134a
is tetrafluoroethane and it chemical formula is CF3CH2F.

It is a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) and has zero ozone depletion causing potential and very
low greenhouse effect.

R-134a is nonflammable and non-explosive and has good chemical stability though it
has some affinity towards moisture.
 R 22 (Chlorodifluoromethane)

Chlorodifluoromethane or difluoromonochloromethane is
a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC). This colorless gas is better known as HCFC-22,
or R-22, or CHClF.
It is commonly used as a propellant and refrigerant.

These applications are being phased out in developed countries due to the
compound's ozone depletion potential (ODP) and high global warming potential (GWP),
although global use of R-22 continues to increase because of high demand
in developing countries.

R-22 is often used as an alternative to the highly ozone-depleting CFC-11 and CFC-12,
because of its relatively low ozone depletion potential of 0.055, among the lowest
for chlorine-containing haloalkanes.

However, even this lower ozone depletion potential is no longer considered acceptable.
 R 134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane )

R134a is also known as Tetrafluoroethane (CF3CH2F) from the family of HFC

refrigerant.

With the discovery of the damaging effect of CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants to the ozone
layer, the HFC family of refrigerant has been widely used as their replacement.

It is now being used as a replacement for R-12 CFC refrigerant in the area of centrifugal,
rotary screw, scroll and reciprocating compresssors. It is safe for normal handling as it is
non-toxic, non-flammable and non-corrosive.

Currently it is also being widely used in the air conditioning system in newer automotive
vehicles. The manufacturing industry use it in plastic foam blowing. Pharmaceuticals
industry use it as a propellant.
 Nomenclature of refrigerants

•The Refrigerants are designated by R

•R is followed by two digits or three digits number, say for example R-11 or R-717
•Two digit number refrigerant is Methane based
•Three digit number refrigerant is Ethane based

•First digit on RHS indicates No. of ‘F’ atoms, denoted by ‘q’

•Second digit from RHS indicates one more than No. of ‘H’ atoms, denoted by ‘n’
•Third digit from RHS indicates one less than No. of ‘C” atoms, denoted by ‘m’

•The general chemical formula for any refrigerant is

•Cm Hn Clp Fq

•Such that n+p+q=2m+2

•And ‘p’ is no. of Cl atoms

•Refrigerant is designated as R-(m-1)(n+1)(q)

 Blends & Mixtures
• Limited no of pure refrigerants with low ODP
& GWP values
• To try a mixture of pure refrigerants to meet
specific requirement
• Blends are made up of two or more single
component refrigerants.
• One of two situations will occur, depending on
how strongly the different molecules are
attracted to each other:
•
 Azeotropic Refrigerants
• Blend behaves like a single component refrigerant.
• Azeotropic mixture is a chemical mixture in which there with liquids having a
constant boiling point.
• This is because the vapour of the liquid mixture has the same composition as the
liquid mixture.
• A stable mixture of two or several refrigerants whose vapour and liquid phases
retain identical compositions over a wide range of temperatures.
• Vapour composition= Liquid composition

• Examples : R-500 : 73.8% R12 and 26.2% R152

R-502 : 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503 : 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
 Zeotropic Refrigerants
• Blend that behaves like a mixture of the individual
components.
• Vapour composition≠Liquid composition
• A zeotropic mixture is one whose composition in
liquid phase differs to that in vapour phase.
• Zeotropic refrigerants therefore do not boil at
constant temperatures unlike azeotropic refrigerants.
• Examples :R404a : R125/143a/134a (44%,52%,4%)
R407c : R32/125/134a (23%, 25%, 52%)
R410a : R32/125 (50%, 50%)
R413a : R600a/218/134a (3%, 9%, 88%)
 Difference
The key difference between azeotropic
and zeotropic mixture is that dew
point and bubble point of an
azeotropic mixture intersect whereas
dew point and bubble point of a
zeotropic mixture are distinguishable.
The terms azeotropic and zeotropic
mixtures are highly related to each other
since they have opposite properties to
each other. Therefore, they have
different dew and bubble curve
characteristics as well.
 Inorganic Refrigerants
• Were in use before invention of halo carbon
refrigerants, but in still use due to inherent
some properties

• Carbon Dioxide
• Water
• Ammonia
• Air
• Sulphur dioxide
 Ammonia (R-717)
• Ammonia: Used where toxicity is secondary in reciprocating compressions.
Used in absorption systems. Condensers made of iron or steel as it attacks
the copper and bronze in presence of moisture.
• Poisonous, if large quantity inhaled, lesser quantity irritates, somewhat
flammable, explosive with certain quantity of air, Uses: Cold storages, ice
plant, milk plant, beer manufacture, ice cream manufacture, food freezing
plants etc. ODP = 0
• GWP = 0
• Excellent thermodynamic characteristics: small molecular mass, large
latent heat, large vapour density and excellent heat transfer
characteristics
• High critical temperature (132OC) : highly efficient cycles at high
condensing temperatures
• Its smell causes leaks to be detected and fixed before reaching dangerous
concentration
• Relatively Low price
 Air (R-729)

Air: Dry air used as refrigerant in air crafts

To understand why air refrigeration cycle is used in aviation vehicles / aircraft you need
to understand the advantages of air refrigeration cycle which are

1. The refrigerant used namely air is cheap and easily available.

2. There is no danger of fire or toxic effects due to leakages.

3. The weight to tonne of refrigeration ratio is less as compared to other systems

Air doesn't change it's phase throughout the cycle i.e., remains in gaseous phase,
therefore the heat carrying capacity per kg of air is very small as compared to other
cycle in refrigeration. So it is obsolete and only use in air flight.

Air refrigeration cycle used in aircraft because,

Availability of high pressure air.

Due to light weight and low volume of the equipment.

 Sulphur dioxide (R-764)
Sulfur dioxide or sulphur dioxide (British English) is the chemical compound with the
formula SO2.

It is a toxic gas responsible for the smell of burnt matches.

It is released naturally by volcanic activity and is produced as a by-product of copper

extraction and the burning of fossil fuels contaminated with sulfur compounds.

This is produced by combustion of sulphur in air.

In formers years , widely used in household and small commercial units.

