Environment

Stated very briefly, environment means surrounding conditions. In practice the term
environment includes all the factors which have impact on a particular object of study or
consideration. For example, when we are talk about the suitability of a place for growing of a
particular fruit in a particular area, the factors we need to focus on will include the surrounding
conditions such as type of soil and climate. Similarly, for starting a business enterprise we will
need to consider factors such as competition, suppliers, demography, legal, and so on. Thus
depending on the context in which we use the word, environment may refer to different type of
environment. People in different fields of knowledge (like history, geography or biology) use the
word differently. An electromagnetic environment is the sum of various radio waves that assist
with radio and radar equipments. Galactic environment refers to conditions between the stars.

In biology and ecology the environment is defined as the external surroundings in which a plant
or animal lives, which tend to influence its developmental behaviour. This is also called the
natural environment or biophysical environment. In broader sense natural environment is
defined as all of the physical, chemical, and biological conditions that together act on an
organism or an ecological community and influence its growth and development. Soil, air, water,
climate, plant and animal life, noise level, and pollution are all components of an environment.
To survive, organisms must often adapt to changes in their environments. Environmental
science is the study of the interactions within the biophysical environment. Environmental study
is the interdisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the
environment in the interests of solving complex problems.

Environmentalists are those researchers or people who think that it is our responsibility to
protect the environment, to keep it safe. They always tried to find the ways for protecting the
environment not only for themselves but also for future generations. Environmentalists advocate
the sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of
the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behavior.

Environmentalism or Environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology and social

movement regarding concerns for environmental protection and improvement of the health of
the environment, particularly as the measure for this health seeks to incorporate the concerns of

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non-human elements. Environmentalism advocates the lawful preservation, restoration and/or
improvement of the natural environment, and may be referred to as a movement to
control pollution or protect plant and animal diversity.

Environment Movement:

The "environment" movement is consists of individuals who are committed to this end. They
used two types of environmental ethical approaches: "Shallow environmental ethic" and "deep
environmental ethic." Shallow ethic involves small scale initiatives which can be done locally
and quite naturally, to assist in the enhancement of the environment, and to prevent further
degradation on a micro level, e.g. Recycling of the products that can be reused, switching off
lights when leaving a room, using rain barrels to water lawns, changing to environmental
friendly light bulbs, etc. These are small scale environmental approaches, hence "shallow
ethic." "Deep environmetal ethic" is larger in scope and attempts to achieve ecological change
on structural levels. For example, targetting companies with fines and punishment who degrade
the environment, such as dumping toxic chemicals in water or polluting air, or demanding that
auto makers create one energy efficient car for one "traditional" car. "Deep ethic" believers
argue that the best way to help to environment is create the foundation for long lasting change
and feels that "shallow ethic" is good, but can only go so far. Until there is a structural change in
how companies and governments operate, the environment is in dire straits.

VARIOUS TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT

According to Kurt Lewin, environment is of three types which influence the personality of an
individual as under:
(a) Physical Environment,
(b) Social and Cultural Environment, and
(c) Psychological Environment.
These may be explained as under:
1. Physical Environment
Physical environment refers to geographical climate and weather or physical conditions wherein
and individual lives. The human races are greatly influenced by the climate. Some examples are
as under:

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(a) In the cold countries i.e. European countries the people are of white colour. Likewise, in
Asian and African countries, that is, in hot countries people are of dark complexion.
(b) The physique of an individual depends on climate conditions as the individual tries to adjust
in his physical environment.
(d) The human working efficiency also depends on the climatic conditions.

2. Social Environment
Social Environment includes an individual’s social, economic and political condition wherein he
lives. The moral, cultural and emotional forces influence the life and nature of individual
behaviour. Society may be classified into two categories as under:
(i) An open society is very conductive for the individual development.
(ii) A closed society is not very conductive for the developenment.
3. Psychological Environment
Although physical and social environment are common to the individual in a specific situation.
Yet every individual has his own psychological environment, in which he lives. Kurt Lewin has
used the term ‘life space’ for explaining psychological environment. The Psychological
environment enables us to understand the personality of an individual. Both the person and his
goal form psychological environment.
If a person is unable to overcome the barriers, he can either get frustrated or completed to change
his goal for a new psychological environment. But adopting this mechanism, the individual is
helped in his adjustment to the environment.
STRUCTURE OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment is both physical and biological. It includes both living and non-living components.
(i) Physical Environment
The Physical Environment is classified into three broad categories viz.
(i) Solid,
(ii) Liquid
(iii) Gas.
These represent the following spheres:
(i) The lithosphere (solid earth)
(ii) The hydrosphere (water component) and
(iii) The atmosphere

