Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

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Soil & Tillage Research

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Review

A review of the changes in the soil pore system due to soil deformation:
A hydrodynamic perspective
A. Alaoui a,*, J. Lipiec b, H.H. Gerke c
a
Hydrology Group, Department of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
b
Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 201, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
c
Institute of Soil Landscape Research, Leibniz-Centre for Agricultural Landscape Research (ZALF), Eberswalder Strasse 84, 15374 Müncheberg, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Compaction and shearing, as well as the rearrangement of soil aggregates and clods due to shrinkage,
Received 8 February 2011 among other processes, can strongly affect the pore geometry of agricultural soils. These soil structural
Received in revised form 9 June 2011 changes directly affect soil water movement by altering the hydraulic properties that are commonly
Accepted 12 June 2011
described by the soil water retention curve (WRC) and the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
function (HCF). This review focuses on recent advances in the understanding and evaluation of changes
Keywords: in hydraulic functions in relation to compacted soil. The development of hydromechanical models due
Soil deformation
to recent advances with more sophisticated methods enables quantification of the effects of
Soil pore connectivity
compaction on the hydraulic conductivity functions at the pore scale of aggregated soil. However, it
Pore geometry
Water retention curve remains unclear how to up-scale the dynamic, in terms of inter-aggregate pore models, into the
Hydraulic conductivity function continuum-scale dual-porosity models in the form of effective parameters, particularly regarding
effective hydraulic properties for the preferential flow domain. While hydromechanical models fail
to describe water flow and hydraulic conductivity at the relevant scales and water saturation ranges,
the continuum-based flow models rely on effective parameters that are mainly empirical or are based
on fitting model results to data. Input data usually do not address temporal changes in the
arrangement of aggregates induced by soil compaction and shrinkage. This review presents a concept
that summarizes the changes in structural and textural porosity upon compaction. It suggests focusing
on the extension of existing hydraulic and hydromechanical models to include the pore structural
changes that account for the movement and rearrangement of soil aggregates and the resulting
changes in the soil hydraulic properties which basically manifest the effects of shearing and
compaction on water flow.
ß 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. General considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Hydrodynamic aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Pore system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2. Water flow and solute transport . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. Water retention curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4. Saturated hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.5. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.6. Infiltration capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Modelling water retention and water dynamic in compacted soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1. Hydromechanical models . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2. Water retention curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

* Corresponding author at: Hydrology Group, Department of Geography, University of Bern, Hallerstrasse 12, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland. Tel.: +41 31 6318557;
fax: +41 31 6318511.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Alaoui).

0167-1987/$ – see front matter ß 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.still.2011.06.002
2 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

4.3. Hydraulic conductivity function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8

4.4. Dual-porosity models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
4.5. Shrinkage characteristic curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
5. A conceptual model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1. Introduction 1991), dye surface density (Kulli et al., 2003; Alaoui and Helbling,
2006; Alaoui and Goetz, 2008) and infiltration capacity (Alaoui and
Cultivated soils are particularly affected by soil deformation Helbling, 2006; Blanco-Canqui et al., 2010).
(Berli et al., 2004; Håkansson and Reeder, 1994). It has frequently The change in bulk density due to compaction is a global
been recognized that compaction reduces total porosity and indicator that integrates information about the total change in the
increases bulk density while also reducing the proportion of larger volume of voids of soil under consideration. But it cannot account
pores that play an important role in water movement and solute for changes in the volume distribution of these voids, their
transport, nutrient availability, aeration, and crop productivity, connectivity, or the changes in this connectivity (e.g., Vogeler et al.,
owing to the limitation in root growth (e.g., Domżał et al., 1991; 2006), especially during elastic compaction, which has a significant
Mapfumo et al., 1998; Arocena, 2000). Agricultural field operations impact on hydraulic properties (Lenhard, 1986). In fact, it has been
employed at various levels of mechanization depend heavily on shown that compaction results in not only discontinuity of the
wheeled tractors as a source of traction power. It is common structure between top and subsoil that promotes ponding at the
practice to use the same tractor for different operational soil surface (Gysi et al., 1999; Kulli et al., 2003; Alaoui and Helbling,
requirements. Hence soils with different load-bearing capacities 2006) but also a change in the proportion of textural and structural
are exposed to repeated compressive stress of the same magnitude. porosity (e.g., Bruand and Cousin, 1995; Richard et al., 2001).
This results in the formation of a dense soil layer which has low Soil compaction and shearing caused by external factors affect
hydraulic conductivity and aeration (e.g., Lipiec and Hatano, 2003). pore geometry and consequently water retention (Wu et al., 1997;
Soil structure may be significantly altered due to either Richard et al., 2001; Tarantino and Tombolato, 2005; Dexter et al.,
mechanical stress (e.g., tractor traffic, tillage and cattle trampling) 2008; Gregory et al., 2010; Li and Zhang, 2009; Wójciga et al., 2009;
or hydraulic stress from natural wetting and drying cycles. While Matthews et al., 2010). In most soils, especially fine-textural soils,
many studies have investigated soil compaction caused by wheel there is also a decrease in the pore volume as the soil shrinks
traffic, few investigations (e.g., Cui et al., 2010; Keller et al., 2002; (Simms and Yanful, 2001; Braudeau et al., 2005; Whalley et al.,
Berli et al., 2004) deal with the extent of soil compaction on 2008; Li and Zhang, 2009). Both deformation and shrinkage have
agricultural land due to tracked heavy machines. Track-type significant implications for soil physical functions (Gregory et al.,
tractors have the potential to cause less soil compaction because 2010).
the tracks usually have a greater surface area than wheels for The purpose of this paper is to review recent advances in the
tractors with equivalent power ratings (Brown et al., 1992). Pagliai understanding and evaluation of functional changes in compacted
et al. (2003) have shown that the effect of soil compaction with a soil with respect to water retention and water flow.
rubber-tracked tractor was limited to the surface layer only.
In addition to wheeled and tracked machines, stock trampling 2. General considerations
affects soil in different ways, depending on several conditions: (i)
trampling intensity; (ii) soil moisture (iii) soil type; (iv) plant type; Soil pore systems can be defined as the ensemble of the voids or
(v) field slope and (vi) land use type (e.g., Zhao et al., 2010; spaces existing in a given volume of soil. Water flowing through
Krümmelbein et al., 2006). Trampling-induced soil compaction is connected pores involves the notion of structural hierarchy
characterized by its spatial heterogeneous distribution. It mainly (Brewer, 1964; Hadas, 1987; Dexter, 1988; Dexter et al., 2008).
affects pore geometry (or structure) at the soil surface (Nie et al., The mean sizes of the pores separating the aggregate particles at
2001; Vzzotto et al., 2000) and topsoil matrix (Alaoui and Helbling, progressively higher levels are themselves progressively bigger
2006). The depth of soil compaction induced by pugging depends (e.g., Dexter et al., 2008). The spatial arrangement or clustering of
on animal weight, soil moisture, hoof size and kinetic energy. primary soil particles into secondary units called aggregates or
The structure of soils can also change continuously through peds, (and clods often in cultivated soil) is known as soil structure.
water menisci forces during drying and wetting cycles (hydraulic The solid phase of soils consists of discrete units called primary
stress) (Peng et al., 2007). In non-rigid soils, two shrinkage soil particles. These particles may vary widely in size, shape and
components with vertical and horizontal directions can be composition. In this study, we define textural (or matrix) porosity as
quantified. Vertical shrinkage results in soil subsidence, while the pore space between the primary particles or intra-aggregate
horizontal shrinkage produces soil cracks. Pre-existing soil cracks pores (or micropores).
induce surface water to reach more directly the water level as Structural porosity is the pore space between micro-aggregates
preferential flow (Liu et al., 2003) and potentially lead to or aggregates and contains macropores such as inter-pedal voids,
unintended contamination of ground- and surface waters by biopores or desiccation cracks that have a significant effect on the
agrochemicals (e.g., Borggaard and Gimsing, 2008; Jarvis, 2007). water flow and solute transport processes and offer greater
To date, a number of methods have been used to demonstrate potential for undisturbed growth of plant roots.
the occurrence and effects of soil compaction. The most commonly Biopores and the network of inter-aggregate pores, cracks and
used parameters are bulk density and total porosity (Boone, 1988; other structural voids can act as preferential flows through which
da Silva et al., 1994), macroporosity (Alakukku, 1996), penetration most of the volume of the bulk soil matrix can be bypassed during
resistance (PR) (Pagliai, 1998), air permeability (Ball, 1981; infiltration from storms (e.g., Beven and Germann, 1981; Gerke,
Reszkowska et al., 2011), saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ksat 2006; Jarvis, 2007). Efficiency of preferential flow paths is
(Alakukku, 1996), pre-consolidation pressure (Horn, 1981; Kirby, measured by pore morphology (Brewer, 1964), geometry (Perret
 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15 3