Boiling point= -10 OC

hfg (at -15 OC)= 396 KJ/kg

Stable refrigerant, Non flammable and non-explosive

Unpleasant and irritating odour

Not injurious to food, used as ripener and preservative of foods

In presence of moisture, it is corrosive

 Water R-118

Principle use of water is as ice.

Due to high freezing temperature of water can not be used in VCRS.

It is used as refrigerant vapour in some absorption systems.

Steam jet.

Carbon dioxide R-744)

The principle refrigeration use of carbon dioxide is same as that of dry ice.

The boiling point is extremely low (-73.6OC).

Due to its high operating pressure, compressor is very small for same RE.

Due to low efficiecy, seldom used in household units. Used in ships.

 Transcritical cycle
A transcritical cycle is a thermodynamic cycle where the working fluid goes through
both Subcritical and supercritical states. This is often the case when carbon dioxide,
CO2, is the refrigerant.

P-h diagrams: (a)

Subcritical cycle and
(b) Transcritical
cycle.
 Brief about Refrigerants
Hal-carbon or Are chloro-
organic fluoro
refrigerants derivatives of
methane and
ethane.
Chloro-fluro- Fully CFC R-11, R-11, R-
carbon halogenated 113, R-114
with chlorine and R-115
atoms in the
molecules
Hydro-chloro- Contains HCFC R-22, R-123
fluoro-carbon hydrogen
atom
Hydro-fluoro- Contain no HFC R-134a, R-
carbon chlorine atom 152a

Hydrocarbon Contain no HC R-290, R-600a

chlorine and
fluorine
atoms
Presence of fluorine atom in molecule of refrigerant makes them physiologically more
favourable.

Cl atom is responsible for depletion of ozone layer. CFCs are more responsible. Have
highest ODP. Also responsible for Global warming.
Ozone layer depletion (ODP)

One Cl atom can destroy 105 molecules of ozone.

Relative ability of a substance to deplete the ozone layer is called ODP.
CFCs are worst and their ODP=1
HCFC have relatively low ODP, R-22=0.05, R-123=0.02
HFC do not cause any ozone depletion, R-134a=0

Montreal Protocol, 1987, India became part in 1992.

Global warming potential (GWP)

Global warming means the increase in average temperature of earth.

Causes are increase in CO2 concentration, NO2 emission and use of CFC refrigerants.

The ability of a substance to contribute to global warming is measured by the global

warming potential (GWP).
Some halocarbon have a very high GWP. For example R-22=100 CO2 =1
 MONTREAL PROTOCOL

• SIGNED IN 1987 UNDER THE ‘UNEP’, AFTER MUCH DISCUSSIONS

• MORE THAN 170 COUNTRIES HAVE RATIFIED
• INDIA RATIFIED ON SEPT 17,1992
• ONE OF MOST SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLE OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN
UN HISTORY

Montréal Protocol- Control Schedule

ozone developed developing

depleting countries countries
substance
CFCs phased out total phase
end of 1995 out by 2010
halons phased out total phase
end of 1993 out by 2010
HCFCs total phase total phase
out by 2020 out by 2040
 ECO-FRIENDLY REFRIGERANTS

CFC
ALTERNATIVES.

HCFC HFC NATURAL REFRIGERANT

R22,R124 R134a,R152a NH3, HC'S
 Environmental and safety properties
• At present the environment friendliness of the refrigerant is a
major factor in deciding the usefulness of a particular
refrigerant. The important environmental and safety
properties are:
• a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the
Montreal protocol, the ODP of refrigerants should be zero,
i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting substances.
Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already been
phased-out (e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be phased-out in near-
future(e.g. R22). Since ODP depends mainly on the presence
of chlorine or bromine in the molecules, refrigerants having
either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or bromine cannot be
used under the new regulations
 Environmental Effects of
Refrigerants
Global warming :
Refrigerants directly contributing to global warming
when released to the atmosphere

Indirect contribution based on the energy

consumption of among others the compressors ( CO2
produced by power stations )
 Environmental and safety properties
• b) Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants should have
as low a GWP value as possible to minimize the problem of
global warming. Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value
of GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in future.
• c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The factor TEWI
considers both direct (due to release into atmosphere) and
indirect (through energy consumption) contributions of
refrigerants to global warming. Naturally, refrigerants with as
a low a value of TEWI are preferable from global warming
point of view.
 Environmental and safety properties
• d) Toxicity: Ideally, refrigerants used in a refrigeration system should be non-toxic.
Toxicity is a relative term, which becomes meaningful only when the degree of
concentration and time of exposure required to produce harmful effects are
specified. Some fluids are toxic even in small concentrations. Some fluids are
mildly toxic, i.e., they are dangerous only when the concentration is large and
duration of exposure is long. In general the degree of hazard depends on:

– - Amount of refrigerant used vs total space

– - Type of occupancy

– - Presence of open flames

– - Odor of refrigerant, and

– - Maintenance condition
 Environmental and safety properties
• e) Flammability: The refrigerants should preferably be non-
flammable and non-explosive. For flammable refrigerants
special precautions should be taken to avoid accidents.
• f) Chemical stability: The refrigerants should be chemically
stable as long as they are inside the refrigeration system.
• g) Compatibility with common materials of construction (both
metals and non-metals)
• h) Miscibility with lubricating oils: Oil separators have to be
used if the refrigerant is not miscible with lubricating oil (e.g.
ammonia). Refrigerants that are completely miscible with oils
are easier to handle(R12).
 Environmental and safety properties
• Ease of leak detection: In the event of leakage
of refrigerant from the system, it should be
easy to detect the leaks.
Economic properties:
• The refrigerant used should preferably be
inexpensive and easily available.
 Classification of refrigerants
Refrigerant Name Composition or chemical Safety classification
Number formula
(mass percentage)
INORGANIC COMPOUND
R-717 ammonia NH3 B2
R-718 water H2O A1
R-744 carbon dioxide CO2 A1
ORGANIC COMPOUND
Hydrocarbons
R-290 propane CH3CH2CH3 A3
R-600 butane CH3CH2 CH2CH3 A3
R-600a isobutane CH(CH3)2CH3 A3
R-1270 propylene CH3CH=CH2 A3
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
R-32 difluoromethane CH2F2 A2
R-125 pentafluoroethane CHF2CF3 A1
R-134a 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane CH2FCF3 A1
R-143a 1,1,1-trifluoroethane CH3CF3 A2
R-152a 1,1-difluoroethane CH3CHF2 A2
Azeotropic mixtures
R-502 R22/R115 (48.8/51.2) A1
R-507 R125/R143a (50/50) A1
Zeotropic mixtures
R-404A R125/R143a/R134a A1
(44/52/4)
R-407C R32/R125/R134a A1
(23/25/52)
 Designation and safety classification of refrigerants

Type Profile Application

R-134a Replace R-12 in most applications. Good performance in medium temperature
applications ; household refrigerators; car air
conditioning systems; heat pumps; chillers;
transport refrigeration; commercial cooling.