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As such, the three basic of physical environment may be termed as under:
(i) Lithospheric Environment
(ii) Hydrospheric Environment
(iii) Atmospheric Environment
The scientists have classified them into smaller units based on different spatial scales,e.g.
(i) Mountain Environment
(ii) Glacier Environment
(iii) Plateau Environment
(iv) Coastal Environment
(ii) Biological Environment
The biological of the environment consists of:
(i) Plants (flora)
(ii) Animals (fauna).
Thus, the biotic environment further be divided into floral environment and faunal environment.
All the organisms work to form their social groups and organizations at several levels. Thus, the
social environment is formed. In this social environment the organisms work to derive matter
from the physical environment for their sustenance and development. This process gives birth to
economic environment. Man claims to be most skilled and civilized of all the organisms. This is
the reason why his social organisation is most systematic. The three aspects of man, e.g.
physical, social and economic, function in the biotic environment as under:
(i) The Physical Man
The ‘Physical Man’ is one of the organisms populations or biological community. He is in need
of basic elements of the physical environment like habitat (space), air, water and food. Besides,
like other biological populations, he releases wastes into the ecosystem.
(ii) The Social Man
The ‘Social Man’ performs the following functions:
(a) Establishing social institutions,
(b) Forming social organizations,
(c) Formulating laws, principles and policies,
(d) Taking steps to safeguard his existence, interest and social welfare.
(iii) The Economic Man

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The economic man derives and utilises resources from the physical and biotic environment with
his skills and technologies. The economic function makes the man an environment/ geomorphic
process as he transports matter and energy from one component of the ecosystem to the other.
There may be any following two situations:
(a) His exploitative functions may be in harmony with the natural environment. Such, functions
do not necessarily involve change in the working of the ecosystem.
(b) These functions may exceed the critical limit. Consequently, the equilibrium of the
environment/ecosystem is disturbed and a great number of environment and ecological problems
crop up. These are determental to man him besides to whole population of human species in a
given ecosystem.

Four Spheres of the earth

The earth is elliptical in shape. It has four spheres. They are:
1 Atmosphere: the gaseous portion
2 Biosphere: the life portion
3 Hydrosphere: the water portion.
4 Lithosphere: the solid portion.

Composition of the atmosphere

There is no definite upper layer to the atmosphere. The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases.
In addition, it contains large quantities of solid and liquid particles collectively called "aerosols".
The lower part of the atmosphere contains water vapour from 0.02 to 4 per cent by volume.
Nitrogen and oxygen make up approximately to 99 per cent and the remaining 1 per cent by
other gases. (Table 1). Innumerable dust particles are also present in the lower layers of the
atmosphere. They are microscopic and play an important role in absorption and scattering of
insolation.

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Physical structure of the atmosphere

Homospheres
Homosphere means zone of homogenous composition height-up to 88 km. The proportions of
the component gases of the sphere are uniform at different levels. It is sub-divided into:
• Troposphere – Very shallow transition layer - Tropopause
• Stratosphere – Stratopause
• Mesosphere – Mesopause

II. Heterosphere
The atmosphere above the homosphere is not uniform in composition. Different layers of the
atmosphere in this part differ from one another in their chemical and physical properties. In this
sphere, gases are said to be arranged into the following four roughly spherical shells, each of
which has its own distinctive composite.
(a) Nitrogen layer - 200 km above earth’s surface -molecular N.
(b) Oxygen layer - Average height 1120 km. - atomic oxygen
(c) Helium layer - 3520 km
(d) Hydrogen layer - Arranged based on the weight of the gases.
On the basis of vertical temperature variation, the atmosphere is divided into different spheres or
layers as detailed below:

Troposphere
1. The word “Tropo” means mixing or turbulence and “Sphere” means region.
2. The average height of this lower most layer of the atmosphere is about 14 kilometers above
the mean sea level; at the equator it is 16 kilometers; and 7- 8 kilometers at the poles.
3. Various types of clouds, thunderstorms, cyclones and anti cyclones occur in this sphere
because of the concentration of almost all the water vapour and aerosols in it. So, this layer is
called as “Seat of weather phenomena”.
4. Another striking feature of troposphere is that there is a decrease of temperature with
increasing elevation at a mean lapse rate of about 6.5oC per kilometer or 3.6oF per 1,000
feet.
5. Most of the radiation received from the sun is absorbed by the earth's surface. So the
troposphere is heated from below.
6. In this layer, about 75 per cent of total gases and most of the moisture and dust particles
present.
7. At the top of the troposphere there is a shallow layer separating it from stratosphere which is
known as “Tropopause”.
Stratosphere
1. This layer exists above the tropopause (around 20 km onwards) and extends to altitudes of
about 50-55 kilometers.
2. This layer is called as "Seat of photochemical reactions".
3. In any particular locality, the temperature remains practically constant at around kilometers
and is characterised as Isothermal because the air is thin, clear, cold and dry.

