UNIT 1 Fundamentals of Database Management
UNIT 1 Fundamentals of Database Management
I. Identification. Write the correct answer on the space provided. You can refer to the
words in the box for some clues.
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Importance of Database and Information Management
Nowadays, managers and administrators are looking for ways to manage database
content to gain knowledge and competitive advantage effectively. For example, in a
university set-up, enrollment databases may be analyzed to determine the courses
that have a bigger and smaller number of enrollees. School administrators to create
sound decisions on course offerings or design advertising and marketing campaigns
of the university may use the result (knowledge derived from it) as a basis. In
general, proper management of data and information may lead to greater efficiency
in most organizations.
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Information
Once data that have been processed so as the meaning would be consistent
and be vividly understood by those who use them, they are turned into information
(Hoffer, Ramesh, & Topi, 2019). It can be done by organizing them, presenting them
in a given context, summarizing them, or presenting them for human interpretation in
the form of a graph.
As shown in figure 1.2, the list of information provides labels that ensure a
clear understanding of what the values are all about. In this regard, we are sure that
the values presented are information of faculty members at Bulacan State University.
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Figure 1.3 shows the number of faculty in each department or college. This
information provides aggregated number of faculty and tells something about each
college workforce.
Database
Metadata
Table 1.1. shows an example of metadata. For each data item that appears in
the Employee Rosters, the metadata shows the data item name, the data type, the
size or length (if appropriate, the minimum and maximum allowable values), a brief
description of each data item, and other constraints.
In the employee table, six fields or data items are shown. The first five data
items will accept text values with a pre-defined maximum size. On the other hand,
the birthdate data item will accept only date values while the salary field will accept
number values. All are considered mandatory columns except the birthdate and
salary, where the users may optionally provide values.
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cabinet (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011). Thus, using DBMS, data management is
performed with greater ease (Ayyavaraiah & Gopi, 2017). Examples of such are
Microsoft Access, as shown in figure 1.4, Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, and the like.
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Figure 1.6 shows how every field or column properties in the table COURSE
is defined. In the example, CourseCode is set to be the primary key of the table. On
the other hand, the definition of CollegeCode should be similar to the definition of the
CollegeCode in table COLLEGE because it is considered a foreign key column.
Foreign keys and primary keys will be discussed later in this module. Sample
records are provided in tables 1.2- 1.6.
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Tables 1.2 – 1.5 shows five tables defined in database 1, with sample records
stored in every table. Every record is equivalent to a row in a table.
Database Operations
A database application is an application program (or set of related programs)
used to perform a series of activities on behalf of database users.
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Examples of Updates are as follows:
Hierarchy of Data
The data hierarchy shows how data is organized in layers where the higher
level of data consists of one or more items from the lower layer (Mendiola, 2015).
Record: A record is equivalent to one row of a file/table or only a related field group.
The primary key (which may be atomic or composite) of the table uniquely identifies
each record in a file or table.
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Figure 1.7 shows an example of a character (T) of the CICT field value of
ColCode. A combination of related values about employee E-110 is a record in the
data file FACULTY. It is equivalent to one instance of FACULTY, which presents the
information to us in the form of a table. The diagram's database consists of five
related files COLLEGE, COURSE, EXAM, EXAMINEE, and FACULTY.
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
Rubrics:
Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The distinction of data from information is properly
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illustrated.
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Manual File Management and File System
The earliest form of organizing files is with a filing cabinet where vital records
were usually kept and secured with a lock. This approach works well and efficiently
as long as the essential information stored is small, and if most of the time, the
operations required are simple storage and retrieval of files. However, a manual filing
system is not sufficient if the information stored needs to be processed and have to
cross-reference. To address the need for more efficient data or information access,
the file system was developed. This was the earliest attempt to data processing
using a computer system. In a file system, files were created to hold the
organization's information. Data are stored in a set of computer files, which do not
have a relationship to other files, defined and managed by different application
programs. Flat files are accessed, and file handling is performed through the
application programs, usually written using C/C++ programming languages (Thakur,
nd). Figure 1.8 shows how the file-based system is organized.