R-245fa Replacement of R-123. Chillers, heat transfer fluid.

R-404A Near azeotropic refrigerant containing R-125, Cold-storage cells; supermarket display cases;
R-143a and R-134a (44/52/4% by weight). ice machines; replacement for R-502 in
transport refrigeration; retrofit of existing R-
502-installations
R-407A Zeotropic refrigerant containing R-32, R-125 Close replacement of R-22 in commercial
and R-134a (20/40/40 weight-%). refrigeration applications. Possible
replacement for R-404A in supermarket chill
and low temperature systems.
R-407C Zeotropic refrigerant containing R-32, R-125 New air-conditioning units or replacement for
and R-134a (23/25/52 weight-%). R-22 in existing installations; heat-pumps;
industrial and commercial cooling.
 continued
R-407F Zeotropic refrigerant containing R-32, R-125 Close replacement of R-22 in commercial
and R-134a (30/30/40 weight-%). refrigeration applications. Possible
replacement for R-404A in supermarket
medium and low temperature systems.
R-410A Near azeotropic refrigerant containing R-32 Substitute for R-22 ; air-conditioning units;
and R-125 (50/50 by weight). heat pumps; cold storage; industrial and
commercial refrigeration; substitution of R-
13B1 in low temperature application
R-417B Contains R-125, R-134a and Butane R-600 R-22 substitute.
(79/18.25/2.75 weight-%).

R-422A Contains R-125, R-134a and Isobutane R-600a R404A replacement very similar properties;
(85.1/11.5/3.4 weight-%). R502 retrofit refrigerant.
R-422D Contains R-125, R-134a and Isobutane R-600a R-22 substitue.
(65.1/31.5/3.4 weight-%).
R-427A Contains R-32, R-125, R-134a and R-143a R-22 subsitute.
(15/25/50/10 weight-%).
R-507 Azeotropic refrigerant containing R-125 and Cold-storage cells; supermarket display cases;
R-143a (50/50% by weight). ice machines; replacement for R-502 in
refrigerated transport; replacement for R-502;
retrofit of existing R-502-installations.
 Refrigeration Application
Typical HFCs used
Refrigeration application Short description

Appliances used for keeping food in HFC-134a

Domestic Refrigeration
dwelling units.

Holding and displaying frozen and

Commercial Refrigeration R 404A, R 507, HFC-134a
fresh food in retail outlets

Equipment to preserve, process and

Food Processing and Cold
store food from its source to the R410A, R407C, R 507, HFC-134a
Storage
wholesale distribution point

Large equipment, typically 25 kW to HFC-134a, R-404A, R-507

30 MW, used for chemical processing,
Industrial Refrigeration
cold storage, food processing and
district heating and cooling

Equipment to preserve and store R410A, R407C, HFC-134a

Transport Refrigeration goods, primarily foodstuffs, during
transport by road, rail, air and sea
 Eco-friendly refrigerants

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
These are refrigerants that contain Chlorine, Fluorine and Carbon. They were developed
in the 1930's and were used in a variety of industrial, commercial, household and
automotive applications. They were ideal for commercial, household, and automotive
use due to the fact that they are non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-reactive with other
chemical compounds. In 1973 however, it was discovered that the Chlorine atom in the
CFC's unfortunately is a catalyst for ozone depletion. Basically the Cl atom rips away the
extra oxygen atom in the ozone compound. Since 1987 their use has been prohibited by
the Montreal Protocol.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
These are refrigerants that contain Hydrogen, Chlorine, Fluorine, and Carbon. They
have only about 10% of the ozone depleting potential as CFCs. They are energy-
efficient, low-in-toxicity, cost effective and can be used safely. They have allowed the
CFCs consumption of the world to fall by about 75%. Unfortunately HCFCs are Green
house gases, despite their very low atmospheric concentrations
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFC's).
These are refrigerants containing Hydrogen, Fluorine, and Carbon. Therefore they do
not contain any ozone depleting Chlorine. Besides containing no ozone depleting
elements they usually have an even lower global warming potential than HCFCs.
Unfortunately they are targets of the Kyoto_Protocol because they have activity in an
entirely different realm of greenhouse gases.
 Retofitting

Retrofitting refers to the addition of new technology or features to older systems, for
example:
Power plant retrofit, improving power plant efficiency / increasing output / reducing
emissions,
Home energy retrofit, the improving of existing buildings with energ
efficiency equipment,
Seismic retrofit, the process of strengthening older buildings in order to make them
earthquake-resistant,
Refrigeration equipments by introducing to them new refrigerants.

Benefits of a retrofit:

Saving on capital expenditure while benefiting from new technologies,

Optimization of existing plant components,
Adaptation of the plant for new or changed products,
Increase in piece number and cycle time,
Guaranteed spare parts availability
Reduced maintenance costs and increased reliability
 Cryogenics

Cryogenic refrigeration systems are different from the refrigeration equipment we

encounter in our everyday environment. The refrigerants used in cryogenic systems
are often helium (He), hydrogen (H2), or nitrogen (N2)
The International Congress of Refrigeration endorsed a universal definition of
“cryogenics” and “cryogenic” by accepting a threshold of 120 K (or –153 °C) to
distinguish these terms from the conventional refrigeration.

This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called
permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air)
lie below −120 °C.