et al., 1999a,b), hydrodynamic aspect and functionality (e.g., et al., 2003). The dynamic involves coupled interaction between
Bouma et al., 1977; Beven and Germann, 1982; Chen et al., 1993), soil mechanical and hydraulic processes (e.g., Horn et al., 2003;
equivalent pore diameter (Sekera, 1951; Luxmoore, 1981), or size Horn and Smucker, 2005). The management of arable soils
(Velde et al., 1996). In soil science, the term ‘‘macropore’’ has been basically attempts a soil structure optimization between sufficient
used to represent the whole spectrum of pores ranging from inter- stability for cultivation and favourable soil ecological conditions
aggregate pores, shrinkage cracks, and fissures to earthworm and for crop growth and environmental functioning (e.g., Roger-
root channels (Tisdall and Oades, 1982; Elliott, 1986; Oades, 1993; Estrade et al., 2000).
Amezketa, 1999; Braudeau et al., 2004; Bronick and Lal, 2005;
Abou Najm et al., 2010). In this review, the term ‘‘macropore’’ is 3.1. Pore system
used to define the non-capillary biopore in which water flows
under gravity. A mean diameter >30 mm is used to define A dual-porosity medium is defined as a pore system continuum,
macropore if no diameter is specified; otherwise, it is set according characterized by two types of pores: structural and textural. Inter-
to the specific study cited in this review. aggregate and intra-aggregate soil porosities have been used to
The dry soil bulk density and associated total porosity is the designate the dual soil pore system. For preferential flow and soil
most general and frequently used parameter to characterize the hydraulic modelling (e.g., Gerke and van Genuchten, 1993), the
state of compactness and physical properties of soil (Panayioto- two-pore domain concept was applied for flow in structured soil,
poulos et al., 1994; da Silva et al., 1994; Assouline, 2006a, 2006b). assuming still rigidity of the soil. With respect to describing the
However, its usefulness in characterizing compaction effects on effects of compaction on mechanical properties of structured soil,
storage and transport of water and air in terms of connectivity and different studies carried out on soil compaction showed that up to
continuity is not obvious. This is due to the fact that at given bulk a certain level of compaction, depending of the amplitude of the
density for the same soil, the pore geometry and continuity can strength, the aggregates remain rigid and only the inter-aggregate
differ due e.g. to soil management practices. For this reason bulk structure is affected by the compaction. In fact, macroporosity is
density alone is not always a sensitive indicator of soil compaction more sensitive to compaction than total porosity (Alakukku, 1996).
effects, particularly with respect to transport properties (e.g. Li and Zhang (2009) reported that the volume of the compressible
Gebhardt et al., 2009; Horn et al., 2003; Lipiec et al., 2003). inter-aggregate pores is closely related to the final void ratio of the
However, in the case of various soils, a particular bulk density may compacted soil and that changes to inter-aggregate pores are
indicate an extremely compact state in one soil with reference to dominant during compaction, but changes to intra-aggregate pores
its natural uncompacted state, but a very loose state in another one are dominant during saturation and drying. In fact, in clay soil the
due to differences in texture and organic matter content. To volume of intra-aggregate pores was found to agree closely with
overcome this problem, the actual bulk density is expressed as a the volume of pore water, providing support for the assumption
percentage of the reference-compaction state of a given soil known that in an unsaturated aggregate microstructure the clay
as ‘‘degree of compactness’’ or ‘‘relative compactness’’ (Håkansson, aggregations are saturated (Monroy et al., 2010).
1990; Håkansson and Lipiec, 2000). In the same way, the pore The pore geometry has a large influence on the compressibility
space can be quantified by the void ratio frequently used in soil of soils. In fact, soils with a high proportion of vertically oriented
mechanics and soil physics and defined as the volume of the pores pores are less susceptible to compaction (even more for cylindrical
per unit volume of solid. The fact that the denominator is constant pore shapes e.g., Schäffer et al., 2008) than soils with predomi-
enables the void ratio of different types of pores to be compared, nantly horizontal pores (Hartge and Bohne, 1983) and the inter-
even in soil where pore space may vary with shrinkage/swelling aggregate pores in tilled soils (Schäffer et al., 2008). Due to low
processes or under compaction/shearing (e.g., Dexter et al., 2008). stability, the tillage macropores (inter-aggregate pores) are not
Zhang et al. (2006) also used water volume ratio expressed as the efficient except in the period immediately after tillage when they
volume of water per unit volume of solid phase, which does not are not effectively isolated (i.e. not ‘‘relict’’) (Dexter and Richard,
depend on the changes in soil bulk density and is appropriate 2009). As a consequence, tillage leaves the structural pores that are
variable to use for swelling soils. These relative compaction mostly planar (i.e. micro-cracks) as the principal pathways for
parameters are more useful than bulk density or total porosity in hydraulic conductivity in most field situations. This highlights the
studies of the effects of field traffic on soil structure and important role of the cylindrical (bio)pores in soil that may still
consequently on root and crop response (Canarache, 1991; enable sufficient soil drainage and aeration when other pores have
Håkansson and Lipiec, 2000). By using the relative compaction already collapsed. Jégou et al. (2002) showed that soil compaction
instead of the bulk density performance and applying the concept helps to close numerous pores, reduces the mean length of
of the least limiting water range, LLWR (defined as the ideal soil burrows, and increases the number of fragmented burrows. They
water content range, in which the limitations for root growth were concluded that soil compaction affects the functionality of burrow
due to the availability of water, air, and PR were minimal) are systems to a large extent by affecting their continuity.
enhanced (da Silva et al., 1997). It is known that the first pass of a wheel causes a major portion
of the total soil compaction (Bakker and Davis, 1995), whereas
3. Hydrodynamic aspects repeated traffic with low axle loads can affect the subsoil and the
effects can persist for a long time (Balbuena et al., 2000). Servadio
Hydrodynamics here are defined as interactions between forces et al. (2001) found that a massive structure was evident for
of moving fluid and soil structure related to soil pore aggregate samples subjected to four passes of a rubber-tracked (RT) tractor,
systems. In fluid dynamics, hydrodynamics describe the liquids in characterized by few and thin, elongated pores (300–500 mm).
motion and their various properties such as velocity, pressure, Lipiec and Håkansson (2000) reported that the number of passes
density, and temperature, as functions of space and time (Corey, increases the degree of compactness from 81 for zero passes to 93
1994). Not only particles but also soil aggregates and clods are for eight passes, also reducing the macroporosity from 13.4 to 5.6
subject to movement under intense external perturbations, as (% v/v). Pagliai et al. (2003) reported that after four passes of a
during repeated wheeling, leading to the formation of a coherent wheeled tractor, the traffic caused considerable damage to soil
and very compacted soil horizon (Horn et al., 2003). The non- structure, resulting in a complete disappearance of the elongated
rigidity of soil systems can easily be observed in the field; most soil pores (>500 mm) and the reduction of the transmission
properties change dynamically with time (e.g., Horn, 2004; Horn pores (50–500 mm). They reported that the damage was more
4 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