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 4. Less convection takes place in the stratosphere because it is warm at the top and cold at the
bottom.
5. There is also persistence of circulation patterns and high wind speeds.
6. The upper boundary of the stratosphere is called stratopause and above this level there is a
steep rise in temperature.
Mesosphere / Ozonosphere
1. There is a maximum concentration of ozone between 30 and 60 km above the surface of the
earth and this layer is known as ozonosphere.
2. The temperature of the ozonosphere is high (warm) due to selective absorption of ultra violet
radiation by ozone.
3. Because of the preponderance of chemical process this sphere is called as "Chemosphere".
4. In this layer the temperature increases with height at the rate of 5oC per each kilometer.
5. According to some leading scientists the ionosphere is supposed to start at a height of 80
kilometers above the earth's surface. The layer between 50 and 80 kilometeris called
Mesosphere. In this layer the temperature decreases with height. The upper boundary of this
layer is called the mesopause.
Ionosphere/Thermosphere
1. Ionosphere layer lies beyond ozonosphere (mesosphere) at a height of about 80 kms. above
the earths surface and extends upto 400 kilometers.
2. The atmosphere in ionosphere is partly ionised. Enriched ion zones exist in the form of
distinct ionised layers. So, this layer is called as ionosphere.
3. Above the ozonosphere the temperature falls again. According to some climatologists, the
layer between 80 and 140 kilometers is known as “Thermosphere”.
4. The ionosphere reflects radio waves because of one or multiple reflections of short wave
radio beams from the ionised shells. So, long distance radio communication is possible due to
this layer.
Exosphere
1. The outer most layer of the earth's atmosphere is named as exosphere and this layer lies
between 400 and 1,000 kilometres.
2. At such a greater height the density of atoms in the atmosphere is extremely low.
3. Hydrogen and Helium gases predominate in this outer most region.
4. At an altitude of about 500 to 600 kilometres the density of the atmosphere becomes so low
that collisions between neutral particles become extremely rare.

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 Advantages of Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases,
surrounding the earth:
(a) It sustains life on the earth.
(b) It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
(c) It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the
electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
(d) It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio
waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultraviolate waves below about 300
nm. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Besides, argon, carbon dioxide, and
trace gases.

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Biosphere

The biosphere is the biological component of earth systems in which organisms are able to live.
The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead organic matter
produced by them. It can also be called the zone of life on Earth, a closed and self-regulating
system.
Extent of Earth's biosphere
Every part of the planet, from the polar ice caps to the Equator, supports life of some kind.
Recent advances in microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's
terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called "uninhabitable zones"
may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface.
Thickness of the Biosphere

The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is difficult to measure. Birds typically fly at
altitudes of 650 to 1,800 metres, and fish that live deep underwater can be found down to -8,372
metres. Microscopic organisms live at such extremes that, taking them into consideration, makes
the thickness of the biosphere much greater. Culturable microbes have been found in the Earth's
upper atmosphere as high as 41 km. Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than
10 km depth in the Mariana Trench. Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from
cores drilled more than 5 km into the Earth's crust in Sweden.

Biosphere as a source of origin of Life

During the long history of life on Earth (about 3.8 billion years), organisms have drastically
altered the chemical composition of the biosphere. At the same time, the biosphere's chemical
composition has influenced which life forms could inhabit its environments.

Rates of nutrient transformation have not always been in balance, resulting in changes in the
chemical composition of the biosphere. For example, when life first evolved, the
atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide was much greater than today, and there was almost
no free oxygen. After the evolution of photosynthesis there was a large decrease in atmospheric
carbon dioxide and an increase in oxygen. Much of carbon once present in the atmosphere as
carbon dioxide now occurs in fossil fuel deposits and limestone rock.

The increase in atmospheric oxygen concentration had an enormous influence on the evolution
of life. It was not until oxygen reached similar concentrations to what occurs today (about 21%,
by volume) that multicellular organisms were able to evolve. Such organisms require high
oxygen concentrations to accommodate their high rate of respiration.

Significance of Biosphere

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 1. Biosphere represents the role of living organisms and their remains in controlling and
interacting with the other spheres in global biogeochemical cycles and energy budgets
2. The biosphere plays a central role in the biogeochemical processing of carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur and other elements
3. The physical properties of the biosphere in terms of its surface reflectance (albedo) and
exchange of heat and moisture with the atmosphere are also critical for understanding
global circulation of heat and moisture and therefore climate
4. Alterations in heat exchange, carbon dioxide, methane, etc. of earth systems by the
biosphere are fundamental in understanding anthropogenic global warming.
5. Researchers make direct observations on the biosphere using global remote
sensing platforms. Beginning in the 1980s (AVHRR), this effort has evolved into
advanced remote sensing systems that can scan the entire surface of the earth at least
once each day (MODIS). These observations are now used to quantify the activities of
the biosphere, primarily in terms of vegetation cover and function, using spectral indices
such as NDVI. Future remote sensing efforts will directly observe global patterns of
carbon dioxide exchange with the biosphere caused by photosynthesis, respiration and the
combustion of biomass and fossil fuels (OCO).
6. To better understand the biogeochemical cycles of carbon and other elements, and the
role of biospheric processes like photosynthesis, respiration and the storage of carbon
in soils and vegetation, researchers have developed a variety of global biogeochemical
models (e.g. CASA). There are also global models of vegetation patterns across the
biosphere that are driven by climate (e.g. LPJ). Modeling plays an especially important
role in understanding biospheric patterns and processes
7. Understanding how humans are altering the biosphere and other earth systems has
become a very active area of study, with concerted global efforts originating in the 1970s
with the Man and the Biosphere Programme of UNESCO (MAB), which also established
a global system of biosphere reserves. Since the late 1980s, international scientific
research on the biosphere has been coordinated by the International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme (IGBP) .
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On Earth, it comprises
the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands
of years or greater. The surface of the lithosphere is very uneven. There are high mountain
ranges like the Rockies, huge plains or flat areas, deep valleys along the ocean floor.
There are two types of lithosphere:

• Oceanic lithosphere, which is associated with Oceanic crust and exists in the ocean basins
• Continental lithosphere, which is associated with Continental crust
In the Earth, the lithosphere includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which constitute the
hard and rigid outer layer of the Earth. The lithosphere is underlain by the asthenosphere, the
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weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. It consists of loose soil rich in nutrients,
oxygen, and silicon. The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates. The uppermost part of the
lithosphere that chemically reacts to the atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere through the soil
forming process called the pedosphere. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon,
iron, and magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel and iron. At the center of Earth
is a solid inner core of nickel and iron.