While the Freon refrigerants, hydrocarbons, and other common refrigerants have
boiling points above −120 °C.

The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology considers the field of
cryogenics as that involving temperatures below −180 °C (93 K; −292 °F).

The term "high temperature cryogenic" describes temperatures ranging from above the
boiling point of liquid nitrogen, −195.79 °C (77.36 K; −320.42 °F), up to −50 °C (223 K;
−58 °F).
 Carnot Refrigerator
• Reversed cycle is used in refrigeration of Carnot heat engines.
• Purely theoretical concept ever to be achieved in practice.
• Refrigerator based on this cycle is a standard of perfection.
 Carnot cycle consists of all reversible processes so that this is Reversible
cycle.

In a cyclic process  Q  W
W (net work done)
W  Q
Heat rejected- Heat absorbed= QR - QA

 = T2
s2  s1   T1s2  s1   T2  T1 s2  s1 
QA T1 s2  s1 
 
W T2  T1 s2  s1 
COP

T
C.O.P.  WhereT greaterthanT
1

T T
2 1

2 1
 Discussion
• A high COP is desirable.
• Lower T2, higher the COP.
• higher the T1, higher the COP.
• Lower the temperature difference, higher the
COP.
• COP inversely proportional to T-S diagram.
• COP in winter> COP in summer for same
temperature to be maintained.
• COP CARNOT REFRIGERATOR < COP CARNOT A.C
 Problem
• A cold storage plant is required to store 20 tonnes of
fish. The fish is supplied at a temperature of 30°C. The
specific heat of fish above freezing point is 2.93 kJlkg K.
The specific heat of fish below freezing point is 1.26
kJlkg K. The fish is stored in cold storage which is
maintained at - 8°C. The freezing point of fish is - 4°C.
The latent heat of fish is 235 kJlkg. If the plant requires
75 kW to drive it, find:
1. The capacity of the plant, and
2. Time taken to achieve cooling. Assume actual C.O.P. of
the plant as 0.3 of the Carnot C.O.P
 Solution

Actual COP=0.3x6.97=2.091

Find the heat removed from above

equation
Find the capacity of the plant in TR
(1TR=210 kJ/min)
Bell-Coleman air Refrigerator arrangement 1
Bell-Coleman air Refrigerator
arrangement 2
Bell-Colemen Cycle on PV and TS Diagram
 Bell-Coleman Cycle analysis

• Modification over the carnot cycle.

• *Isothermal processes are replaced by the
• constant pressure processes.
• Let T1, T2,T3,and T4 are the absolute temperatures at the points 1,2,3
and 4 shown in figure.
• Heat abstracted from cold chamber Per kg of air
• qA= CP(T1-T4)………………………………(1)
• Heat rejected by the condenser per kg of air
• qR=CP(T3-T2) ……………………………….(2)
• Work done on the system, w= qR -qA
• W= CP(T3-T2)- CP(T1-T4) per kg of air………
 Continued

• _
q C T  T 
Thus COP  wA   P 1 4 
C T  T   C T  T 
P 2 3 P 1 4 
T T
 1 4
 
................................(4)
T  T   T  T 

 1 3  1 4 
The ratio of expansion and compression in both the cylinders is
 1  1
T  p   
 p  

T
   
same,  2  2   3   3
T  p   p 
 
T
1  1  4 4
TT
T  1 3 ...........................................(5)
2 T
4
 Continued

• - T T
COP  1 4

T T  


1 3    T - T 
 


T   1 4 
 4 
T T 1 T
 1 4   4 .......(6)

T 
 
T 

T T
 3       3 4
T  T   T  T   1
 
3
 T  1 4   1 4  T 
   
 4  4
1 1
  ..........................(7)
 1  1
   
   
 p  
 2
r  
 p
1
  1  
 p 
 
 1
 Continued

• where
p p
r p  2  3  compression or expansion ratio, and equations
p1 p
4
(6) and (7) , represents the COP of the Beleman cycle in the
terms of temperature and pressure ratio respectively , assuming
compression and expansions as the isentropic and following
the law pvn  c (consant)

If the expansion and compression are polytropic and follow the law
pvn = C (constant)
,then COP of the cycle is given by following derived the relation,
Bell-Colemen Cycle
Bell-Colemen Cycle
Bell-Colemen Cycle
 Bell-Colemen Cycle

• If the carnot cycle is used thenT4 =T1, and this is the source temperature
to be maintained in the refrigerator.
• Similarly T2 =T3, if the Bell-Colemen cycle is used as carnot refrigerator
,then T2 =T3 as the sink temperature for carnot refrigerator,
• Then COP= T ………..8
1
T T
2 1
Where ,
T1 = Temperature to be maintained in the refrigerator and ,
T2= Atmosphere temperature.
Comparing the eq.(6) and eq.(8)
COP carnot > COP Bell-Coleman

As T2 >T3
 Problem
• The atmospheric air at pressure 1 bar and temperature -5°C is
drawn in the cylinder of the compressor of a Bell-Coleman
refrigerating machine. It is compressed isentropically to a
pressure of 5 bar. In the cooler, the compressed air is cooled to
15°C, pressure remaining the same. It is then expanded to a
pressure of 1 bar in an expansion cylinder, from here it is
passed to the cold chamber.
• Find: 1. the work done per kg of air, and 2. C.O.P. of the 'ant.
• For air assume law for expansion, pv1.2 = constant,' law for
compression, pV1.2 = constant ld specific heat of air at
constant pressure = 1 kJlkg K.
A refrigerating machine o f 6 tonnes capacity working on
Bell-Coleman cycle has an upper limit o f pressure o f 5.2 bar.
The pressure and temperature at the start of compression are 1
bar and 16°C respectively. The compressed air is cooled at
constant pressure to a temperature o f 41°C, enters the
expansion cylinder. Assuming both expansion and compression
processes to be isentropic with y = 1.4, Calculate :
1. Coefficient o f performance;
2. Quantity o f air in circulation per minute;
3. Piston displacement o f compressor and expander;
4. Bore o f compressor and expansion cylinders. The unit runs at
240 r.p.m. and is double acting. Stroke length is 200 mm ; and
5. Power required to drive the unit.
For air, take y = 1.4, and cp = 1.003 kJ/kg K.
 METHODS OF AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

• Selection Of Refrigeration System For

Air Craft The advent of high-speed passenger aircraft, jet aircraft and
missiles has introduced the need for compact, lightweight and
simple refrigeration system. Air cycle refrigeration systems are
employed for air conditioning the cockpit and cabin space of an
airplane.
Necessitaty of air cooling

• Think about it-

(Q) Can you imagine how many tons of refrigeration is required for an ordinary
passenger aircraft?
(Ans) An ordinary 15 seater plane requires a cooling system capable of 8 TR
capacity.
(Q) Do missile system needs refrigeration system?
(Ans) Yes, to dissipate heat from 10 kw of electronic equipment in missile,
approximately 3 TR of cooling capacity is required
 METHODS OF AIR REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

• Methods of Air Refrigeration System

• 1. Simple air-cooling system.