The file system, as depicted in the figure, stored data in the form of files.
Several application programs are written to add, delete, update, and retrieve data to
and from appropriate files. Each of the application programs developed addresses
the data management requirements of a particular department. In effect, every
department in an organization maintains its "own" private files.
Consider a university that uses a file system to manage its files. Different
departments of the university maintain, control, and manipulate different and
separate data files. An MIS department may use an application program that will
manage students' grades and other enrolment concerns. On the other hand, the
Accounting department maintains files related to student fees. Notice that in the file
system, both departments keep the student master files, which are files about
students enrolled in the university. Since, in this approach, two files that provide the
same information may be maintained in several distinct departments, several issues
may arise, such as limited data sharing, data redundancy, data inconsistency,
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metadata inconsistency, and data integrity issue. File systems do not also allow
concurrent access to data and back up and data recovery problems (Desai, 2019)
DBMS Approach
As organization data processing requirements become more complex, it
becomes evident that traditional file systems had several shortcomings and
limitations. As a result, file systems have been replaced by the DBMS system. Figure
1.9 shows how the DBMS approach works.
The DBMS approach emphasizes integrating and sharing data throughout the
organization or at least across major segments of the organization.
To understand in the most general way the organization data needs, we can
develop an initial list of the high-level entities that support the business activities of
the organization. An entity is an object or concept that is important to the
organization. We also define entity types to establish a better understanding of what
each is all about. Then we define the high-level relationships among the entity types.
For example, in an information system used in a university, we may consider some
critical entities such as faculty, college, and course. The entity types are defined as:
After the high-level entities were identified and defined, the next step is to
determine the associations, called relationships, in database technology. These can
be established by defining business rules such as:
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A COLLEGE offers one or more COURSEs. Conversely, each COURSE is
offered by only one COLLEGE.
Note: The business rules will be discussed further in the succeeding chapters.
The next step is to create the data model that shows the organization's
high-level entities and associations among those entities. This model emphasizes
integrating data and processes by concentrating on entities, relationships, and
business rules. A segment of the data model containing three entities and two
relevant associations is shown in Figure 1.9.
Major DBMS in the market are relational database management systems that
store and present data in tables. The data model we created is then mapped to a
relational model that focuses on tables, called relations in the database term.
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The example provided is intended to benefit the university admission office
staff and be installed on a stand-alone computer. However, to facilitate sharing data
and information, the university may use a local area network (LAN) - that links the
various information systems in the university admission to a database server. The
workstation may be used as a personal computer and connected to the database
server as needed through - the local area. On the other hand, an Intranet that uses
Web-based Internet technology and is only accessible within the university may also
be installed if improved intra-communication and decision-making are required.
Each workstation may be used as a web browser in the given scenario, gaining
faster access to university information, including college information, faculty
qualifications, etc.
The university may also anticipate adding a Web interface to its business
applications to conduct more internal business activities through its Intranet. They
may also plan to become more accessible to their client through the Internet.
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Advantages of DBMS Approach over File System
As organization requirements become more complex, it becomes evident that
traditional file systems are no longer sufficient. The following are the advantages of
DBMS over file systems (Shukla, 2020).
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
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3. List the potential benefits of the DBMS approach over conventional file
systems.
Rubrics:
Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The description of the data organization in the file
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system is detailed and correct.
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4. The potential benefits of the DBMS approach over the
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conventional file system are sufficiently illustrated.
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Database Application
Database applications are software programs developed to collect, manage,
and provide information efficiently to end-users. These programs allow searching,
sorting, manipulating, and sharing of information. They can also provide security to
database contents by restricting access to data by validating usernames and
passwords whenever necessary. Most of these applications are tailor-fit to the
organization's need with a database programming language (Wall, nd).