Thickness of Lithosphere

Oceanic lithosphere is typically about 50–100 km thick, while continental lithosphere has a range
in thickness from about 40 km to perhaps 200 km; the upper ~30 to ~50 km of typical
continental lithosphere is crust.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere is the liquid water component of the Earth. It includes the oceans, seas, lakes,
ponds, rivers and streams. The hydrosphere covers about 70% of the surface of the Earth and is
the home for many plants and animals. Water is the most abundant substance at the surface of the
Earth. About 1.4 billion cubic kilometres (326 million cubic miles) of water in liquid and frozen
form make up the oceans, lakes, streams, glaciers, and groundwaters found there.

The hydrosphere, like the atmosphere, is always in motion. The motion of rivers and streams can
be easily seen, while the motion of the water within lakes and ponds is less obvious. Some of the
motion of the oceans and seas can be easily seen while the large scale motions that move water
great distances such as between the tropics and poles or between continents are more difficult to
see. These types of motions are in the form of currents that move the warm waters in the tropics
toward the poles, and colder water from the polar regions toward the tropics. These currents exist
on the surface of the ocean and at great depths in the ocean (up to about 4km).

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 The characteristics of the ocean which affects its motion are its temperature and salinity. Warm
water is less dense or lighter and therefore tends to move up toward the surface, while colder
water is more dense or heavier and therefore tends to sink toward the bottom. Salty water is also
more dense or heavier and thus tends to sink, while fresh or less salty water is less dense or
lighter and thus tends to rise toward the surface. The combination of the water's temperature and
salinity determines whether it rises to the surface, sinks to the bottom or stays at some
intermediate depth.

The oceans currents are also affected by the motion of the atmosphere, or winds, above it. The
energy in the wind gets transferred to the ocean at the ocean surface affecting the motion of the
water there. The effect of wind is largest at the ocean surface.

Water masses at the Earth’s surface

Reservoir volume (in millions of cubic kilometres) percent of total

Oceans 1,370.0 97.25
ice caps and glaciers 29.0 2.05
deep groundwater* (750–4,000 metres) 5.3 0.38
shallow groundwater (less than 750 metres) 4.2 0.30
Lakes 0.125 0.01
soil moisture 0.065 0.005
atmosphere** 0.013 0.001
Rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere 0.0006 0.00004
Total 1,408. 7 100

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Major Environmental challenges

1. Challenges in agriculture

2. Challenges in resources

3. Challenges in pollution

4. Challenges in climate

5. Challenges in biodiversity

Challenges in agriculture

Expanded food production led to increased population and consumption. It’s one of humanity’s
greatest achievements, but at an enormous environmental cost. Nearly half of the planet’s land
surface is used for agriculture. Agricultural pollution is one of the major problem to environment
and refers to byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the
environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic
interests

➢ Pesticides, Pesticide leaching

➢ Fertilizers, Leaching, runoff
➢ Land management, Tillage and soil erosion
Challenges in Natural resources

Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found
within the environment.

A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, and air, as well as a living
organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain
the resource such as metal ores, oil, and most forms of energy. Some natural resources such as
sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known as ubiquitous resources. However,
most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localized resources.

Classification of Natural resources

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There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage
of development, and by their renewability. These classifications are described below. On the
basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into:

• Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material),
such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil
fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed
from decayed organic matter.
• Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material.
Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals
including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following
ways:

• Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used
in the future. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but
until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
• Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and
quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual
resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost
involved.
• Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in
the future is called a reserve resource.
• Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used
by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.

Natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable:

• Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these

resources, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not
noticeably affected by human consumption..

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• Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not
naturally form in the environment e.g. oil, coal, minerals. Minerals are the most common
resource included in this category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable
when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example
of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely
slow (potentially millions of years),
Challenges in pollution

Pollution is “the addition of any substance or form of energy (e.g., heat, sound, radioactivity) to
the environment at a rate faster than the environment can accommodate it by dispersion,
breakdown, recycling, or storage in some harmless form”. Any use of natural resources at a rate
higher than nature's capacity to restore itself can result in pollution of air, water, and land. One of
the greatest problems that the world is facing today is that of environmental pollution, increasing
with every passing year and causing grave and irreparable damage to the earth. Environmental
pollution is caused by different types of pollutants.
Challenges in climate

Humans are changing the composition of the atmosphere. For example, research has shown that
the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere has increased significantly since
the beginning of the industrial era.

When fossil fuels are burnt in a power plant to make electricity, large amounts of CO2 are
released into the atmosphere. CO2 is released from the ground into the atmosphere during natural
gas production. And industrial processes such as refining oil or producing iron, steel, cement and
ammonia also release large amounts of CO2. Other major sources of CO2 include emissions from
cars, trucks, ships and aeroplanes, and from domestic sources, such as heating your home.

