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ASCE Guide for Design of Substation Structures

Leon Kempner, Jr.1 PhD, PE

1
Principal Engineer, Transmission Engineering, The Bonneville Power
Administration, P.O. Box 64109 (TEL-TPP3), Vancouver, WA, 98666-1409; e-mail:
lkempnerjr@bpa,gov
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ABSTRACT

The electric utility industry has been without uniform guidelines for the
design of substation structures. An American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Substation Structure Subcommittee, of the Electrical Transmission Structures
(CETS) Committee, has completed a document to address this issue. The primary
purpose of this design guide is to document electrical substation structural
engineering practice and to give guidance and recommendations for the design of
outdoor electrical substation structures. The design guide, Manual 113 (2009),
provides guidance for analysis methods, loading and deflection criteria, member and
connection design, structure testing, quality control and quality assurance, structural
members used in foundations, detailing and fabrication, construction and
maintenance issues. A summary of some of the content presented in the substation
design guide is presented in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

The recommended guidelines of Manual 113 apply to substation structures

that support electrical equipment, rigid bus, and conductors. The electrical
equipment can be of significant weight and have attachments of porcelain or
composite components. Knowledge of the operational requirements of the equipment
being supported is required and discussed. Deflection limits for operability can
control the design of a substation structure.
Specific guidelines for structural loads, deflection limits, analysis, design,
fabrication, maintenance, and construction of substation structures are
recommended. Guidelines for the design of the structure connections to their
foundations are presented. The guide addresses steel, concrete, wood, and aluminum
used for the design of substation structures. Design equations are provided when
references to existing structural design standards and codes are not appropriate or
convenient.
The Utility industry uses both the allowable stress design (ASD) and ultimate
strength design (USD) methods. Allowable stress design is a method of proportioning
structural members such that elastically computed stresses produced in the members
by nominal loads do not exceed specified allowable stresses (also called working
stress design). Ultimate Strength Design (USD) is a method of proportioning
structural members such that the computed forces produced in the members by the
factored loads do not exceed the member design strength (also called Load and

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Resistance Factored Design, LRFD). USD is recommended as the preferred method

for substation structures.
Guidelines for the development of substation structure loads for wind, ice,
seismic, short circuit, line tensions, equipment reactions, construction, maintenance,
and regulatory codes are recommended. The specific recommendations are based on
structure type; dead-end structures, disconnect switch support, bus support, etc.
Recommended load factors and load combinations are presented.
The seismic load section of Manual 113 complements IEEE 693 (2006).
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IEEE 693 (2006) addresses electrical equipment and its "first" support requirements.
First support could be an equipment pedestal for a current transformer or a support
beam for a capacitor bank. Manual 113 reference’s IEEE 693 (2006) and only
provide seismic requirements for structures not covered by IEEE 693 (2006).
Substation structures and the electrical equipment they support are considered
as a system. Excessive structure movement could cause the electrical equipment to
experience mechanical damage, operational difficulties, and electrical faults. Newly
developed recommended deflection limits and structure classes are defined within the
guide.
Analysis techniques and structural modeling concepts as they relate to
substation structures are discussed. Both static and dynamic analyses are covered.
Guidelines are given for selecting the appropriate analysis method for different
structural behavior, such as large (flexible structures) versus small displacements
(rigid structures).
Recommendations on when it is appropriate to test a unique substation
structure design concept or perform individual component testing are given.
Requirements for seismic testing are referenced to IEEE 693 (2006).
Foundation design is not discussed in Manual 113, however, the following
information should be considered for substation structure foundation design. A
variety of structure types are used in electrical substations and these structures have a
wide range of ground-line reactions. Typical substation structure foundation types
can be slabs on grade, spread footings, drilled shafts, and piling with and without
pile caps. Substation foundations should be designed such that they do not adversely
impact the required deflection criteria. The effects of soil-structure interaction from
earthquakes are important, especially for large loads, such as that caused by power
transformers. Foundation design should, where applicable, consider the effect of
ground frost heave and the effect of buoyancy of the ground water table.
Foundations in substations should be designed according to accepted practice, the
same as foundations designed for other structures.
The design of substation structure anchorage to the foundation is presented in
the Manual. Different types of anchorages are used to connect substation structures
to their foundations. The most common anchorage is anchor bolts cast in concrete.
Special design considerations for seismic anchorage are covered.
Substation and switchyard structures are used to support the above-grade
components and electrical equipment such as cable bus, rigid bus, strain bus,
switches, surge arresters, insulators, and other equipment. Substation and switchyard
structures can be fabricated from latticed angles forming chords and trusses, wide

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flanges, tubes (round, square, and rectangular), pipes, polygonal tubes (straight or
tapered). Common materials utilized are concrete, steel, aluminum, and wood.

