Chapter BUCKLING OF COLUMNS:

11.1 Introduction
11 11.2 Stability of Structures
11.3 Buckling of Pin-Ended Columns
11.4 Columns with Other End Conditions
11.5 Critical Stress: Classification of Columns
11.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns and the Secant Formula

11.1 Introduction:
 In discussing the analysis and design of various structures in the previous chapters, we
had two primary concerns:
(1) The strength of the structure, i.e. its ability to support a specified load without
experiencing excessive stresses.
(2) The stability of the structure, i.e. its ability to support a specified load without
undergoing unacceptable deformations.
 In this chapter, another type of failure mode called buckilng of columns is discussed.
 Columns are long, straight, prismatic bars subjected to compressive, axial loads. As
long as a column remains straight, it can be analyzed by the methods of Chapter 2;
however, if a column begins to deform laterally, the deflection may become large and
lead to catastrophic failure.
 This situation, called buckling, can be defined as the
sudden large deformation of a structure due to a slight
increase of an existing load under which the structure
had exhibited little, if any, deformation before the
load was increased.
 The buckling failure is not necessarily a failure of the
material. The fact that the column becomes straight again
after the compressive force is removed demonstrates that the
material remains elastic; that is, the stresses in the column
have not exceeded the proportional limit of the material. Rather, the buckling failure is a stability
failure: The column has transitioned from a stable equilibrium to an unstable one.
 Different types of buckling will also be discussed. We shall be concerned with stability
of the structure, i.e. with its ability to support a given load without experiencing a sudden
change in its configuration.
• The buckling of column can lead to sudden and dramatic failure, and as a result, special
attention must be given to design of column so that they can safely support the loads.

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• In looking at columns under this type of loading we are only going to look at four
different types of supports: (a) fixed-free; (b) pinned-pinned; (c) fixed-pinned; and (d)
fixed-fixed.
11.2 Stability of Structures:
Due to imperfections no column is really straight. At some critical compressive load it will
buckle. To determine the maximum compressive load (Buckling Load) we assume that
buckling has occurred as shown in Figure below:

EQUILIBRIUM METHOD:
• The lateral deflection that occurs is called buckling.
• The maximum axial load a column can support when it is on the verge of buckling
is called the critical load, Pcr.
• Spring develops restoring force, F=kδ , while applied load P .
• The border between stability and instability occurs when,
Pδ=kLδ ∨( P−kL ) δ =0 , for any small displacement δ .
• This condition is referred to as neutral equilibrium. From the foregoing
expression, we can define the critical load as,
Pcr =kL (a)
• Physically, Pcr represents the load for which the system is on the limit of buckling.
• For P< Pcr , the system is in stable equilibrium, and if P> Pcr the system is in
unstable equilibrium. When P=P cr the system is neither stable nor unstable, but rather,
is said to be in neutral equilibrium (Bifurcation point0.
• Equation (a) also suggests that the stability of the elementary column-buckling model can
be enhanced by increasing the stiffness K or by decreasing the length L. In the sections that

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 follow, we will observe that these same relationships are applicable to the critical loads of
actual columns.
• The notions of stability and instability can be defined concisely in the following manner:
 Stable: A small action produces a small effect.
 Unstable: A small action produces a large effect.
11.3 Buckling of Pin-Ended Columns:
 Look closely at the FBD of the left hand end of the beam as in next Figure:
 Equating moments at the cut end:
∑ M =0=Pν + M ( x )=0 ∴ M ( x ) =−Pν
 But since the deflection of a beam is related with its bending moment distribution,
then:
2 2
d ν d ν
EI 2
=−Pν ⇒ EI 2 + Pν=0
dx dx
 which simplifies to:

( )
2
d ν P
2
+ ν=0
dx EI
, where P/ EI is a constant. This expression Free-body diagram
is in the form of a second order differential of the buckled
segment
equation.
 Rewrite the second order differential equation in the following type:
2
d ν 2
2
+ p ν=0
dx
2 P
where: k =
EI
 The general solution of the preceding homogeneous equation is:
ν ( x )= A sin k x + B cos k x (a)
 Where A and B are constants, which can be determined using the column’s
kinematic boundary conditions. The constants A and B are evaluated from the end
conditions:
ν ( 0 )=0∧ν ( L )=0
 If B=0 , No bending moment exists, so the only logical solution is for: sin ( p/ L )=0
and the only way that this can happen is if :the first requirement yields B=0 , and
the second leads to:
A sin k L=0 ⇒ k L=nπ
 The foregoing is satisfied if either, A=0 , or sin pL=0 and k =√ P / EI . It is

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 fulfilled if:

k L=
√ P
EI
L=nπ ( n=1 , 2 , … … . )(b)

 Which may be solved for the load P:

2 2
π n EI (
P= 2
n=1, 2 , … .. ) (11.4)
L

ν= Asin ( nπxL ) … … … ..(11.6)

 The values of n define the buckling mode
shapes.
 The deflected shape is called the mode shape, and
the buckled shape corresponding to n = 1 in
Equation (11.6) is called the first buckling mode
The critical load for the second mode is four times
greater than that of the first mode.
Euler Formula:
 The purpose of this analysis is to determine the
minimum load P at which lateral deflections occur in
the column; therefore, the smallest load P that causes
buckling occurs for n = 1 in Equation (e) is called the first buckling mode, since that
value of n gives the minimum value of P for a nontrivial solution. This load is called the
critical buckling load; Pcr ,an ideal column, where:
2
π EI (
Pcr = 2
11.7 )
L
, The critical load for an ideal column is known as the Euler Buckling Load, Pcr , critical or
maximum axial load on the column just before it begins to buckle. Equation (11.5) is also
known as Euler’s formula.
E : is Young’s modulus of elasticity.
I : is the least second moment of area for the column’s cross sectional area
L : unsupported
length of the column,
whose ends are
pinned.
 Note: Since
Pcr is

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 proportional to I, the column will buckle in the direction corresponding to the
minimum value of I, as shown in above figure:
2 2 I
 As defined, I = A r ∧r = , where A is the cross-sectional area and r represents the
A
radius of gyration about the axis of bending. This gives,
2
π EA (
Pcr = 11. 8 )
( L/r )2
Pcr π 2 E ( A r 2 ) π 2 E r 2 π 2 E
σ cr = = 2
= 2
= … … … ..(11.9)
A AL L ( L /r )2

 (L/r) is called the slenderness ratio, and is determined for the axis about which
bending tends to occur and r is the radius of gyration. For Pcr to be minimum, r
should be small.
 For an ideal column with no intermediate bracing to restrain lateral deflection, buckling
occurs about the axis of minimum moment of inertia (which corresponds to the minimum
radius of gyration).
 Note that Euler buckling is an elastic phenomenon. If the axial compressive load is
removed from an ideal column that has buckled as described here, the column will return to
its initial straight configuration. In Euler buckling, the critical stress σcr remains below the
proportional limit for the material.
Implications of Euler Buckling:
An examination of Equations (11.5) and (11.9) reveals several implications for the buckling of an
ideal column:
 The Euler buckling load is inversely related to the square of the column length. Therefore,
the load that causes buckling decreases rapidly as the column length increases.
 The only material property that appears in Equations (11.5) and (11.9) is the elastic
modulus E, which represents the stiffness of the material. One means of increasing the load-
carrying capacity of a given column is to use a material with a higher value of E.
 Buckling occurs about the cross-sectional axis that corresponds to the minimum moment of
inertia (which in turn corresponds to the minimum radius of gyration). Therefore, it is
generally inefficient to select a member that has great disparity between the maximum and
minimum moments of inertia for use as a column. This inefficiency can be mitigated if
additional lateral bracing is provided to restrain lateral deflection about the weaker axis.
 Since the Euler buckling load is directly related to the moment of inertia I of the cross
section, a column’s load-carrying capacity can often be improved, without increasing its
cross-sectional area, by employing thin-walled tubular shapes. Circular pipes and square

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 hollow structural sections are particularly efficient in this regard. The radius of gyration r
defined above provides a good measure of the relationship between moment of inertia and
cross-sectional area. In choosing between two shapes of equal area for use as a column, it is
helpful to keep in mind that the shape with the larger radius of gyration will be able to
withstand more load before buckling.
 The Euler buckling load equation [Equation (11.5)] and the Euler buckling stress equation
[Equation (11.9)] depend only on the column length L, the stiffness of the material (E), and
the cross-sectional properties (I). The critical buckling load is independent of the strength of
the material.