• 2. Simple air evaporative cooling system.
• 3. Boot-strap air cooling system.
• 4. Boot-Strap air evaporative cooling system.
• 5. Reduced ambient air-cooling system.
• 6. Regenerative air-cooling system.
• All above cycles are used while plane is on flight whereas during parking
,pre conditioned air is used for cooling.
Simple Air-cooling System
 Simple Air-cooling System

• The various process are discussed below: -

(1) Ramming Process-The ambient air is rammed isentropically from
p1&T1 to p2 &T2.This ideal ramming is shown by Process1-2.Actual
ramming process is shown by curve 1-2’ which is adiabatic not
isentropic.(because of friction).
(2) Compression Process-The isentropic compression of air in the main
compressor is represented by line 2’-3.In actual practice, due to
irreversibilities (because of friction etc.) is represented by curve 2’-3’.
(3) Cooling Process- The compressed air is cooled by the ram air in the
heat exchanger, shown by curve 3’-4.
(4) Expansion Process-The cooled air now expanded isentropically in the
cooling turbine as shown by curve 4-5.In actual practice, because of
irreversibility due to friction etc, the actual expansion is shown by 4-5’.
(5) Refrigeration Process- (5’-6) -The air from cooling turbine (i.e. after
expansion) is sent to the cabin & cockpit where this cold air absorbs
heat thereby producing cooling effect in the cabin.
Simple air cooling
Simple Air-cooling System
Simple air cooling system
Simple Air Cooling System
Simple Air Evaporative Cooling System
Simple Air Cooling System
 Simple Air Cooling System
• A simple air cooled system is used for an aeroplane having a
load of 10 tonnes. The atmospheric pressure and temperature
are 0.9 bar and 10 0C respectively. The pressure increases to
1.013 bar due to ramming. The temperature of the air is
reduced by 50 0C in the heat exchanger. The pressure in the
cabin is 1.01 bar and the temperature of air leaving the cabin is
25°C. Determine:
1 Power required to take the load of cooling in the cabin; and
2. C.O.P. of the system.
Assume that all the expansions and compressions are isentropic.
The pressure of the compressed air is 3.5 bar.
Simple evaporative cooling system
Simple evaporative cooling system
 Simple evaporative cooling system

• A simple evaporative air refrigeration system is used for an aeroplane

to 20 tonnes of refrigeration load. The ambient air conditions are 20°C
and 0.9 bar. The ambie~ is rammed isentropically to a pressure of 1 bar.
The air leaving the main compressor at pre! 3.5 bar is first cooled in the
heat exchanger having effectiveness of 0.6 and then in the evapOl
where its temperature is reduced by 5°C. The air from the evaporator is
passed through cooling turbine and then it is supplied to the cabin
which is to be maintained at a temperatw 25°C and at a pressure of
1.05 bar. If the internal efficiency of the compressor is 80% and tlu
cooling turbine is 75% ,determine:
1. Mass of air bled off the main compressor; 2. Power required for the
refrigerating syst and 3. C.O.P. of the refrigerating system.
Boot Strap Air Cooling
Boot Strap Air Cooling
Boot Strap Air Cooling
 Boot Strap Air Cooling

• A boot-strap cooling system of 10 TR capacity is used in an aeroplane.

The ambient air temperature and pressure are 20°C and 0.85 bar
respectively. The pressure of air increases from 0.85 bar to 1 bar due to
ramming action of air. The pressure of air discharged from the main
compressor is 3 bar. The discharge pressu!e of air from the auxiliary
compressor is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiency ;f each of the compressor
is 80%, while that of turbine is 85%. 50% of the enthalpy of air
discharged from the main compressor is removed In the first heat
exchanger and 30% of the enthalpy of air discharged from the auxiliqry
compressor is removed in the second heat exchanger using rammed air.
Assuming ramming action to be isentropic, the required cabin pressure
of 0.9 bar and temperature of the air leaving the cabin not more than
20°C, find: 1. the power required to operate the system; and 2. the
C.O.P of the system. Draw the schematic and temperature -entropy
diagram of the system. Take 'Y = 1.4 and cp = 1 kJ/kg K.
Boot Strap air evaporative cooling system
Boot Strap air evaporative cooling system
Boot Strap air evaporative cooling system
 Boot Strap with evaporation

• The following data refer to a boot strap air cycle evaporative refrigeration
• system used for an aeroplane to take 20 tonnes of refrigeration load:
• Ambient air temperature = 15°C
• Ambient air pressure = 0.8 bar
• Mach number of the flight = 1.2
• Ram efficiency = 90%
• Pressure of air bled off the main compressor = 4 bar
• Pressure of air in the secondary compressor = 5 bar
• Isentropic efficiency of the main compressor = 90%
• Isentropic efficiency of the secondary compressor = 80%
• Isentropic efficiency of the cooling turbine = 80%
• Temperature of air leaving the first heat exchanger = 170°C
• Temperature of air leaving the second heat exchanger = 155°C
• Temperature of air leaving the evaporator = 100°C
• Cabin temperature = 25°C
• Cabin pressure = 1 bar
• Find: 1. Mass of air required to take the cabin load, 2. Power required for the refrigeration system,
and 3. C.O.P. of the system.
Reduced Ambient Air Cooling System
Reduced Ambient Air Cooling System
Reduced Ambient Air Cooling System
Reduced Ambient Air Cooling System
Regenerative air cooling system
Regenerative air cooling system
Regenerative air cooling system
Regenerative air cooling system
Regenerative air cooling system
 Vapour Compression Refrigeration
System

VCRS was first developed by Jacob Perkins using

hand operation in 1834.