LOADING CRITERIA FOR SUBSTATION STRUCTURES

All substation structures should be designed to withstand applicable loads

from wind, ice, line tensions, earthquake, construction, maintenance, and electrical
equipment operating loads. Loads and load cases recommended in the guide are
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considered appropriate for providing reliable substation structures. Operation of

equipment, such as switches and circuit interrupting devices can create dynamic
loading on support structures. Operational loads should be combined with other load
cases if the equipment has to be operable when weather conditions are most severe.
Structures supporting wire (conductor and shield wire) into and out of a substation
are called substation dead-end structures. The dead-end structure wire tensions can
be based on the transmission line wire tensions or a specified reduced tension, called
slack-span tension.
Wind loads on substation structures, equipment, and conductors (bus and
wire) should be applied in the direction that generates the maximum loading. For
substation structures supporting wire loads, the longitudinal winds (in the direction
of the wires) may also produce significant structure loading and should be considered
in the load calculation. The wind loads recommended in the Manual are primarily
based on the provisions of ASCE 7 (2005) and ASCE 74 (2002).
The ice load (glaze) maps used in the Manual are from ASCE 7 (2005). In
certain geographical areas, other types of ice loads, such as rime or in-cloud ice, wet
snow, and hoarfrost may control the design of substation structures. For information
on non-glaze ice loads, meteorological and engineering studies can be conducted to
properly account for non-glaze ice loads in design practice.
Not all structures or structural components need to consider ice loads in
design. Considerations should be given to only ice-sensitive structures. Ice-sensitive
structures are structures for which the load effects from atmospheric icing control the
design of part or all of the structural system. Typically in a substation ice-sensitive
structures include electrical equipment, and rigid bus systems.
The base design level for substation structures is a 50-year return period
extreme wind and ice with wind loads. For substation structures that require a higher
level of reliability, a high recurrence interval may be desirable. The selection of an
Importance Factor provides a method of adjusting the level of structural reliability.
The use of an Importance Factor equal to 1.0 does not imply that the structures are
not important. Rather, it represents a good understanding of the probabilities of
failure and required structural reliability. It is the owner’s responsibility to select the
appropriate Importance Factor for their substation structures.
The seismic loads and procedures present in Manual 113 are applied to
substation structures not supporting equipment. Structures supporting equipment
obtain their seismic loads from the requirements of IEEE 693 (2006).
Earthquake loading criteria is based on the specific site condition and
structure characteristics, and may govern design in certain regions. It would be

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beneficial to note that in addition, designers should be aware of unusual soil

conditions, soil structure interaction, and the potential of modified response due to an
intermediate structure.
Earthquake loading is not considered in combination with extreme wind or
ice loading, but may be considered in combination with operating and/or short circuit
loading... The design Manual assumes the earthquake load case is applied during the
condition of zero wind, no ice, and 60o F (15.6o C). The substation owner should
determine if it is appropriate to combine earthquake loads with other load cases.
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The vertical ground acceleration used in combination with the horizontal base
shear is 80 percent of the design horizontal ground acceleration. This is consistent
with the IEEE 693 (2006) criteria. Friction forces due to gravity loads shall not be
considered to provide resistance to seismic forces. Electrical connections to
equipment should have adequate slack in the connections between equipment.
Guidance for the amount of electrical connection slack is referenced to IEEE 693
(2006) and IEEE 1527 (2006).
Because the earthquake load addressed in this Manual are applied to non-
equipment supporting structures the extreme wind, ice, and defection limits will
typically control the design. Therefore, a simplified method is provided for
determining the seismic design loads for a first level check with the assumed
controlling loads (extreme wind, ice, and defection limits). The simplified procedure
is based on the NEHRP Provisions in FEMA 450 (2003). The simplified method is
an equivalent lateral force procedure used for calculation of the Seismic Design
Force, FE, using the following equation: FE = (Sa/R)*W*IFE*IMV. The terms in this
equation are defined as: FE = Seismic Design Force (Lateral Force applied at the
Center of Gravity of the structure/component), R = Structure Response Modification
Factor, IFE = Importance Factor applied to Earthquake Loads, W = Dead Load
(Including all rigidly attached equipment and/or 50% of the weight of attached wire),
Sa = Design Spectral Response Acceleration, IMV = 1.0 for dominant single mode
behavior or 1.5 when multiple vibration modes are considered important by the
designer. The Earthquake Importance Factors, IFE, recommended by the design guide
are:

Structures and Equipment Essential to Operation 1.25

Anchorage for Structures and Equipment Essential to operation 2.0
All other structures and equipment 1.0
All other anchorages 1.5

The selection of the appropriate Earthquake Importance Factor (IFE) is the

responsibility of the design engineer. The Importance Factors, IFE, specified are the
recommended valves for Ip used in IEEE 693 (2006) for foundation design.
Structure-Response Modification Factor (R) is based on the lateral force
resisting system of the structure. Recommended substation structure R values are
listed below:

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Structure/Component Type USD ASD

Moment-Resisting Steel Frame 3.0 4.0
Trussed Tower 3.0 4.0
Cantilever Support Structures 2.0 2.7
Tubular Pole 1.5 2.0
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Steel and Aluminum Bus Supports 2.0 2.7

Station Post Insulators 1.0 1.3
Rigid Bus (Aluminum and Copper) 2.0 2.7
Structures with Natural Frequency > 25Hz 1.3 1.7

It is conservatively recommended to use a Structure-Response Modification

Factor of 4 for ASD (Allowable Stress Design) and 3 for USD (Ultimate Strength
Design) for most trussed structures. For combinations of different types of structural
systems along the same loading axis, the R value used for design in that direction
should not be greater than the least value of any of the systems used in that same
direction. Other R values for different structural systems and materials can be found
in NEHRP (2003).
Use of R factors greater than 3 (USD) implies that inelastic energy dissipation
mechanisms in the structure are permitted to develop. In order to count on those
values of R, the structure should be designed and detailed in a manner that allows the
development of such mechanisms before instabilities (e.g., local buckling, lateral/
torsional buckling) or weaker non-ductile failure modes occur.
Where the Substation Owner has not developed specific loading conditions
for deflection criteria, the following load conditions are recommended. A load
factor of 1.0, applied to the dead weight, is used with the deflection load cases. The
Owner or design engineer should determine if additional loads (such as wire tension,
earthquake, etc.) should be applied in combination with the recommended deflection
load cases. For the wind and ice load deflection check, it is recommended that a 5-
year mean recurrence interval peak gust wind speed be used to calculate the wind
load associated with deflection criteria for substations located outside hurricane
zones. Hurricane wind zone loads to be used with the deflection criteria are to be
determined by the Owner.
Table 1 shows substation structure loading conditions that have the potential
to control the design of the structure types listed. These load conditions, as well as
other important load conditions identified by the design engineer should be selected
based on the structure type, equipment, function, site location, and the structural
reliability required.

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Table 1, Basic Loading Conditions

Loading Wire Loaded Switch and Rigid Bus Other
Conditions Substation Interruption Supports Equipment
Structures Supports Supports
NESC or Other Y N N N
Regulatory Code
Extreme Wind Y Y Y Y
Combined Ice and Y Y Y Y
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Wind
Earthquake Y Y Y Y
Short Circuit N Y Y N
Construction & Y Y Y Y
Maintenance
Operational N Y N Y
Deflection Y Y Y Y