Example 11.1

Given: A 2m long pin ended column of square cross section. Assuming E=12.5GPa,
σ all=12 MPa for compression parallel to the grain, and using a factor of safety of 2.5 in
computing Euler’s critical load for buckling.
Determine: the size of the cross section if the column is to safely support (a) a P=100 k N
load and (b) a P=200 k N load.
Solution:

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Example 11.2 A 15 mm by 25 mm rectangular
aluminum bar is used as a 650 mm long compression
member. The ends of the compression member are
pinned. Determine the slenderness ratio and the Euler
buckling load for the compression member. Assume
that E = 70 GPa.
Solution
The cross-sectional area of the compression member
is A = (15 mm)(25 mm) = 375 mm 2, and its moment
of inertia about the y axis is:

11.4 Columns with Other End Conditions:

 The end conditions: (a) fixed-free; (b) pinned-pinned; (c) fixed-pinned; (d) fixed-
fixed as shown in Figure 11.4, affect the Euler’s equation (11.5) as,
2
π EI
Pcr =C 2 (a)
L

, where C is a constant dependent upon the end conditions. The values of C for the common
cases shown in Figure 11.4a, b, c, and are 0.25, 1, 2.04, and 4, respectively.

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  Note that the critical load, Pcr , increases as the degree of constraint increases.

FIGURE 11.4 Effective lengths of columns for various end conditions: (a)
fixed-free; (b) pinned-pinned; (c) fixed-pinned; (d) fixed-fixed.

For a fixed–pinned column:

2 2
2.0457 π EI π EI
The critical load eq. is given by: Pcr = 2
= 2 ⇒ Le =0.7 L
L Le
Effective-Length concept:
 The effective length Le for any column is defined as the length of the equivalent pin-ended
column. But what is meant by “equivalent” in this context? An equivalent pin-ended
column has the same critical buckling load and the same deflected shape as all or part of the
actual column.
 The effective length, Le, of the column—that is, the distance between two successive points
of zero internal bending moment. A point of zero internal bending moment is termed an
inflection point.
 Equation (a) can be made to resemble the fundamental case if L2 /C , or Le =KLis
replaced by L2e , in which Le , is called the effective length. Thus the Euler’s formula
can be written in the form:
2
π EI '
Pcr = 2
(11.5 )
Le
 As shown in the Figure 11.4, the effective length is the distance between the
inflection points on the elastic curves, or points of zero moment.
 This length is often expressed in terms of an effective length factor K: Le =KL.
 If we set I = A r 2 , the foregoing equation becomes:

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 π 2 EA
Pcr = 2
(11. 6 ' )
( Le /r )
 Le /r is called the effective slenderness ratio of the column.
End Conditions Pinned–pinned Fixed–pinned Fixed–fixed Fixed–free
Factors, K 1 0.7 0.5 2

2 2 2
π EI π EI π E
Pcr = 2
= 2
∧σ cr=
Le ( KL ) ( KL/r )2
In this equation, KL/r is the effective-slenderness ratio.

Example 11.2:
A W310 × 60 structural steel shape (from the Appendix for cross-sectional properties;
6 4 6 4
I z =128× 10 mm r z=130 mm I y =1 8 .4 ×10 mm r y =49.3 mm) is used as a column with an
actual length L = 9 m. The column
is fixed at base A. Lateral support is
provided to the column, so
deflection in the x–z plane is
restrained at the upper end;
however, the column is free to
deflect in the x–y plane at B.
Determine the critical buckling load
Pcr of the column. Assume that E =
200 GPa and σ Y = 250 MPa.