• Following are the advantages and disadvantages of the

vapour compression refrigeration system over air
refrigeration system :
• Advantages
• It has smaller size for the given capacity of refrigeration.
• It has less running cost.
• It can be employed over a large range of temperatures.
• The coefficient of performance is quite high.
 VCRS
• Disadvantages
• The initial cost is high.
• The prevention of leakage of the refrigerant
is the major problem in vapour compression
system.
Mechanism of a Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration
System
Pressure-Enthalpy (p-h) Chart
Ph Chart for R-134a
Ph Chart for Ammonia
Ph chart for CO2
Thermodynamic Properties for R 134a
 Types of VCR Cycles
• Cycle with dry saturated vapour after
compression,
• Cycle with wet vapour after compression,
• Cycle with superheated vapour after
compression,
• Cycle with superheated vapour before
compression, and
• Cycle with undercooling or subcooling of
refrigerant.
Cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression ,
Cycle with wet vapour after compression
Cycle with superheated vapour after compression
Cycle with superheated vapour before compression
Cycle with undercooling or subcooling
Effect of Condenser Temp on COP
Effect of Evaporator Temp. on COP
 Multistage compression
• Following are the main advantages of compound or multi-stage
compression over single stage compression :
• The work done per kg of refrigerant is reduced in compound
compression with intercooler as compared to single stage compression
for the same delivery pressure.
• It improves the volumetric efficiency for the given pressure ratio.
• The sizes of the two cylinders (i.e. high pressure and low pressure) may
be adjusted to suit the volume and pressure of the refrigerant.
• It reduces the leakage loss considerably.
• It gives more uniform torque, and hence a smaller size flywheel is
needed.
• It provides effective lubrication because of lower temperature range.
• It reduces the cost of compressor.
 Compound Vapour Compression with Intercooler

• In compound compression vapour

refrigeration systems, the superheated vapour
refrigerant leaving the first stage of
compression is cooled by suitable method
before being fed to the second stage of
compression and so on. Such type of cooling
the refrigerant is called intercooling.
Symbols
 Types of compound compression with intercoolers

1.Two stage compression with liquid intercooler.

2.Two stage compression with water intercooler.
3.’Two stage compression with water intercooler, liquid
subcoo1er and liquid flash chamber.
4.Two stage compression with water intercooler, liquid
subcooler and flash intercooler.
5.Three stage compression with flash chambers.
6.Three stage compression with water intercoolers.
7. Three stage compression with flash intercoolers.
1.Two stage compression with liquid intercooler
1.Two stage compression with liquid intercooler
Mass Calculation
Two stage compression with liquid intercooler
•
Problem
Example . Calculate the power needed to
compress 20 kg/min of ammonia saturated
vapour at 1.4 bar to a condensing pressure of
10 bar by two-stage compression with
intercooling by liquid refrigerant at 4 bar.
Assume saturated liquid to leave the
condenser and dry saturated vapors to leave
the evaporator. Use the p-h chart.
• Determine, also, the power needed when
intercooling is not employed.
• Ans: Power needed=86.5 with intercooling
• Power needed = 92 kW without inercooling
Solution
 Problem
• Calculate the power needed to compress 20
kg/min of R-12 from saturated vapour at 1.4
bar to a condensing pressure of 10 bar by two-
stage compression with intercooling by liquid
refrigerant at 4 bar. Assume saturated liquid
to leave the condenser and dry saturated
vapours to leave the evaporator.'
• Use the p-h chart. Sketch the cycle on a
skeleton p-h chart and label the values of
enthalpy at salient points.
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler and Liquid Sub-cooler
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler and Liquid Sub-cooler
 Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler and Liquid Sub-cooler

• It may be noted that water intercooling reduces the work

to be done in high pressure compressor.
• It also reduces the specific volume of the refrigerant
which requires a compressor of less capacity (or stroke
volume).
• The complete desuperheating of the vapour refrigerant is
not possible in case of water intercooling. It is due to the
fact that temperature of the cooling water used in the
water intercooler is not available sufficiently low so as to
desuperheat the vapour completely
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler and Liquid Sub-cooler
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler, Liquid , Sub-cooler and Liquid Flash

Chamber
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler, Liquid , Sub-cooler and
Liquid Flash Chamber
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler, Liquid , Sub-cooler and
Liquid Flash Chamber
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler, Liquid , Sub-cooler and
Liquid Flash Chamber
Two Stage Compression with Water Intercooler, Liquid , Sub-cooler and
Liquid Flash Chamber
 Two stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and flash intercooler

• m1 flows----10-1-2-3-9-010 and m2 flows----4-5-6-7-8-4

Two stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and flash
intercooler
Two stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and flash
intercooler
Two stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and flash
intercooler
Three stage compression with water intercooler
Three Stage compression with water intercoolers
Three stage compression with flash chambers
Three stage compression with flash chambers
Three stage compression with flash Intercoolers
Three stage compression with flash Intercoolers
Three Stage compression with multiple expansion valves and
flash intercoolers
Three Stage compression with multiple expansion valves and
flash intercoolers
Problem
Solution
Solution of problem on P-H Chart for Ammonia
 Vapour Absorption
Refrigeration System
 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System(VARS)

• VARS is oldest one.