pronounced after the passage of a rubber-tracked tractor, where drainable soil columns, passive capillary fiber glass wick samplers
the transmission pores were reduced from 24.2 to 2.2%. This (PCAPs), weighing lysimeters and tile drainage samplers).
modification resulted in a more compacted massive structure in Most of the transport processes in soil occur through its pores
which most present pores were completely isolated in the soil via the soil solution which refers to soil water that contains various
matrix. Horn et al. (2003) noted full homogenization of the pore agricultural chemicals (fertilizers and/or pesticides). The decrease
system with increasing wheeling. Kim et al. (2010) conducted of the macropore space combined with the distortion of structural
field experiments on Mexico silt loam with field treatments of porosity due to compaction induces solute transport in small and
uniformly Compacted (C) and Non-Compacted (NC) plots. They low mobile transport domains that results in slower solute
found an increase in bulk density of C treatment of 8%, and a migration (Heitman et al., 2007).
decrease in saturated hydraulic conductivity of 69%. The CT- A recent study by Besson et al. (2011) using retardation factor
measured number of pores also decreased by 71%, the number of (the ratio between piston-flow velocity and the mean solute
macropores (>1000 mm diameter) by 69% and coarse mesopores transport velocity) showed that the retardation of solute move-
(200–1000 mm diameter) by 75%, with the most pronounced ment can be due to both dense seedbed aggregates and the
effect in the upper 10 cm of the soil layer. Similar results were presence of a plough pan. Limited water and solute transport in
reported by Udawatta and Anderson (2008) and Udawatta et al. tightly compacted zones may promote solute fluxes towards
(2008). This damage may reach deeper soil horizons. Dumbeck preferential pathways as wormholes or activated macropores
(1984) carried out traffic experiments on arable land with heavy (provided that water ponding occurs at the soil surface) (Kulli et al.,
excavators (weighing up to 4.7  104 kg, mean stress in the 2003) and more permeable zones (Coquet et al., 2005). This results
contact area up to 100 kPa) under dry (300 to 1000 hPa soil in solutes by-passing the shallower soil surface horizon where
water potential) and wet (60 hPa soil water potential) soil transformation processes (degradation of pollutants by biological
conditions. He found a decrease in the amount of macropores to activity) and retention processes are the most active as a
0.65 m in the dry and 1 m in the wet soil. consequence of environmental pollution (Coquet et al., 2005).
Gebhardt et al. (2009) reported that a decrease of coarse pores Some authors (Coquet et al., 2005, Besson et al., 2011) reported
(>50 mm) in their sandy Podzol was accompanied by a relative that the redirected solute flow resulted in an ‘‘umbrella’’ (shadow)
increase of intermediate pores (10–50 mm) already at loading of effect in deeper soil. In a study of Besson et al. (2011) the
70 kPa and medium pore size (0.2–10 mm) of 230 kPa. Despite the ‘‘umbrella’’ effects on breakthrough curves (the long tailing) and
decrease of wide coarse pores in the Podzol due to compaction, associated low permeability in transport were observed at a depth
neither significant change in Ksat nor in bulk density was shown. On of 0.15 m as well as at depths of 0.30 and 0.45.
the other hand, in contrast to the clay-rich soils, sandy soil showed The effect of soil compaction on solute transport is related to the
a distinct decrease in the air conductivity subsequent to type and nature of the given chemical compound. Sadegh-Zadeh
compaction, as a growing fraction of the remaining coarse porosity et al. (2008) reported that after irrigation the movement of
increasingly filled with water and then no longer conducted air. In nitrogen and potassium downward is reduced as the compaction
fact, it was shown that the high coarse porosity of the sands is level increases, but the movement of phosphorus is increased
predominantly texture-dependent and enhancement of the because of high moisture and movement by diffusion.
stability of these soils during compaction due to grain-to-grain Although the measurement methods may capture both matrix
contact points occurs without resulting in an entire loss of their and macropore flow under both saturated and unsaturated soil
coarse porosity (Gebhardt et al., 2009). This implies a change in the conditions (Boll et al., 1992), they are tedious and time consuming.
matric potential with saturation under stress conditions until no Therefore, numerous models were developed to investigate water
more air is conducted. In contrast, more finely textured soils are flow and solute transport through preferential pathways, crossing
extremely susceptible in terms of harmful compaction. The the vadose zone. As indicated in review papers, predicting
authors concluded that soil-protection strategies should be movement of water and chemicals is mostly based on the
focused on such vulnerable soils. In another study on silty clay Darcy/Richards one-dimensional flow equation (e.g.; Lipiec
loam (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2010), a decrease of the same pores et al., 2003; Šimůnek et al., 2003; Jarvis, 2007), and the effect of
(>50 mm) by wheel compaction was accompanied by considerable soil compaction is considered by changing hydraulic conductivity,
reduction of cumulative infiltration, saturated hydraulic conduc- water retention, root growth and physicochemical and biological
tivity, soil water retention at 0 kPa, plant-available water, and transformation of the chemicals (Lipiec et al., 2003). However, such
effective porosity. modelling approaches of solute transport in soil may still be found
Another important aspect of pores is the tortuosity of the pore inappropriate when solutes are transported by preferential flow
system, since continuous large pores play an important role in processes (Coquet et al., 2005).
allowing roots, gas, and water to penetrate into the soil. The
expanding use of third generation X-ray microtomography 3.3. Water retention curve
enhances new applications of CT for more detailed descriptions
of soil compaction processes, including local changes in soil Soil moisture status is the most important factor influencing
structural pore space characteristics and deformation (Peth et al., soil compaction processes (Soane and van Ouwerkerk, 1994).
2010), decreases in connectivity of macropores (Schäffer et al., Zhang et al. (2006) applied two treatments, C1 and C2 (corre-
2007, 2008), and increases in the fraction of spherical pores (and sponding to an increase in bulk density by 10 and 20%,
thus the convexity of the pore space) with no clear effect on the respectively) to two silty loam sites, Heyang (Chromic Cambisol)
orientation of pores (Schäffer et al., 2007). and Mihzi (Calcic Cambisol). They found that water retention
curves for both the surface (0–0.05 m) and subsurface (0.10–
3.2. Water flow and solute transport 0.15 m) layers at the two sites were significantly changed by tested
levels of soil compaction. They found that a high level of
Appropriate methods for investigating the dynamic of flow compaction C2 significantly decreased the water content of the
consist of direct measurements of water and solute transport in surface layer at tensions of <2 kPa for Heyang and 8 kPa for the
soils. The most common and established methods for this purpose Mihzi site.
employ various types of water samplers or lysimeters (e.g., porous In other studies, analysis of water retention curves showed that
ceramic suction cups, zero tension pan lysimeters, gravity compaction results in a decrease of water content at high matric
 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15 5