Unless we do something to reduce the amount of CO2 entering the atmosphere, the world will
experience the effects of climate change, for example in the form of green house effect and
global warming and ultimately of

• melting glaciers

• rising sea levels

• increasingly destructive weather

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Challenges in biodiversity

The number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as
biodiversity. It is an essential component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species
by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines and other resources to mankind. The richness of
biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region.

Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, for example, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be
greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary
productivity

During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007,
German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all
species will be extinct by 2050. Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened
with extinction

As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years. In
absolute terms, the planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study
by the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size
it was 40 years ago". Human actions have driven many species extinct…and biodiversity is
declining dramatically.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is the scientific assessment of the condition of the
world’s ecological systems
➢ What did it find?

• humans have drastically altered ecosystems

• these changes have added to human well-being and economic development…but

at a cost

• environmental degradation could get much worse

• degradation can be reversed…but requires work

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ENVIRONMENT STUDIES: IMPORTANCE
Importance of Environment Studies: The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance
of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment.
At present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and complexity day by day,
threatening the survival of mankind on earth. We study about these issues besides and effective
suggestions in the Environment Studies. Environment studies have become significant for the
following reasons:
1. Environment Issues Being of International Importance
It has been well recognised that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion,
acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues
and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, Transportation Systems,
Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed world. The
North, to cleanse their own environment has, fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories of
South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of
its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world
follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this planted lives in India. Evidently
with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy
pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils
health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of
soil structure.
4. Need for an Alternative Solution
It is essential, especially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal.
We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally sound and
sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

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(3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-consuming
wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities
constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development.
6. Need for Wise Planning of Development
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product
have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions
should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

It is essential to make the public aware of the formidable consequences of the Environmental
Degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken, would result in the extinction
of life. We are facing various environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country
acquainted with these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly. Some of these challenges
are as under:
1. Growing Population
A population of over thousands of millions is growing at 2.11 per cent every year. Over 17
million people are added each year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural resources and
reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the
population growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet the
development leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of the women
is essential.
2. Poverty
India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty and environmental
degradation have a nexus between them. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent
on the nature resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder.
About 40% of our people are still below the poverty line. Environment degradation has adversely
affected the poor who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the
challenge of poverty and the challenge environment degradation are two facets of the same

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challenge. The population growth is essentially a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor,
every child is an earner and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.
3. Agricultural Growth
The people must be acquainted with the methods to sustain and increase agricultural growth with
damaging the environment. High yielding varities have caused soil salinity and damage to
physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Ground water
It is essential of rationalizing the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial
effluents and chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected
quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other water
bodies as lakes are an important challenge. It so finding our suitable strategies for consecration
of water, provision of safe drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult
challenges is essential.
5. Development and Forests
Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With increasing demand of water, plan to harness the
mighty river through large irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge
forests; displace local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada,
Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate.
Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and
other uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as wastelands. These areas are to be
brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal communities inhabiting forests respects the trees
and birds and animal that gives them sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in
restoring and conserving forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest deptt. should be
integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities. The
strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.
6. Degradation of Land
At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha possess any potential for production.
Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly and 85 suffers from varying degrees of soil
degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha, 40 are completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha
is classified as forest land, of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million
head of livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land classified as

19
pasture land, most of which is overgrazed. Thus, our of 226 mha, about 175 mha or 66 per cent is
degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind erosion causes further degradation of almost 150
mha This degradation is to be avoided.
7. Reorientation of Institutions
The people should be roused to orient institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to suit conditions
and needs today. The change has to be brought in keeping in view India’s traditions for resources
use managements and education etc. Change should be brought in education, in attitudes, in
administrative procedures and in institutions. Because it affects way people view technology
resources and development.
8. Reduction of Genetic Diversity
Proper measures to conserve genetic diversity need to be taken. At present most wild genetic
stocks have been disappearing from nature. Wilding including the Asiatic Lion are facing
problem of loss of genetic diversity. The protected areas network like sanctuaries, national parks,
biosphere reserves are isolating populations. So, they are decreasing changes of one group
breeding with another. Remedial steps are to be taken to check decreasing genetic diversity.
9. Evil Consequences of Urbanisation
Nearly 27 per cent Indians live in urban areas. Urbanisation and industrialisation has given birth
to a great number of environmental problem that need urgent attention. Over 30 percent of urban
Indians live in slums. Out of India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage
and treatment facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
10. Air and water Population
Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and population technologies and makeshift
facilities devoid of any provision of treating their wastes. A great number of cities and industrial
areas that have been identified as the worst in terms of air and water pollution. Acts are enforced
in the country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their implementation needs great
resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people are to be made aware of
these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement these rules.

Scope of environmental science

 The opportunities in this field are immense not only for scientists but also for
engineers, biologists.

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 Environmental science can be applied in the following fields:

1. The scope of environmental studies in industry

2. Research and development

3. Ecosystem Structure and Function

4. Natural Resource Conservation

5. Environmental Pollution Control

6. Environmental management

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 HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION AND ITS PROBLEMS,
GLOBAL, NATIONAL, REGIONAL
Human interact with environment for fulfilling the basic needs of livelihood, food, clothing,
shelter.