Solution:

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Example 11.3:

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11.5 Critical Stress: Classification of Columns:

 CRITICAL STRESS: LONG COLUMNS:

Pcr π2E
σ cr = = ( 11.9)
A ( Le /r ) 2

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  The corresponding portion CD of the curve shown in Figure 11.8 is labeled
as Euler’s Curve.
 The critical value of the slenderness ratio that fixes the lower limit of this
curve is found by equating σ cr to the proportional limit σ pof the specific material:

( Lr ) =π √ σE (11.10)
e

c p

 For example, in the case of structural steel with, ¿ 210 GPa∧σ p =250 MPa ,
the foregoing results in (( Le /r )=90).

 SHORT COLUMNS OR STRUTS (Steel: L/r <30 ): for this case, failure occurs
by yielding or by crushing, without buckling, at stresses exceeding the proportional
limit of the material. So the maximum stress:
P
σ max= (11.11)
A
 The horizontal line AB in Figure 11.8, is represent the strength limit of short
column. It is equal to the yield stress or ultimate stress in compression.
 INTERMEDIATE COLUMNS:
 Most structural columns lie in a region between short and long columns,
represented by part BC in Fig. 11.8.
 Such intermediate – length columns do not fail by direct compression or by

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 elastic instability.
 Hence, the critical stress may be expressed by Engesser’s tangent modulus
formula:
Pt π 2 Et
σ cr = = (11.12)
A ( Le /r )2

 Johnson’s formula: has the form:

( )
2
1 σ y Le
σ cr =σ y − (11.13 a)
E 2π r
Alternatively, in terms of the critical load :

[ ]
2
σ y ( Le /r )
Pcr =σ cr A=σ y A 1− 2
(11.13b)
4π E

Example 11.4:

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11.6 Eccentrically Loaded Columns ( Secant Formula):

2
d ν
EI 2
+ P ( ν +e )=0
dx
2
d ν 2 2
2
+ p ν=− p e
dx

 , where, k =P/ EI , as before. The general

solution of the foregoing is:
 ν= A sin k x+ B cos k x −e
 Here the first two terms represent the
homogeneous solution and −e the particular
solution.
 To obtain constants A and B, the boundary
condition:
 ν ( L/2 )=ν (−L/2 )=0 , are applied, with the following results:
e
A=0 B=
cos [ √ P/ EI ( L/2 ) ]
 The equation of the deflection curve is therefore:

ν=e
[ cos √ P / ( EI ) x
cos √ P L2 / ( 4 EI ) ]
−1 (11.17)

 Expressed in the term of the critical load Pcr =π 2 EI / L2, the midspan ( x=0 )
deflection is:

ν max=e sec
[ (√ ) ]π
2
P
Pcr
−1 (11.18)

 As P approaches Pcr, the maximum deflection, vmax increases without bound.

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Maximum stress
P Mc P M max c
σ max= + = + 2
(11.19)
A I A Ar
∵ M max=−P ( ν mzx−e ) , together with equation (11.18) into equation (11.19), we obtain:

σ max=
P
A [ ec
1+ 2 sec
r
π
2 ( √ )]P
P cr
(11.20a)

Alternatively,

σ max=
P
A [ ec
1+ 2 sec
r 2
L
r ( √ AEP )](11.20b)
, which is known as the secant formula, applies only when the maximum stress remains
within the elastic limit of the material.
Allowable stress
The buckling load determined from equation (11.20) is converted to limit or yield load P y
by P=P y & σ max=σ y . By so doing, the secant formula becomes:

σ y=
Py
A [
ec
1+ 2 sec
r
L
2r ( √ )] Py
AE
( 11.21)

After finding the limiting load, we can determine the allowable axial load Pall from :
Py
Pall = (11.22)
n s
SHORT COLUMNS OR STRUTS

σ max=
P
A ( )
ec
1+ 2 (11.23)
r

Example 11.5:

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