Table 1
Relevant studies showing mixed changes in micro- and macropore domain including the increase of ‘‘lacunar porosity’’.

Authors Soil texture/ Decrease of pore class of Increase of pore volume class Effect on hydraulic
classification diameter D1 (mm) (corresponding of diameter D2 (mm) parameters
load and/or water potential) (corresponding load and/or
water potential)

Bruand and Clay loam/chromic D1 > 5.6 (compaction tests; 0.18 < D2 < 5.6 (compaction tests; Ksat+
Cousin (1995) luvisol 50 and 200 kPa, water 50 and 200 kPa, water potential of 1 kPa)
potential of 1 kPa)
Richard et al. (2001) Silt/orthic luvisol D1 > 4 (tractor of 81.4 kN, 1 < D2 < 4 (tractor of 81.4 kN, K+ (water
tyres pressure of 200 kPa) tyres pressure of 200 kPa) potential <15 kPa)
Tarawally et al. (2004) 700–780 g kg1 clay/ D1 > 50 mm (seven passes D2 < 0.5 (seven passes TP
Rhodic ferrasol of a 10 Mg tractor) of a 10 Mg tractor)
Koliji et al. (2006) Sandy loam/n.d. 2.5 < D1 < 35 (compaction 0.15 < D2 < 0.9 (compaction n.d.
test; suction of 400 kPa) test; suction of 400 kPa)
Schäffer et al. (2007) Restored soil/ D1 (defined as pores drained D2 (=fine to intermediate pores, diameter BD+
eutric cambisol at field capacity) Decrease of not defined). Increase of D2 by 2% for
D1 by 2% for 2 passes and 2 passes and by 5% for 10 passes
by 8% for 10 passes
Gebhardt et al. (2009) Medium sand/podzol D1 > 50 (compaction tests; 70 kPa) 10 < D2 < 50 (compaction tests; 70 kPa) Ksat
0.2 < D2 < 10 (compaction tests; 230 kPa)
TP: total porosity; BD: bulk density; K: hydraulic cond.; Ksat: saturated hydraulic cond. ‘‘’’: not effective in reflecting treatment effect ‘‘+’’: effective in reflecting treatment
effect ‘‘n.d.’’ not defined.

potentials (from 0 to 10 kPa) and an increase of water content at modified by soil compaction. In reduced tillage, Ksat has often been
low matric potentials (from 250 to 1550 kPa) (Walczak, 1977; found to increase, despite a higher bulk density, while in other
Domżał, 1983; Kutı́lek and Nielsen, 1994; Ferrero and Lipiec, experiments a small increase in bulk density may decrease the
2000). However, a slight effect occurs in the intermediate potential conductivity by several orders of magnitude (Arvidsson, 1997).
range. This reflects the fact that, under compaction, as the However, in compacted soil, increase in bulk density and decrease
proportion of large pores decreases, the proportion of small pores in the pore volumes with equivalent pore diameter >150 mm or
increases (Assouline et al., 1997; van Dijck and van Asch, 2002) or >60 mm (depending on the site) resulted in significantly lower
remains unaffected (Matthews et al., 2010). The two processes are Ksat values (Zhang et al., 2006). Also, reduction of similar pores
linked by an ‘‘inflection point’’ (Dexter, 2004a) above which, for soil (>50 mm) due to trampling was reflected in decreased saturated
drying, mainly structural pores are emptying and below which hydraulic conductivity (Zhao et al., 2010). These values are
mainly textural pores are emptying. Based on mercury porosi- predominantly governed by the abundance of relatively large
metry analysis, Richard et al. (2001) showed that the decrease in pores and their continuity (Pagliai et al., 2003; Lipiec and Hatano,
the volume of pores retaining water between 5 and 20 kPa 2003; Zhao et al., 2010). Therefore, change in this group of pores
corresponds to a decrease in the volume of pores larger than 4 mm. tends to have a strong influence on Ksat values. In the study by Kim
In the same way, they attributed the increase in pore volume et al. (2010), a regression equation with CT-measured macro-
retaining water at potentials ranging between 20 and 80 kPa to porosity, the area of largest pore and porosity explained nearly
increase in the volume of pores between 1 and 4 mm. They 80% of variability in the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
suggested that the increase in water retained at potentials between compacted and non-compacted soil. In contrast, Gebhardt et al.
20 and 80 kPa is due to the formation of relict structural pores (2009) reported that Ksat values do not reflect the compaction
being remnants of structural pores distorted during traffic and effect (Table 1).
accessible only through the necks of textural (lacunar) pores Other studies showed that soil compaction and increased
(Bruand et al., 1997; Richard et al., 2001). This new structure contribution of finer pores result in lower Ksat of soil and lower
resulted from the destruction of structural pores. Relevant studies sorptivity values of soil aggregates (Ferrero et al., 2007). The
on this topic are listed in Table 1. Applying pressures of 50 and increased contribution of finer pores, combined with the increased
200 kPa for a water potential of 1 kPa, Bruand and Cousin (1995) number of contact points between soil particles, leads to greater
reported a drastic decrease in the structural porosity of a diameter internal aggregate strength (Horn et al., 1994; Ferrero et al., 2007)
larger than 5.6 mm, resulting in increases in lacunar porosity of 16 and lower wettability (Goebel et al., 2004). The hydraulic
and 33% respectively when compared to original values. As a properties of soil aggregates play an important role under field
consequence, water retention curves (WRCs) are mainly altered at conditions where large inter-aggregate pores are drained earliest
low pressure heads (from 0 to 10 kPa) and at high pressure heads and the water flow is then influenced by the properties of the
(from 300 to 1500 kPa) (Kutı́lek and Nielsen, 1994; Ferrero and aggregates themselves (Horn and Smucker, 2005).
Lipiec, 2000). Compacted soils present flattened WRCs, with a Tractor passes can form an anisotropic soil pore system due to
reduction of the slope of the WRC at the inflection point (Dexter, simultaneous movement of aggregates or particles forward and
2004a; Assouline et al., 1997; Hayashi et al., 2006). It was also downwards and to wheel slippage (Pagliai et al., 2003; Peng and
suggested that relict structural pores and structural pores could Horn, 2008). The changes can form a platy structure in the upper
interact to determine together the hydraulic properties of soil as few centimetres with elongated pores that are oriented parallel to
water retention curve and hydraulic conductivity function (HCF). the soil surface. These pores are not vertically continuous and
Richard et al. (2001) reported that this point corresponds to a induce mainly horizontal fluxes of water and gas (Horn et al., 2003;
potential equal to 20 kPa for a silt soil. Pagliai et al., 2003; Dörner and Horn, 2006, 2009). In a recent study
by Dörner and Horn (2009) found that transport properties such as
3.4. Saturated hydraulic conductivity hydraulic conductivity and air permeability show a more defined
anisotropy than mechanical properties. The tendency for horizon-
Water flow in aggregated soils depends mainly on pore tal water and air fluxes (and hence solute- and particle-bound
structure and hydraulic properties of soil aggregates that are nutrient transport) due to the development of a platy structure was
6 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