Social Reproduction & Change

It means the interaction of people and the environment, how people adapt to the environment,
and how people change the environment to meet their needs and wants

Human Environment Interaction

▪ Human – Atmosphere interaction

(Global warming, Acid rain, Ozone depletion)

▪ Human – Lithosphere interaction

(Deforestation, Desertification, Soil erosion)

▪ Human – hydrosphere interaction

(Pollution, Silt loads regional)

▪ Human – Biosphere interaction

(Pollution, Habitat destruction, Species extinction)

Global, National & Regional Problems….

▪ Global issues: Global warming, Ozone depletion, Climate Change.

▪ National Issues: Desertification, Deforestation, pollution.

▪ Regional Issues: Habitat destruction, pollution, Species extinction.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is
absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions.

Energy and the Greenhouse Effect

Energy in, energy out

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Earth is constantly bombarded with enormous amounts of radiation, primarily from the sun.
There is a balancing act occurring every day all across the Earth, involving the radiation the earth
receives from space and the radiation that's reflected back out to space. This solar radiation
strikes the Earth's atmosphere in the form of visible light, plus ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR) and
other types of radiation.

UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and a higher energy level than visible light, while IR
radiation has a longer wavelength and a weaker energy level. About 30 percent of the radiation
striking Earth's atmosphere is immediately reflected back out to space by clouds, ice, snow, sand
and other reflective surfaces, according to NASA. The remaining 70 percent of incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by the oceans, the land and the atmosphere. As they heat up, the oceans,
land and atmosphere release heat in the form of IR thermal radiation.

It's this equilibrium of incoming and outgoing radiation that makes the Earth habitable, with an
average temperature of about 15 °C, according to NASA. Without this atmospheric equilibrium,
Earth would be as cold and lifeless as its moon, or as blazing hot as Venus. The moon has
temperature minus 153 °C on its dark side. Venus, on the other hand, has a very dense
atmosphere that traps solar radiation; the average temperature on Venus is about 462 °C.

How Greenhouse Effect occurs,

Infrared energy that reflects off the Earth’s surface is trapped by greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases act like a blanket, absorbing IR radiation
and preventing it from escaping into outer space. The net effect is the gradual heating of Earth's
atmosphere and surface, a process known as global warming. This is a normal process that keeps
our temperature levels in a certain range. Currently, these gases are at unusually high levels due
to human activities.

Greenhouse Gases

▪ Water Vapor – Formed from evaporation, which causes 36–70% of the greenhouse effect

▪ Carbon Dioxide - Fossil-fuel burning, this causes 9–26% green house effect. Atmospheric
levels of CO2 increasing steadily.

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 ▪ Methane - Cattle, Coal-mines. It causes 4–9% GHE. It absorbs more infrared than CO2.

▪ Ozone- it causes 3-7% GHE.

▪ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) – Refrigerants

▪ Nitrous Oxide - Burning organic material

Can the greenhouse effect be reversed?

Many scientists agree that the damage to the Earth's atmosphere and climate is past the point of
no return or that the damage is near the point of no return. "I agree that we have passed the point
of avoiding climate change. Some scientist believes that there are three options from this point to
forward:

1. Do nothing and live with the consequences.

2. Adapt to the changing climate (which includes things like rising sea level and related
flooding).
3. Mitigate the impact of climate change by aggressively enacting policies that actually
reduce the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Some scientist believes that the damage isn't to that point yet, and that international agreements
and action can save the planet's atmosphere.

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Global Warming
Global warming is the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and
its oceans since the mid-20th century, and its projected continuation.

Evidence of Global Warming

The global average (land and ocean) temperature shows an average increase of 0.85 °C in the
period 1880 to 2012. The rate of warming almost doubled for the last half of that period
(0.13±0.03 °C per decade)

The eight warmest years on record (since 1880) have all occurred since 2001, with the warmest
years being 2005 and 2010.

How Much Temperature Increase?

 Some models propose up to 9°C increase this century

 Two studies put the minimum at 1.5°C and maximum at 4.5°C or 6.2°C

 Another study puts the minimum at 2.5°C

Consequences of Global Warming

Ice Sheets Melting?

▪ GRACE (gravity measured by satellite) found melting of Antarctica equivalent to sea

level rise of 0.4 mm/year (2 in/century)

▪ Zwally, 2005 (satellite radar altimetry)

 confirmed Antarctica melting

 Greenland ice melting

▪ Present rate is 1.8 ± 0.3 mm/yr (7.4 in/century)

▪ Overall Sea level rise, has been estimated to be on average +2.6 mm and +2.9 mm per
year ± 0.4 mm since 1993

Increase in Hurricanes?

▪ The intensity of hurricanes has increased (more category 4 and 5 hurricanes and
cyclones)

▪ Probably due to higher sea surface temperatures (more energy)

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 ▪ However it is difficult to know if this trend will continue

▪ The year 2005 was marked by a number of destructive hurricanes. What this just an
unusual year or a trend that has resulted from climate change?