Recommended load factors are based on the unique characteristic of typical

electrical substation structures. These load factors are different from those in other
industry design documents that address loads mainly related to building like
structures. Electrical transmission line grids are distributed systems with multiple
redundancies. Thus, the reliability of the electrical grid typically does not rely on one
individual structure. For this reason, load factors are recommended in the Manual
that do not compromise the reliability of the system.
Unlike building type structures, the failure of a substation structure represents
a very low hazard to utility personnel. In fact, almost all substations are uninhabited.
Thus, in the event of weather related extreme load, electrical substations are usually
unoccupied. For substation structures supporting wires that extend outside the
substation fence the NESC provides requirements for public safety.
Substation structural configurations are simple enough that dead weight can
easily be taken into account, unlike building type structures. The nature of substation
structures also prevents the likelihood of converting these structures into other
functions or usage. Thus, design engineers can calculate the dead load with
reasonable accuracy.
Table 2 shows suggested minimum design load cases, combinations, and the
minimum load factors to be use for substation structures. The individual load
components are: D = Structure and Wire Dead Load, W = Extreme Wind Load, WI =
Wind Load in combination with Ice, I = Ice Load in combination with Wind, E =
Earthquake Load, EFS = Earthquake load reactions from first support imposed on the
remainder of the structure, Tw = Horizontal Wire Tension for the appropriate wind
and temperature condition, SC = Short Circuit Load, and IF = Importance Factors
(IFW, IFI, IFWI, and IFE).

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Table 2, Ultimate Strength Design Cases and Load Factors

Load Cases Load Factors And Combinations
1 1.1 D + 1.2 W IFW + 0.75 SC + 1.1 TW
2 1.1 D + 1.2 IWIFI+ 1.2 WIIFIW + 0.75 SC + 1.1 TW
3 1.1 D + 1.0 SC + 1.1 TW
4 1.1 D + 1.25 E(or EFS)IFE + 0.75 SC + 1.1 TW

The Importance Factor for Ice (IFI) is applied to the ice thickness. The load
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factor of 1.1 on D is replaced with 0.9 for cases in which dead load is counted on to
resist other applied loads. For Allowable Stress Design (ASD) the Load Factors
should equal 1.0.

DEFLECTION CRITERIA

Deflection and rotation of substation structures and members can affect the
mechanical operation of supported electrical equipment, reduce electrical clearances,
and cause unpredicted stress in structures, insulators, connectors, and rigid bus. For
these reasons, structural deflections should be limited to magnitudes that are not
detrimental to the mechanical and electrical operation of the substation.
The sensitivity of equipment to deflection of supporting structures varies
considerably. Disconnect switches, with complex mechanical operating mechanisms,
are highly susceptible to binding if the structure distorts from the installed geometry.
Conversely, structures supporting only stranded conductor bus or overhead line dead-
ends can withstand structure deflections without any impact on operation. Therefore,
structures are classified for the purpose of applying deflection limitations that reflect
the sensitivity of supported equipment.
Deflection Limitations: For determination of maximum horizontal deflections,
the span of a horizontal member is the clear distance between connections to vertical
supporting members, or for cantilever members, the distance from the point of
investigation to the vertical supporting member, Figure 1. For horizontal members,
the deflection is the maximum net displacement, horizontal or vertical, of the
member relative to the member connection points. Deflection analysis typically does
not include the foundation displacement or rotation. For determination of maximum
vertical deflections, the span of a vertical member is the vertical distance from the
foundation support to the point of investigation on the structure. The deflection to be
limited is the gross horizontal displacement of the member relative to the foundation
support.

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HORIZONTAL
MEMBER
SPAN

VERTICAL
MEMBER
SPAN
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Figure 1, Span Definitions

Structure Classifications: Class structures support equipment with

mechanical mechanisms where structure deflection could impair or prevent proper
operation. Examples are group operated switches, vertical reach switches, ground
switches, circuit breaker supports, and circuit interrupting devices. Class B
structures support equipment without mechanical mechanisms, but where excessive
deflection could result in compromised phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground
clearances, unpredicted stresses in equipment, fittings, or bus. Examples are support
structures for rigid bus, surge arresters, metering devices, station power transformers,
hook-stick switches & fuses, and wave traps. Class C structures support equipment
relatively insensitive to deflection, or are stand-alone structures that do not support
any equipment. Examples are support structures for flexible (stranded conductor)
bus, masts for lightning shielding, and dead-end structures for incoming transmission
lines. Deflection limitations for these structures are intended to limit "P-delta"
stresses, wind-induced vibrations, and visual impacts. Table 3 summarizes the
structure classes and associated deflection limits.