also shown on grazed soil by the anisotropy of the Ksat observed by the authors are required for the development of a
(Krümmelbein et al., 2006; Reszkowska et al., 2011) and air saturated zone on top of the compacted subsoil layer. Quantitative
permeability (Reszkowska et al., 2011). analysis of infiltration under different saturation levels may offer
The results of Gallipoli et al. (2003) showed a significant more appropriate information on the effects of compaction on
increase in the degree of saturation during shearing and attributed infiltrability. From this perspective, hydrodynamic variation of
this change to the combination of an inflow of water to the sample water content in response to brief irrigations at different depths
and a decrease in the total void volume as the sample compressed was proposed to investigate the effect of soil compaction on
during shearing. It was suggested that the increase in the degree of infiltration capacity (Alaoui and Helbling, 2006). Delaying infiltra-
saturation was assumed to result from water-filling of additional tion and enhancement of capillary rise to the soil surface due to
voids because of a decrease in both the void sizes due to compaction leads to higher soil water potential (greater wetness)
compression and the number of voids below a critical size that can be detrimental to trafficability and to workability (Müller
corresponding to water-saturation at the applied suction. The et al., 1990; Boone and Veen, 1994). In comparison, under a
authors argued that in such a soil with bimodal pore size pressure of 320 kPa and an infiltration rate of 24 mm h1, soil
distribution, the increase in the degree of saturation was compaction significantly reduced the infiltration rate to nearly
accentuated by dilation of small water-filled micro-voids within 0 mm h1 in the topsoil of a trafficked plot (Alaoui and Helbling,
relatively densely packed soil, despite the compression of the more 2006). Indeed, during the infiltration experiments, water infiltrat-
open macrostructure. This phenomenon means that deformation ed the soil on the control plot directly and instantaneously,
does not always result in an increase in bulk density. whereas it ponded on the surface of the compacted soil. In the
latter, variation of the water content was observed neither at depth
3.5. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity during infiltration or during drainage, showing the damage of both
functions—water transport and aeration. These observations are
Experimental data relating the effects of soil compaction on supported by the results obtained by Kulli et al. (2003) and Gysi
unsaturated flow are limited. Some studies have shown that soil et al. (1999) for similar soil and by Kim et al. (2010) for claypan
compaction results in greater unsaturated hydraulic conductivity soils due to the wet conditions created by the subsurface claypan
(K) of soil for the whole range of matric potential up to 100 MPa horizon. By using dye-tracer experiments, Kulli et al. (2003)
(Assouline et al., 1997; Richard et al., 2001) and for soil aggregates demonstrated that only very few flow paths are continuing below
(Lipiec et al., 2009). This increase was ascribed to increased the topsoil directly underneath the area of the passage of the
connectivity between smaller pores filled with water in a compacted wheel. Mosaddeghi et al. (2007) reported that air permeability is a
soil than in a loose one (De Cockborne et al., 1988; Guérif et al., 2001; useful index of soil physical quality, especially at low matric
Lipiec and Hatano, 2003; Lipiec et al., 2009; Richard et al., 2001). suctions when largely dependent on connectivity of air-filled
Using microtensiometers, Türk et al. (1991) found that greater water pores. The above results show the usefulness of investigating
uptake rates in the denser aggregates can also be caused by larger infiltration capacity over a vertical soil profile to evaluate the
differences in matric potential between inner and outer parts (i.e., connectivity and tortuosity of the pore system with respect to
increased hydraulic gradient). As shown by Richard et al. (2001), for compaction.
water potentials less than 15 kPa, K in the compacted layer was The infiltration process can be investigated by simulating soil
higher than that in an uncompacted layer. The ratio between K in the moisture variation in response to a brief irrigation event using the
two layers was 2.1 at 80 kPa. This observation can be explained by kinematic wave approach (e.g., Germann and DiPietro, 1996;
the fact that the reduction in the pore space between aggregates and Alaoui et al., 2003). Semi-quantitative analysis of the infiltration
the deformation of the aggregated soil increases the contact surface and aeration capacities (Fig. 1) may be carried out from the
area between the aggregates (Gupta et al., 1989). Thus, K would be evaluation of both Dui (=umax  uinit), which shows the magnitude
increased by compaction when water is mainly within the of the increase of mobile soil moisture during infiltration, and Dud
aggregates. On the contrary, Zhang et al. (2006) reported that K (=umax  uend), which shows the magnitude of the decrease of
was not affected because there were no significant differences mobile soil moisture during drainage. The values of Dui and Dud
among treatments at pore sizes <60 mm for one site (Heyang) and at provide information on rapid increase and decrease in water
pore sizes <15 mm for a second site (Mizhi). They explained that the content, respectively.
water volume ratio corresponding to their K measurements was Preferential flow may occur for a short time period, varying
beyond the range where compaction had significant effects on pore from about 10 min to about 20 h, depending on soil structure and
sizes and spaces. soil texture (e.g., Alaoui et al., 2003; Germann and DiPietro, 1996).
The delimitation between the micropore and the macropore
3.6. Infiltration capacity domain can be determined by dual-porosity modelling. Resulting
WRC and the partitioning between soil moisture contributing to
Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which water soaks rapid flow (and preferential flow if it bypasses volume fractions of
into or is absorbed by the soil through the soil surface (Ward and the porous matrix) and the soil moisture contributing to matrix
Robinson, 1990). In a hydrological context, many studies have flow are schematically presented in Fig. 1. Here, the water content
dealt with the effect of soil compaction on soil hydrologic serving as a reference can be obtained by a compression test using
properties (e.g. Alakukku, 1996; Assouline et al., 1997; Betz a standard oedometer and is a minimum value corresponding to
et al., 1998); however, few investigations have been concerned the critical void ratio (Alaoui and Helbling, 2006). These authors
with the effect of soil compaction on infiltration (van Dijck and van found a reference value of 20% for a loamy soil.
Asch, 2002; Håkansson, 2005; Kim et al., 2010). van Dijck and van
Asch (2002) demonstrated that compacted subsoil under vine- 4. Modelling water retention and water dynamic in compacted
yards and orchards reduces neither steady-state infiltration rates soil
nor total infiltration, despite the high infiltration rate of 85 and
105 mm h1 for a maximum ground contact pressure by tractors of 4.1. Hydromechanical models
around 70 kPa. This fact was confirmed by measurements of Ksat
that were only 13 times lower in subsoil than in topsoil. Possibly, Hydromechanical models are models that link pore space
larger ratios between the Ksat of top- and subsoil than those geometry in a deformable porous media to its hydraulic properties
 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15 7

Fig. 1. (A) Water retention curve in structured soil; ub is the boundary water content between micropores and macropores; Cb is the boundary water potential between
micropores and macropores; us is saturated water content. (B) Evolution of total soil water content u(z,t) measured at depth z and time t during infiltration and drainage; to is
the beginning of infiltration; tend is the cessation of drainage; tW is the arrival of the wetting front; ts is the duration of infiltration; tD is the arrival of drainage front; uinit is the
initial soil water content prior to infiltration; umax is the maximal soil water content measured during infiltration; uend is the final soil water content ending rapid flow
corresponding to tend. The reference is defined by the oedometer compression test (see text for explanation).