Wildlife Effects

Some species of wildlife could be greatly affected by global warming

▪ Polar Bears

 Require pack ice to live

 Might eventually go extinct in the wild

▪ Sea turtles

 Breed on the same islands as

their birth

 Could go extinct on some islands

as beaches are flooded

▪ Other species may go extinct as rainfall patterns change throughout the world

Effect on Humans

Global warming will affect people’s throughout the world. For example

▪ Fewer deaths from cold, more from heat

▪ Precipitation changes

Droughts and famine (some areas)

SCIENTIFIC OPINION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding
whether global warming is occurring, and (if so) its causes and probable consequences. This
scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports, by scientific bodies of national or
international standing, and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists. Individual scientists,
universities, and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-
reviewed publications, and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are
summarised in these respected reports and surveys.

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National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed
current scientific opinion on global warming. These assessments are generally consistent with
the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the IPCC Fourth Assessment
Report summarized:

• Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as evidenced by increases in global

average air and ocean temperatures, the widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising
global average sea level.
• Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human
activities.
• Benefits and costs of climate change for [human] society will vary widely by location and
scale. Some of the effects intemperate and Polar Regions will be positive and others
elsewhere will be negative. Overall, net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with
larger or more rapid warming.
• The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are
likely to be significant and to increase over time.
• The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an
unprecedented combination of climate change, associated disturbances
(e.g. flooding, drought, wildfire, insects, ocean acidification) and other global change drivers
(e.g. land-use change, pollution, fragmentation of natural systems, over-exploitation of
resources).

Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments and science can play
a role in informing an effective response to climate change. Policy decisions, however, may
require value judgments’ and so are not included in the scientific opinion.

Possible Solutions to Global Warming

Mitigation
Mitigation of climate change are actions to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or enhance
the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere. There is a large potential for
future reductions in emissions by a combination of activities, including: energy conservation and

27
increased energy efficiency; the use of low-carbon energy technologies such as renewable
energy, nuclear energy, wind, Hydropower, solar and carbon capture and storage, and enhancing
carbon sinks through, for example, reforestation and preventing deforestation. A 2015 report
by Citibank concluded that transitioning to a low carbon economy would yield positive return on
investments.

Adaptation

A concept related to adaptation is adaptive capacity, which is the ability of a system (human,
natural or managed) to adjust to climate change (including climate variability and extremes) to
moderate potential damages, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with
consequences. Unmitigated climate change (i.e., future climate change without efforts to limit
greenhouse gas emissions) would, in the long term, be likely to exceed the capacity of natural,
managed and human systems to adapt.

Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate change may
be planned, either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change, or spontaneous, i.e., without
government intervention. Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis. The
barriers, limits, and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood.

Environmental organizations and public figures have emphasized changes in the climate and the
risks they entail, while promoting adaptation to changes in infrastructural needs and emissions
reductions.

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Ozone Depletion

Introduction of ozone

Ozone is a gas and triatomic form of oxygen (O3) can be found in lower and upper atmosphere.
The ozone layer lies approximately 20-40 kilometers above the Earth's surface, found mostly in
the stratosphere. The ozone layer prevents most UVB from reaching the ground. The ozone layer
absorbs 97–99% of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200 nm to
315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would particularly harmful to living organisms.

Formation of ozone layer

The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British
physicist Sydney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet
light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into
individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken
O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived)
and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O2 and an individual atom of
oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone-oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be described
as:

O2 + ℎνuv → 2O
O + O2 ↔ O3

About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone
concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres

Difference between Good & Bad Ozone

 Ozone exists within both the tropospheric and stratospheric zones of the Earth’s
atmosphere

 In the troposphere, ground level ozone is a major air pollutant and primary constituent of
photochemical smog hence called bad ozone. (Photochemical smog is the chemical
reaction of sunlight, nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere,
which leaves airborne particles and ground-level ozone.)

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  In the stratosphere, the ozone layer is an essential protector of life on earth as it absorbs
harmful UV radiation before it reaches the earth so known as good ozone.

The Discovery

The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri
Buisson. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson,
who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure
stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide
network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit",
a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.

Process of Ozone depletion

• The ozone layer is being destroyed by CFCs and other substances. Ozone can be
destroyed by a number of free radical catalysts, the most important of which are
the hydroxyl radical (OH·), nitric oxide radical (NO·), chlorine atom (Cl·)
and bromine atom (Br·).

• The dot is a common notation to indicate that all of these species have an unpaired
electron and are thus extremely reactive. All of these have both natural and man-made
sources; at the present time, most of the OH· and NO· in the stratosphere is of natural
origin, but human activity has dramatically increased the levels of chlorine and bromine.

• These elements are found in certain stable organic compounds, especially

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which may find their way to the stratosphere without being
destroyed in the troposphere due to their low reactivity. Once in the stratosphere, the Cl
and Br atoms are liberated from the parent compounds by the action of ultraviolet light,
e.g.

CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl· + ·CFCl2

• The Cl and Br atoms can then destroy ozone molecules through a variety
of catalytic cycles. In the simplest example of such a cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with an
ozone molecule, taking an oxygen atom with it (forming ClO) and leaving a normal
oxygen molecule. The chlorine monoxide (i.e., the ClO) can react with a second molecule

30
 of ozone (i.e., O3) to yield another chlorine atom and two molecules of oxygen. The
chemical shorthand for these gas-phase reactions is:

• Cl· + O3 → ClO + O2: The chlorine atom changes an ozone molecule to ordinary oxygen
• ClO + O3 → Cl· + 2 O2: The ClO from the previous reaction destroys a second ozone
molecule and recreates the original chlorine atom, which can repeat the first reaction and
continue to destroy ozone.
• A single chlorine atom would keep on destroying ozone (thus a catalyst) for up to two
years (the time scale for transport back down to the troposphere) were it not for reactions that
remove them from this cycle by forming reservoir species such as hydrogen chloride (HCl)
and chlorine nitrate(ClONO2).
• On a per atom basis, bromine is even more efficient than chlorine at destroying ozone,
but there is much less bromine in the atmosphere at present. As a result, both chlorine and
bromine contribute significantly to overall ozone depletion.
• On average, a single chlorine atom is able to react with 100,000 ozone molecules before
it is removed from the catalytic cycle
Impacts

 Ozone layer absorbs most of the harmful UV-B radiation; more UV-B means:

 more melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers

 more eye cataracts

 weakened immune systems

 reduced plant yields

 damage to ocean eco-ecosystems

 more damage to plastics

 Increased global warming

-ice melts increase in ocean volume

-ocean front property erodes

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 -midwest becomes desert

 Premature aging and brown spots

Control measures

 Stop producing CFCs

 properly recycle old CFCs

 Use safe alternatives

 Educate other governments for environmental policies

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Major Environmental challenges

6. Challenges in agriculture

7. Challenges in resources

8. Challenges in pollution

9. Challenges in climate

10. Challenges in biodiversity

Challenges in agriculture

Expanded food production led to increased population and consumption. It’s one of humanity’s
greatest achievements, but at an enormous environmental cost. Nearly half of the planet’s land
surface is used for agriculture. Agricultural pollution is one of the major problem to environment
and refers to byproducts of farming practices that result in contamination or degradation of the
environment and surrounding ecosystems, and/or cause injury to humans and their economic
interests

➢ Pesticides, Pesticide leaching

➢ Fertilizers, Leaching, runoff
➢ Land management, Tillage and soil erosion
Challenges in Natural resources

Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found
within the environment.

A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, and air, as well as a living
organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain
the resource such as metal ores, oil, and most forms of energy. Some natural resources such as
sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known as ubiquitous resources. However,
most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localized resources.

Classification of Natural resources

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There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage
of development, and by their renewability. These classifications are described below. On the
basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into:

• Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material),
such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. Fossil
fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed
from decayed organic matter.
• Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material.
Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals
including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.

Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the following
ways:

• Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used
in the future. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, but
until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
• Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and
quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an actual
resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost
involved.
• Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in
the future is called a reserve resource.
• Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used
by organisms due to lack of technology. For example: hydrogen.

Natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable:

• Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these

resources, like sunlight, air, wind, etc., are continuously available and their quantity is not
noticeably affected by human consumption..

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• Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not
naturally form in the environment e.g. oil, coal, minerals. Minerals are the most common
resource included in this category. By the human perspective, resources are non-renewable
when their rate of consumption exceeds the rate of replenishment/recovery; a good example
of this are fossil fuels, which are in this category because their rate of formation is extremely
slow (potentially millions of years),
Challenges in pollution

Pollution is “the addition of any substance or form of energy (e.g., heat, sound, radioactivity) to
the environment at a rate faster than the environment can accommodate it by dispersion,
breakdown, recycling, or storage in some harmless form”. Any use of natural resources at a rate
higher than nature's capacity to restore itself can result in pollution of air, water, and land. One of
the greatest problems that the world is facing today is that of environmental pollution, increasing
with every passing year and causing grave and irreparable damage to the earth. Environmental
pollution is caused by different types of pollutants.
Challenges in climate

Humans are changing the composition of the atmosphere. For example, research has shown that
the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere has increased significantly since
the beginning of the industrial era.

When fossil fuels are burnt in a power plant to make electricity, large amounts of CO2 are
released into the atmosphere. CO2 is released from the ground into the atmosphere during natural
gas production. And industrial processes such as refining oil or producing iron, steel, cement and
ammonia also release large amounts of CO2. Other major sources of CO2 include emissions from
cars, trucks, ships and aeroplanes, and from domestic sources, such as heating your home.

Unless we do something to reduce the amount of CO2 entering the atmosphere, the world will
experience the effects of climate change, for example in the form of green house effect and
global warming and ultimately of

• melting glaciers

• rising sea levels

• increasingly destructive weather

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Challenges in biodiversity

The number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as
biodiversity. It is an essential component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species
by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines and other resources to mankind. The richness of
biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region.

Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, for example, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be
greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary
productivity

During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007,
German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all
species will be extinct by 2050. Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened
with extinction

As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years. In
absolute terms, the planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study
by the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size
it was 40 years ago". Human actions have driven many species extinct…and biodiversity is
declining dramatically.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is the scientific assessment of the condition of the
world’s ecological systems
➢ What did it find?

• humans have drastically altered ecosystems

• these changes have added to human well-being and economic development…but

at a cost

• environmental degradation could get much worse

• degradation can be reversed…but requires work

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