• Principal of VARS was first • In the vapour absorption system, the
discovered by Michael Faraday in compressor is replaced by an absorber, a
1824. pump, generator and a pressure reducing
valve.
• VCRS was first developed by Jacob
Perkins using hand operation in • These components in vapour absorption
1834. system perform the same function as that
of a compressor in vapour compression
• The first absorption
system.
refrigeration machine was
developed by a French • In this system, the vapour refrigerant from
scientist, Ferdinand Carre, in the evaporator is drawn into an absorber
1860. where it is absorbed by the weak solution of
the refrigerant forming a strong solution.
• This system may be used in
both the domestic and large • This strong solution is pumped to the
industrial refrigerating plants. generator -it is heated by some external
source.
• Refrigerant, commonly used in
a vapour absorption system, is • During the heating process, the vapour
ammonia. refrigerant is driven off by the solution and
enters into the condenser where it is
• The VARS uses heat instead of
liquefied.
mechanical energy as in VCRS.
• The liquid refrigerant flows into the
• Purely a physico-Chemical
evaporator and thus the cycle is completed.
process where as VCRS pure
mechanical.
 The water has the ability to absorb
Low pressure ammonia vapour
large quantities of ammonia vapour.
leaving the evaporator enters
the absorber where it is
absorbed by the cold water in
the absorber.

The absorption of ammonia

vapour in water lowers the
pressure in the-absorber which
in turn draws
more ammonia vapour from the
evaporator and thus raises the
temperature of solution.

The strong solution from

absorber is pumped to the
generator by the pump by raising
pressure up to 10 bar.
The strong solution of ammonia
in the generator is separated by
some external source as gas or
steam.
 During heating process, ammonia vapour
is driven off solution at high pressure and
leaving hot weak ammonia solution in
generator.

This weak ammonia solution flows back to

the absorber at low pressure after passing
through the pressure reducing valve.
The high pressure ammonia vapour from
the generator is condensed in the
condenser to a high pressure liquid
ammonia.

This liquid ammonia is passed to

expansion valve through the receiver and
then to the evaporator. This completes the
simple vapour absorption cycle
Coefficient of Performance of an Ideal Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
Heat Supplied in Generator=QG),
Heat discharged from the condense=QC ---------2
Heat Rejected by absorber=QA
Heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the
evaporator =QE Considering 1 and 2
Heat added by pump to refrigerant= QP ------3
Neglecting the heat due to pump work
QP , we have according to First Law of
thermodynamics, Solving 2 and 3
Qc = QG + QE -------- (1)
Let TG = Temperature at which heat (QG)
is given to the generator,
Tc = Temperature at which heat (Qc) is Finally
discharged to atmosphere from
condenser
TE = Temperature at which heat (QE) is
absorbed in the evaporator. Maximum coefficient of performance of
Considered VARS as a perfectly the system is given by
reversible system,
Initial entropy of the system=The
entropy of the system after the
change in its condition.
 It may be noted that,
is the C.O.P. of a
Carnot refrigerator Representation of vapour absorption
working be refrigeration system
temperature limits of
TC and TE

is the efficiency of a
Carnot engine
working between
temperature limits
of TG and Tc

The maximum C.O.P. may be written as

 Practical Vapour Absorption system
Previous cycle discussed is not
very economical. In order to make
the system more practical, it is
fitted with
An analyser,
A rectifier and
Two heat exchangers.
These accessories help to
improve the performance.

Analyser is used to remove water

vapours formed in generator.
Rectifier-In case the water
vapours are not completely
removed in the analyser, a device
called rectifier (also known as
dehydrator) is used.
The heat exchanger is used to
cool the weak hot solution
returning from the generator to
raise the temperature of the
strong solution.
 Vapour Absorption
Refrigeration Systems Based
On Water-Lithium Bromide Pair
 VARS based on H2O – LiBr Pair

• Vapour absorption refrigeration systems using water-lithium bromide

pair are extensively used in large capacity air conditioning systems.

• In these systems water is used as refrigerant and a solution of lithium

bromide in water is used as absorbent.

• Since water is used as refrigerant, using these systems it is not

possible to provide refrigeration at sub-zero temperatures. Hence it is
used only in applications requiring refrigeration at temperatures above
0oC.
• Hence these systems are used for air conditioning applications. The
analysis of this system is relatively easy as the vapour generated in
the generator is almost pure refrigerant (water), unlike ammonia-water
systems where both ammonia and water vapour are generated in the
generator.
Lithium- Bromide System
VARS based on H2O – LiBr Pair
COP of an Ideal VARS
 Sample Problem in Simple VARS
9. The operating temperatures of a single stage vapour absorption
refrigeration system are: generator: 90oC; condenser and absorber:
40oC; evaporator: 0oC. The system has a refrigeration capacity of 100
kW and the heat input to the system is 160 kW. The solution pump
work is negligible.
• a) Find the COP of the system and the total heat rejection rate from
the system.
• b) An inventor claims that by improving the design of all the
components of the system he could reduce the heat input to the
system to 80 kW while keeping the refrigeration capacity and
operating temperatures same as before. Examine the validity of the
claim.
 Sample Problem in Simple VARS
• Solution:
Solar VARS
 Domestic Electrolux (Three fluid absorption system)

Three fluids are Ammonia (Refrigerant), Hydrogen (inert Gas) and Water (solvent)

Hydrogen (inert gas) used as to

increase the rate of evaporation.
Lighter the gas, faster the
evaporation.
Hydrogen is insoluble in water
and used in low pressure side.
Circulates from Absorber to
evaporator and back.
Strong solution of NH3 in water, is
heated in generator. NH3 vapours
separated from solution in water
separator, reaches to evaporator
via condenser. Weak solution
comes to absorber from water
separator. Ammonia evaporate in
evaporator in presence of H2.
NH3 +H2O comes to absorber, from where H2 gas returns to evaporator, NH3
strong solution reaches to generator.
Electrolux (With Heat Exchanger)
Steam Jet Refrigeration
 Principle of Steam Jet Refrigeration The boiling point of a liquid changes
System with change in external pressure. In
normal conditions pressure exerted on
The steam jet refrigeration system also
the surface of any liquid is the
known as ejector refrigeration system)
atmospheric pressure.
If this atmospheric pressure is reduced
One of the oldest methods of
on the surface of a liquid, by some
producing refrigeration effect.
means, then the liquid wiII start boiling
The basic components of this system
at lower temperature, because of
an evaporator, a compression device
reduced pressure.
condenser, and a refrigerant control
device.
This basic principle of boiling of liquid
at lower temperature by reducing the
This system employs a steam ejector
pressure on its surface is used in steam
or booster (instead of mechanical
jet refrigeration system.
compressor) to compress the
refrigerant to the required condenser
The boiling point of pure water:
pressure level.
At standard atmospheric pressure of
760 mm of Hg (1.013 bar) is 100°C,
In this system water is used as the
At 0.014 bar water boils at 12°C,
refrigerant.
At 0.01 bar water boils at 7°C.
The reduced pressure on the surface of
Since the freezing point of water is 0°C,
water is maintained by throttling the
therefore, it cannot used for
steam through the jets or nozzles.
applications below 0 0C.
 Water as a Refrigerant Thus, the total heat removed by this one
per cent of evaporated water
Water is used as a refrigerant in steam
jet refrigeration system, and the
cooling effect is produced by the
continuous vaporisation of a part of Fall in temperature of the remaining
water in the water will be
evaporator at reduced pressure.