(i.e. water retention and hydraulic conductivity) and fluid (i.e. water) using the viscosity of soil as a fitting parameter. It overcomes many
flow over various space and time scales. The pore space geometry of the drawbacks related to other established geotechnical
depends on the arrangement of soil particles and aggregates. Thus, approaches (Sigala, 1968; Keller, 1970; Ghavami et al., 1974)
organisation of soil particles is a dominant influence on the hydraulic which do not address either the question of how to adjust
properties of unsaturated soils (Nimmo, 1997). Eggers et al. (2007) empirically for contact area between aggregates or the changes in
showed that pores within a cubic pack of aggregates deform pore size distribution which greatly affect soil hydraulic proper-
isotropically even under anisotropic stress conditions. ties. Ghezzehei and Or (2000) extended Or’s aggregate coalescence
Or (1996) proposed a model of liquid phase sintering of glass model (Or, 1996) by accommodating arbitrary wetting-drying
compacts to describe rapid wetting-induced densification of conditions and by deriving constitutive viscous flow relationships
aggregates, assuming that (i) reduction in soil strength upon from first principle. This was achieved by integrating energy source
wetting is similar to the effect of high temperature on glass considerations as well as geometrical configurations. The non-
powders (Scherer, 1977, 1984), and (ii) capillary forces induce linearity of wet soil viscous flow behaviour was also accounted for
viscous flow. This model reproduced the soil structural changes of by introducing a Bingham rheological model. Similarly, Sisavath
aggregated silt loam during wetting-drying cycles quite well by et al. (2000) presented analytical approximations based on the
8 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

hydraulic radius concept (Dullien, 1979) and other approximations capillary head (c), and the water content (u). This relationship
attributed to de Saint-Venant (1879) and Aissen (1951) to estimate describes flow processes over a large range of capillary potential.
pore hydraulic conductance from pore geometrical properties. Approaches to model the effect of the increase in the soil bulk
Starting from the idea that the contacts between aggregates are density on the WRC are very limited (Assouline, 2006a). Rajkai
highly conductive close to saturation and become bottle-necks as et al. (1996) used a pedotransfer function to predict the WRC. They
water potential decreases, Carminati et al. (2008) showed that the obtained improved results by incorporating fitted cumulative
hydraulic conductivity of a pair of aggregates, Kpair(h), with matric particle-size data and bulk density. Inserting a penetration
head h of the aggregate soil matrix, depends greatly on the resistance into the pedotransfer functions improved the estimates
contacts between the aggregates. Combining this concept with an of the WRC, based on soil texture and bulk density. Additional more
analytical model of contact mechanics, Berli et al. (2008) conceptual approaches for estimating the effects of the changes in
predicted the hydraulic conductivity of a deforming pack of bulk density on the WRC involve the formation of dense seal layers
aggregates. at the surface of a bare soil exposed to high-energy rainfall
In order to extend the above analyses to more complex pore (Baumhardt et al., 1990; Mualem and Assouline, 1989). The
systems, there is a need to link these processes with easily approach of Baumhardt et al. (1990) is based on three main steps:
observable and well-established sample scale deformations and (i) experimentally estimate the Ksat of the seal layer; (ii) compute
flow behaviours. Eggers et al. (2007) proposed an analytical and the seal saturated water content on the basis of the Ksat estimate
finite element model to describe fluid permeability through a stack using the Kozeny–Carman relationship, and the water entry value
of deforming spherical aggregates. Tuller and Or (2001) deter- using the Poiseuille equation, and iii) determine the Brooks and
mined the cross-sectional conductivity of liquid films by solving Corey (1964) exponent l for the seal layer, assuming a
the Navier–Stokes equation in the two-dimensional cross-section proportional increase in the initial water content of the seal with
of different liquid configurations, assuming a linear relationship bulk density. Although these approaches capture the changes in
between flux density and hydraulic gradient. Carminati et al. the WRC caused by compaction, they do neither account for the
(2008) introduced the roughness of the contact aggregates in the effects of soil structure on the pedotransfer function estimates, nor
calculation of hydraulic conductivity assuming a mean feature of for changes in soil pore distribution caused by compaction
aggregate and contact cross-sections. It was shown that the (Assouline, 2006a). The last author used two expressions of the
roughness of the contact aggregates is not only crucial for the WRC, relating their parameters to the bulk density of a compacted
stability of unsaturated granular media (Hasley and Levine, 1998) soil. Data were calibrated and validated against experimental WRC
but also for hydraulic behaviour of soil resulting in rapid drainage data of soils at various levels of compaction. These relationships
of the contact region (Carminati et al., 2008). The model proposed gave a relatively good prediction of the effect of bulk density on the
by Carminati et al. (2008) is limited to unconsolidated aggregated WRC.
media such as freshly tilled soils. Cornelis et al. (2001) reported that the pedotransfer functions
Or et al. (2006) developed a simple analytical model for a soil predict moisture content well near saturation and permanent
unit cell that links deformation with hydraulic conductivity of wilting point. The former is mainly dependent on total porosity
unsaturated soil on the basis of the findings by Eggers et al. (2006, and the latter on bulk density and clay content. The highest
2007). Berli et al. (2008) proposed a hydromechanical model for prediction errors were at moisture conditions close to field
change in aggregate contacts and their impact on inter-aggregate capacity, due to the mostly different morphology of pore volume.
and intra-aggregate fluid flow on the basis of the investigations by It was shown that use of neutral networks (NNs) to estimate soil
Carminati (2007). Results showed good agreement between water retention performed slightly better than the regression-
measured and calculated K for hydraulic head h <1 m, whereas based PTFs (Pachepsky et al., 1996; Koekkoec and Booltink, 1999).
this model fails in describing K close to saturation (>1 m). This The performance of both NNs and regressions was comparable
discrepancy can be attributed to the simplification of assumptions when van Genuchten’s (van Genuchten, 1980) equation was fitted
about the macropore necks that are reduced to a single diameter to data for each sample, and the parameters of this equation were
and the neglected impact of the capillary bridges which greatly obtained from texture and bulk density. Results showed that the
contribute to the flow across the inter-aggregate contact near changes in volumetric water contents at given potentials affect the
saturation (e.g., Carminati et al., 2008). hydraulic conductivity.
Despite the noticeable progress of these models in depicting
hydraulic conductivity measurements relatively well, some ques- 4.3. Hydraulic conductivity function
tions are still open; for example, how to conceptualize (i) the
transition from the scale of individual aggregates to up-scaled pore The experimental evidence suggests that Ksat is mostly
continuum of dual-porosity models, and (ii) the changes in the flux determined by large pores, which are greatly reduced when the
between the domains (in both directions), depending on soil soil bulk density increases (Carter, 1990; Lipiec et al., 1998;
texture and loading. Håkansson and Lipiec, 2000; Assouline, 2006b). Consequently,
There is now scope to account for both hydromechanical and drastic reductions in Ksat with increasing bulk density have been
thermal conditions in deformable soils. Recently, Salager et al. reported (e.g., Håkansson and Medvedev, 1995). Therefore, soil
(2010) proposed a predictive relation expressing the change in soil compaction effects can also be simulated directly by considering
suction with water content, temperature and density as described bulk density or porosity (Walczak et al., 1997), or indirectly by
by void ratio. This relationship predicts the water retention curve changing inputs for Ksat, K, soil water retention, penetrometer
at a specific temperature from the knowledge of the water resistance, root depth and root distribution (Rajkai et al., 1997;
retention curve at reference temperature. Hence, the number of Warner et al., 1997; Eckersten et al., 1998). When based on the bulk
experimental tests required to characterize the thermo-hydraulic density or porosity, the methods above provide useful information
behaviour of a given soil is greatly reduced. on the state of compactness and do not relate soil structure to
water movement. Lipiec et al. (2003) reported that bulk density
4.2. Water retention curve was not a sensitive indicator for the estimation of Ksat as it contains
no information regarding pore geometry and continuity.
The WRC describes the relationship between two fundamental Compaction has a great influence on macropore flow, but there
state variables of soil water: the matrix pressure head, including have been few attempts to model these effects. In this respect,
 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15 9