Table 3, Summary Of Structure Deflection Limitations

Maximum Deflection As A Ratio Of Span Length
Member Deflection Structure Class
Type Direction A B C
Horizontal Vertical 1/200 1/200 1/100
Horizontal Horizontal 1/200 1/100 1/100
Vertical Horizontal 1/100 1/100 1/50

Multiple-use structures are designed to support several pieces of equipment

which requires different structure classifications. When investigating deflection of a
multiple-use structure, the deflection limits applicable to any point on the structure
are determined by the classification of the structure from that location upward. If
there is Class A equipment at or above the location being analyzed, then the analysis
of that location is governed by Class A limits. If there is only Class B and C

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equipment at or above the location being analyzed, then the analysis of that location
is governed by Class B limits. If there is only Class C equipment at or above the
location being analyzed, then the analysis of that location is governed by Class C
limits.
Some equipment and rigid bus designs may be sensitive to rotation of
supporting members in addition to the deflection of the member. Equipment
manufacturers should be consulted as to any rotational limits which may be
necessary to ensure reliable operation. Where an analysis is performed of the rigid
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bus and support system, the sensitivity of the system to support rotation should be
investigated and limits determined if necessary.

SEISMIC DESIGN GUIDELINES

Seismic events can interrupt the delivery of power in several ways. Low-level
ground shaking may trip equipment relays, without any long-term damage, and
require remote or manual re-energizing of switches. Moderate-level ground shaking
may cause minor repairable equipment damage. Major-level ground shaking may
cause equipment damage and/or destruction. Each electrical installation (substation
or switchyard) should be evaluated based on its relative criticality to the owner's
power system. Installations or specific equipment defined as critical or essential are
those which are vital to power delivery and cannot be bypassed in the system or are
undesirable to lose due to economic impacts. Equipment which can be bypassed for
short term emergency operations is considered nonessential.
The design of structures should consider the functional equipment needs with
respect to calculated elastic displacements, material stresses, and plastic deformation.
Functional needs include mechanical operations, such as opening/closing linkages, in
addition to electrical functions, such as power circuit breaker internal operation.
Displacements caused by the seismic events, either temporary or permanent, between
components of different seismic response potential, should not impair the
performance of the mounted equipment, cause secondary induced stress, reduce the
required electrical clearance, or cause other safety hazards. Connection between
equipment and components and their effect on one another requires specific
attention. Rigid electrical bus connections between equipment, that restricts seismic
induced displacements, may cause equipment damage.
For flexible structures a dynamic analysis using the response spectrum
analysis method should be performed. A damping value of 2% should be used, unless
a higher value is justified. The maximum modal response can be determined either
by using the response spectrum shown in Figure 2 adjusted for the selected ground
acceleration. Figure 2 shows the recommended normalized response spectrum that
presents "maximum amplitude" for a single degree-of-freedom resonance response.
This response spectrum is the IEEE 693 (2006) response spectrum normalized to
1.0g. A site-specific response spectrum can also be developed and used for a
response spectrum analysis.

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Figure 2, 1.0g Normalized Response Spectrum (IEEE 693, 2006, Modified)

The structure should be modeled as an assemblage of discrete structural

elements interconnected at a finite number of points called nodes (finite element
analysis). The number and location of elements and nodes should be such that an
adequate representation of the real system is obtained. The models should represent
the equipment/structure system, as it is mounted in service.
Static Coefficient Analysis, as described in IEEE 693 (2006), may be used as
an alternate method of analysis for simple flexible structures having one or two
dominant modes. The peak acceleration obtained from the response spectrum is
multiplied by 1.5 to account for multi-mode effects.
Structures not included in IEEE 693 (2006) include dead-end structures, rigid
bus structures, strain bus structures, cable bus structures, and shielding masts. These
structures should be designed to withstand the stresses using the simplified
equivalent lateral force procedure.
Porcelain station post insulators are assemblages generally consisting of end
fittings, bonding medium and a porcelain body. While all of the components of the
insulator can be sources of failure, the focus of most investigations is the porcelain
body. Porcelain insulators are manufactured 1 to 3 standard deviations above the
rated strength. The porcelain insulator is coated with glaze, approximately 3 mils
(7.62 mm) thick, to obtain the rated cantilever strength. Glaze has a higher
coefficient of thermal expansion and preloads the porcelain in compression.
Porcelain compression strength is higher than the tensile strength. Typically,
porcelain station post insulators have relatively good axial compression
characteristics in comparison to the cantilever strength. Accordingly, bending
strength is normally a significant design parameter.
For porcelain insulator bending strength, manufacturers specify a cantilever
rating. The cantilever rating is the maximum horizontal load that can be applied at