When water is to be chiIIed from 10°C

to 5°C, at least one percent of water
flowing through the evaporator must Let
be vaporised.
(at pressure 0.085 bar, from steam
m =Mass of water in the evaporator in kg, tables),
s=Specific heat of water = 4.2 kJ/kgOC,
hfg = Latent heat of vaporisation of water
at some reduced pressure in kJ/kg
qR=Heat removed from the water inkJlkg It means that if one kg of water is
removed by boiling on reducing some
Let one per cent of m kg of water is pressure, 2400.5 kJlkg of heat is
evaporated by throttling the steam at removed from the water which is
some reduced pressure (say at a required for its evaporation and water
pressure of 0.085 bar becomes colder by 5.77°C. This removal
of heat is a continuous process.
Working of Steam Jet Refrigeration System
The main components of system
are the flash chamber or
evaporator, steam nozzles, ejector
and condenser.

The warm water

coming out of the
refrigerated space
is sprayed into the
flash water
chamber where
some of which is
converted into
vapours after The high pressure steam from the boiler is passed through
absorbing the the steam nozzles thereby increasing its velocity.
latent heat, This high velocity steam in the ejector would entrain the
thereby cooling water vapours from the flash chamber which would result
the rest of water. in further formation of vapours.
The mixture of steam and water vapour passes through the venturi-tube of the
ejector and gets compressed. This high temperature and pressure fed to the water
cooled condenser where it gets condensed. The condensate is again fed to the
boiler as feed water. Constant water level in flash chamber is maintained by make
up water supply
Analysis of Steam Jet Refrigeration System

Actual expansion
shown by AB’
Actual
compress
ion
shown by
EF '

Point A represents initial condition of steam before passing through nozzle

Point B is the final condition of the steam, assuming isentropic expansion.
Point C is initial condition of the water vapour in evaporator. Point E is condition
of the mixture of high velocity steam from the nozzle and the entrained water
vapour before compression.
Assuming isentropic compression, the final condition of the mixture discharged
to the condenser is represented by point F.
Point D is condition of motive steam just before mixing with the water vapour.
Make-up water supplied at point G whose temperature is lower than condenser
temperature G’ and is throttled to point H in the flash chamber.
Efficiencies used in Steam Jet Refrigeration System

Nozzle efficiency.

The nozzle efficiency may vary from 85 to 90 per cent.

Entrainment efficiency.
The water vapours formed in the flash chamber or evaporator comes out with a
very low velocity as compared to the velocity of the steam (V) coming out of the
nozzle which is given by:

This kinetic energy enables the water vapours to come

out of the flash chamber or evaporator. The process is
called entrainment of vapour. During the entrainment of
water vapour, the entrainment reduced due to the
losses. This is taken into consideration by a factor
known as entrainment efficiency.

Compression efficiency.
/ Diffuser efficiency
Mass of Motive Steam Required We know following efficiencies
According to the law of conservation of
energy,
the available energy for compression =
the energy required for compression.

Let ms = Mass of motive steam supplied

in kg/min,
mV= Mass of water vapours formed from
the flash chamber /evaporator in
kg/min,
m = Mass of the mixture for
compression in kg/min = mS + mV Substituting the value of
We know that available energy for from above equations in equation (3), we
compression= mS (hA - hD)------(1) have

Energy required for compression

= m ( hF, - hE) = (mS + mV) (hF, - hE)--(2)
Finally we have
Now according to law of conservation
of energy,
mS (hA - hD) = (mS + mV) (hF’ - hE)--(3)
Make-up water is supplied at point G Since one kg of water vapour
with enthalphy hfg , throttled to point H, requires mS kg of motive steam,
leaves corresponding to the condition therefore,
at point C. Since the enthalpy of water a Mass of motive steam required per
point G is equal to the enthalpy of water Q tonne of refrigerating load
at point H, = Mass of water vapour per minute
Therefore heat absorbed is x Motive steam required per kg of
vapour

The coefficient of performance of

the system is given by
Advantages:
a) It is flexible in operation; cooling capacity can be easily and quickly
changed.
b) It has no moving parts as such it is vibration free.
c) It can be installed out of doors.
d) The weight of the system per ton of refrigerating capacity is less.
e) The system is very reliable and maintenance cost is less.
f) The system is particularly adapted to the processing of cold water used
in rubber mills,, distilleries, paper mills, food processing plants, etc.
g) This system is particularly used in air-conditioning installations,
because of the complete safety of water as refrigerant and ability to adjust
quickly to load variations and no hazard from the leakage of the
refrigerant.

Disadvantages:
a) The use of direct evaporation to produce chilled water is usually limited
as tremendous volume of vapour is to be handled.
b) About twice as much heat must be removed in the condenser of steam
jet per ton of refrigeration compared with the vapour compression
system.
c) The system is useful for comfort air-conditioning, but it is not
practically feasible for water temperature below 4 oC.
 Cascade Refrigeration

The cryogenics means production of low temperature near to absolute zero e.g. 0 0K
and used in the liquefactions of gases. The temperature from -100OC to 273OC (absolute
zero) are treated as low temperature.
The liquid oxygen boils at 90.2 K (-182.9OC), liquid hydrogen boils at 20.4K (252.6 OC),
liquid helium boils at 1.1K (271.9 OC)
The single stage VCRS are used upto -40OC
Two stage cascading
Two stage cascading PH & TS
Three stage cascading
Three stage cascading PH & TS