Dexter and Richard (2009) developed a model for water retention in at low infiltration rates. Therefore, approaches to flow in
bi-modal soils (soils having structural and matrix porosity only) into structured soils can be divided in two major groups:
a model for tri-modal soils, including the effect of the macropores.
This model is based on the exponential (Bolzmann) water retention i) Approaches based on Richards’ (Richards, 1931) equation for
function. When combined with Marshall’s pore model for hydraulic water flow in the matrix domain (i.e., diffusion of potential
conductivity, it can predict the Ksat on n-modal soils. They reported energy) in combination with other approximations for macro-
that the number of structural pores – and not their size – decreases pore flow. The two domains are considered independently of
as soil becomes denser. This shows that the multi-modal nature of one another with some account for interactions, and dual-
soil pore size distributions has a big influence on water retention and permeability models assume flow in both pore domains (e.g.,
on Ksat. The correlation between coarse pores (>10 mm) and Ksat Gerke and van Genuchten, 1993). In this regard, Jarvis (Larsbo
reported by Gebhardt et al. (2009) illustrated their crucial and Jarvis, 2005) developed a physically based model, MACRO
importance for water movement under saturated conditions. In that simulates water and solute transport in macroporous soil.
fact, the Hagen–Poiseuille law expresses the dependence of water Water flow in micropores is calculated with Richards’ (Richards,
flux through a simple pore in terms of the fourth power of the pore 1931) equation, while macropore flow is simulated using the
radius. Using the dual-porosity MACRO model (Jarvis, 1994), Alaoui kinematic wave theory (Beven and Germann, 1982; Alaoui et al.,
and Helbling (2006) showed the dominance of macropore flow for 2003).
their compacted loamy soil, especially in the topsoil. The volume of ii) Approaches using the kinematic wave theory (Lighthill and
macropores, representing only 0.23–2.00% of the total soil volume, Whitham, 1955) based on the dissipation of momentum
transported approximately 74–100% of total water flow. The results (Germann and DiPietro, 1996). A power function relates the
show the very weak lateral exchange between macropores and water flux to the mobile volumetric water content.
micropores in the topsoil due to the compacted soil matrix, as shown Matthews et al. (2010) using the Pore-Cor void network model
by the dye tracer images. including Euler beta distribution to describe the sizes of the narrow
Dexter (2004b) used S (slope of the soil water retention curve at interconnections, known as throats, revealed a change from
its inflection point) as a measure of the micro-structural porosity of bimodal to unimodal throat size distributions on compaction, as
the soil, which can be also used as a ‘‘matching point’’ in the studies well as a reduction in sizes overall.
of K (Eq. (1)). Their results are promising because at the inflection
point, the largest water-filled pores are also at the peak of pore size 4.5. Shrinkage characteristic curve
distribution and therefore dominate hydraulic conductivity. Their
approach also introduces the possibility of examining the likely Swelling and shrinking clay soils change in volume with soil-
trends of K(i) (K of soil at the inflection point) in terms of soil water content changes. The macroporosity, and to a lesser extent
composition and bulk density using pedo-transfer functions. They the microporosity, of swelling and shrinking soils is affected by
combined Eq. (1) with the pedo-transfer functions for the their shrinkage behaviour. The magnitude of the change in bulk
parameters of van Genuchten (1980) and the water retention volume is usually described by the soil shrinkage characteristic
equation of Wösten et al. (1999). It was shown that increases in K(i) curve, which represents the specific volume change of soil relative
with increasing bulk density were predicted for different soil to its water content (Haines, 1923; Stirk, 1954; Braudeau, 1988).
textures (sand, loamy sand and sandy loam) at low values of bulk The methods of shrinkage measurements helped to develop
density. This is to be expected because compaction (i.e. increasing shrinkage curve models with different parameter sets (Braudeau
bulk density) reduces the number of conducting pores. Dexter et al., 1999). Braudeau (1988) proposed a conceptual model of soil
(2004b) suggested the relationship: shrinkage on the basis of the model of Sposito and Giráldez (1976),
where clay aggregates in the soil are assumed to shrink as clay
 2 paste, and where the slope of the normal shrinkage is related to
S
log KðiÞ ¼ A þ B log ; (1) aggregate fabric and aggregate stability. The model proposed by
hi
Braudeau (1987) contains five main zones: linear and curvilinear
residual shrinkage, basic shrinkage, and linear and curvilinear
Where hi is the suction at the inflection point and A and B are
structural shrinkage. The endpoints of these zones representing
coefficients, depending on soil type. The author showed that to
the points of transition are considered as characteristics of the
improve the precision of the estimation of K(i), the suction values
shrinkage process. The linear zones are modelled by straight line
allowing its calculation must be in the range of 0–5 hPa, since
equations, and the curvilinear zones by exponential (XP) (Brau-
macro-structural features empty in this range, and that predictions
deau, 1988) or polynomial (PL) (Giráldez et al., 1983; Tariq and
of K using saturation as a matching point can be highly inaccurate
Durnford, 1993) parametric equations. The parameters represent
(see for instance Jarvis, 2008). Consequently, bulk density is not a
the coordinates of the endpoints of the zones.
good indicator of soil structure because it is not directly correlated
Recently, Cornelis et al. (2006) proposed to test the perfor-
with Ksat, which depends greatly on soil macro-structural features
mance of different models frequently used to assess the shrinkage
such as cracks and biopores and especially on their connectivity
characteristic curve. For describing the shrinkage characteristic
(Dexter, 2004b).
curve, it was shown that the multi-equation models proposed by
McGarry and Malafant (1987) and Braudeau et al. (1999) and the
4.4. Dual-porosity models modified model of Chertkov (2000, 2003), as well as the Groenevelt
and Grant (2001, 2002) simple equation, fit the measurements well
Flow and transport in structured porous media are frequently but differed in complexity and the number of parameters.
described using double- (or dual) porosity models that take into In addition to describing the shrinkage processes, the
account two flow domains; the basic model concepts are reviewed shrinkage characteristic curve may describe the state of
elsewhere (Gerke, 2006). compaction. A slope of 0–0.2 cm3 g1 means that soil has a
Typically, dissipation of momentum dominates flow in well- nearly constant volume when it dries and is therefore rigid or
structured soils at high moisture contents and at high infiltration compacted (Braudeau and Bruand, 1993; Boivin et al., 2006).
rates, whereas diffusion of capillary potential dominates flow in When the slope is greater than 1 cm3 g1, soil is very unstable
homogeneous soils over a broader range of moisture contents and (Boivin, 1990). A more recent study by Schäffer et al. (2008)
10 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