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the top of the insulator with the insulator base fixed. Manufacturers typically
recommend multiplying the cantilever rating by a strength resistance factor of 0.4,
for working or allowable loads. The moment capacity at the base of the insulator is
equal to the product of the strength resistance factor, the cantilever rating, and the
insulator height. The strength resistance factor of 0.4 should be increased to provide
similar insulator selections between ultimate strength and working strength
(allowable stress) designs. A strength resistance factor of 0.5 is recommended for
Ultimate Strength Design. This factor is 25 percent higher than the 0.4 strength
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resistance factor and when used with recommended load factors should provide
similar insulator selections.
The materials that provide the structural strength of composite insulators are
much different from porcelain, but more importantly, the failure mechanism is
different for composite and porcelain insulators. Therefore, the design criteria for
composite station posts are different from porcelain. The two major reasons for this
are: composite insulators are much more ductile than porcelain insulators and
composite insulators have a fiberglass core and elastomeric sheds. The strength is
provided by the fiberglass core. Porcelain insulators have a porcelain core and
porcelain sheds. The strength of porcelain is isotropic while composite’s strength is
dependent on the orientation of the glass fibers in the fiberglass. The glass fibers may
be longitudinal or a woven pattern.
There are two major ratings provided for composites. They are the specified
mechanical load (SML) and the maximum mechanical load (MML). For rigid bus
station post insulators these ratings are based on a cantilever load. The SML is the
value at which failure begins and no damage is observed. The SML is used in
conjunction with short term ultimate loads. The MML is the value at which the
fiberglass remains in the elastic range and can sustain this value for long duration
loads. Fifty percent of the SML is used for Allowable Stress Design (ASD). For
Ultimate Strength Design (USD), Fifty percent of the SML value is also used but
with a strength resistance factor of 1.0.
Rigid bus design should consider the following seismic design issue.
Expansion fittings may create impact loads, because the thermal expansion fitting
gap is too small to allow for relative displacements. Cast bus fittings may be brittle
and lack sufficient strength to resist earthquake loads. Forged fittings should be
considered. Depending on boundary conditions at the top of the insulator and the
direction of the earthquake loads, moments may be developed at the top of the
insulator. If a segment of conductor is supported with fixed and slip fittings and the
ground acceleration is parallel to the conductor, the insulators and supports
connected to the fixed fittings require sufficient strength to resist the force created by
the mass of the conductor segment. Additional porcelain strength can be obtained by
increasing the cross-section size. High strength insulators have a corresponding
increase in weight, which for earthquake loads may offset the increase in strength.
Flexible connections between rigid bus and electrical equipment should be
considered to reduce the transfer of seismic forces. Catenary hung flexible
conductors (strain bus or jumper), used in place of rigid bus, can generate significant

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dynamic loads during an earthquake. These dynamic loads can exceed the static
loads. Additional rigid bus design information is available in IEEE 605 (2006).

CONCLUSIONS

ASCE Manual 113 will help the transmission line industry to further develop
uniform guidelines for the design of substations structures. This document should
generate discussion within the transmission line industry concerning the guide’s
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recommendations. After the industry has obtained experience using this document
the ASCE Substation Structures Subcommittee will be reconvened for the purpose of
revising the guidelines.

REFERENCE

ASCE 113 (2009), Substation Structure Design Guide, Structural Engineering

Institute, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA
ASCE 74 (2002), Guidelines for Electrical Transmission Line Structural Loading,
Draft, Structural Engineering Institute, American Society of Civil Engineers,
Reston, VA
ASCE 7 (2005), Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA
IEEE 605 (2006), Guide for Design of Substation Rigid-Bus Structures, 2005,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, NJ
IEEE 693 (2006), IEEE Recommended Practice for Seismic Design of Substations,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, NJ
IEEE 1527 (2006), Design of Flexible Buswork Located in Seismically Active Areas,
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Piscataway, NJ
NEHRP 450 (2003), National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program Recommended
Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings and Other Structures,
FEMA 450, Building Seismic Safety Council, National Institute of Building
Sciences, Washington, DC

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