showed that trafficking and associated destabilization of soil 2006). Therefore, there is a need for further investigations to assess
structure increased the slopes of the shrinkage curve in the basic soil compaction and its variability in situ.
and structural shrinkage domains by about 30% and more than Several processes, such as wetting/drying, freezing/thawing,
150% after 10 passes, respectively. Gregory et al. (2010), using X- and tillage help to alleviate the effects of soil compaction
ray computed tomography scanning, found that compression (Håkansson, 2005). In fine-textured soils, freezing and drying
from 50 to 200 kPa mainly affected the >30-mm pores, changing cause crack formation and disintegration of large clods into smaller
a dual porous system of inter- and intra-aggregate pores to one aggregates. Roots and microbial exudates help to stabilize crack
mainly dominated by intra-aggregate pores. Shear-deformed and aggregate surfaces. Research showed that the effects of the
soils retained more water than the compressed soil and shrank freeze and thaw and drying and wetting cycles are more frequent
more, so that they remained tension-saturated at low (negative) and intense near the soil surface (e.g. Arvidsson and Håkansson,
matric potentials. The authors developed a function to predict 1994; Halvorson et al., 2003) and therefore the persistence of
the soil saturation state as a function of matric potential and compaction effects increases rapidly with depth and in regions
porosity. without freezing. In a study by Taboada and Lavado (1993), the
It was also demonstrated that combining the shrinkage and damaged soil macropores (mainly >60 mm) regenerated and
desorption experiments to calculate the equivalent pore radii of aggregate stability recovered during the subsequent period of
drainage plasma-macropores provides useful information about surface water ponding, when soil swelling increased macropores in
the changes in pore diameters upon compaction (Boivin et al., the grazed area but not in the ungrazed area.

Fig. 2. Simplified outline of the effect of soil compaction on the soil structure from a hydrodynamic point of view; (A) and (B) water retention curves; (C) and (D)
hydrodynamic variation of soil moisture; (1) reduction of structural porosity, (2) appearance of relict structural porosity, and (3) boundary between matrix and macropores;
MA: macroporosity.
 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15 11

The action of the natural processes is related to tillage practices.

Capowiez et al. (2009) reported that up to 30% of the compacted
zones observed at the scale of soil profiles were colonized under
reduced (RT) and only 10% under conventional tillage. A recent
study by Weisskopf et al. (2010) indicates that omitting soil tillage
after compaction results in the development of a dense, blocky
structure, with the blocks separated by shrinking cracks and
penetrated by earthworm holes. The authors observed that with
the evolution of a network of shrinking cracks, especially
stimulated under ley, air permeability values increased consider-
ably, while macropore development still lagged behind, leading to
a totally different ratio macropore volume: air permeability in the
tilled vs. untilled soils. In coarse-textured soils without swelling
and shrinking, processes are generally more persistent than in fine-
textured soils.

5. A conceptual model

Results from the literature allow us to propose a general

conceptual model where the implications of soil deformation on
hydrodynamic behaviour can be synthesized. The basis of this
conceptualization resulted from modelling water or solute
transport in unsaturated soil. This implies at least assessing
WRC measurements and hydraulic and physical parameters.
A heterogeneous structure in undisturbed (structured) soil
generally creates suitable conditions for ecosystem services.
Changes in the WRC and HCF affect the water transport processes.
According to the dual-porosity modelling of flow and on the basis
of WRC and the partitioning between the micropore and
macropore domains, three main hypothetical schematic diagrams
can be distinguished (Figs. 2 and 3):

i) Damage to macropores, illustrated by the decrease in the water

potential >20 kPa and domination of matrix flow as shown in
Fig. 2A and C. This type of behaviour results from dynamic
loading as observed by Pagliai et al. (2003), Servadio et al.
(2001) and Zhang et al. (2006) among others. The matrix
remains active and provides slow water transport. Soil
hydraulic properties, such as saturated hydraulic conductivity
and pore shape by image analysis techniques (e.g., Richard
et al., 2001) and dye tracer and infiltration experiments (Kulli
et al., 2003; Alaoui and Helbling, 2006), may provide a good
illustration of the destruction of structural porosity.
ii) The effect of soil deformation shown in Fig. 2B and D reflects a
more complex process, showing coupled hydraulic and
mechanical aspects. A decrease in structural porosity results
in an increase in relict structural. Such an effect is induced by
dynamic loading of wheeled and tracked heavy machines. The
volume of the relict structural pores is indicative of soil
compaction and its effect on behavioural properties (e.g.,
Richard et al., 2001). From a hydrodynamic point of view, this
effect leads to a change in the WRC and corresponding
hydrodynamic variation in u. Depending on the degree of Fig. 3. Simplified outline of the effect of soil compaction on the soil structure (i.e.,
compaction, a transition from macropore flow to intermedi- soil pasture); reduction in the matrix porosity; (A) water retention curve; (B)
ate or matrix flow occurs. Backscattered electron scanning hydrodynamic variation of soil moisture.

images and mercury porosimetry highlighted this change,

whereas bulk density and total porosity did not (Richard et al., (Zhang et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2010), pore volume distribution
2001). analyses (Alaoui and Goetz, 2008), dye tracer experiments
iii) The destruction of the matrix in the form of dense soil layer in (Kulli et al., 2003) and water flow dynamics during irrigation
the topsoil caused by trampling in the pastures (Fig. 3) (Alaoui experiments describe such effects of pore structure deteriora-
and Helbling, 2006). In this case, vertically oriented macropores tion (Alaoui and Helbling, 2006).
are resistant to vertical compression (e.g., Kirby and Blackwell, The concept outlined above may be verified by the following
1989; Langmaack et al., 1999; Lee and Foster, 1991) and measurements:
transport all water downwards, providing rapid flow charac- (i) Direct measurements of water flow or (ii) modelling it on the
terized by a drastic draining of macropores during drainage. basis of the key hydraulic and physical soil parameters (i.e., C,
Hydraulic properties such as saturated water conductivity Kunsat and u(t)). Fitting these variables with a dual-porosity model
12 A. Alaoui et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 115–116 (2011) 1–15

will help to divide total water content into two categories, mobile Arocena, J.M., 2000. Cations in solution from forest soils subjected to forest floor
removal and compaction treatments. For. Ecol. Manage. 133, 71–80.
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