Personal Databases
Personal databases support only one user at a time. It usually holds several
megabytes of data and is often stored on laptops, palmtop, desktop, or personal
digital assistants (PDAs) computers. The primary goal of developing personal
databases is to improve personal productivity. Its limitation, however, maybe the
sharing of data. For this reason, personal databases will be ideal only for a very
small organization where the need to share the data among users of the personal
database is unlikely to arise.
In figure 1.12, the database users interact in the system through the client tier.
The application tier manages the presentation or business logic needed to handle
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users' requests while the enterprise tier maintains it. The separation of the
application layer or web server tier and the enterprise tier results to better
performance and maintainability of the database application and the database.
Enterprise Database
Internet Databases
Types of Databases
A DBMS can support many different types of databases, classified according
to the number of users, the database locations, and the expected extent of use
(Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).
Single-user Database
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A Single-user database supports only one user at a time. It is also called
personal database since the primary goal is to improve personal productivity. The
previous section already provides good discussion about personal databases.
Multiuser Database
Centralized databases
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Advantages of using centralized databases (Onsman, 2018):
Since data are stored and retrieved in a single location, the following are
some of the advantages of centralized databases.
Distributed databases
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Figure 1.14 shows that the distributed database components are in a different
location; however, it appears as a single entity to users.
Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS) can be homogeneous
where the DBMS and data models used across all locations are uniform or
heterogeneous, where different data models, such as hierarchical, relational, and
other, are used.
Advantages (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).
● Availability of data: Needed data are located near the greatest demand
site
● Faster data access: Users work with only a locally stored subset of the
company's data
● Faster data processing: Data processing is spread at several sites;
system workload is lighter.
● More room for growth: New nodes can be added without affecting the
operations of the others
● Improved communication: Local sites are established close to related
stakeholders
● User friendly: Workstations are provided with a simple graphical user
interface
● Less danger for a single point of failure: Other nodes can pick up the
workload during one node's failure
Disadvantages (Coronel, Morris, & Rob, 2011).
● The complexity of management and control: Database activities must
be coordinated to avoid database degradation due to data anomalies.
Technology-related issues such as data integrity, security, back up, etc.
should also be addressed.
● Security: As more sites are added, the probability of security lapses
increases.
● Lack of Standards: No standard communication protocols are
established yet at the database level.
● Increased storage and infrastructure requirements: More storage
space is needed due to multiple copies of data.
● Increased Training Cost: There is more training needed for the smooth
functioning of the system.
● Costs: Additional cost for duplicated infrastructure to operate
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Operational databases are databases that support the day-to-day operations
of the organization. They are also referred to as transactional or production
databases. Operational databases usually support the primary database operations
such as read, update, delete, and insert; therefore, tables are generally in the third
normal form.
Data Warehouse
Data warehouses are databases that usually hold big data and store
information from various data sources, including different operational databases.
They support decision-making by allowing data analysts to extract hidden patterns to
create insights necessary to build the company's tactics and strategies. The design
of the data warehouse is different from the operational databases. Data warehouses
hold historical data, which can be used in creating predictions and forecasts.
Table 1.7 shows the standard database management system available in the
market and the specific database types each supports.
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
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2. Elaborate on the difference between operational databases and data
warehouses. Describe the data used in each type of database.
Rubrics:
Weight Actual
No. Items
% Score
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1. The description of the different types of database
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according to database location is detailed and correct.
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The Database System Environment
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Hardware
Software
The software component refers to the intangible elements that help control
and manage the database and its contents. The software component includes the
DBMS software itself, the Operating System, and the application programs to access
the database.
People
The people component of the database environment refers to all who control,
manage, and use its contents. Five essential types of users in a database system
are system administrators, database administrators, database designers, system
analysts and programmers, and end-users.
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● Database Administrators: Database Administrators are in charge of
managing DBMS and the entire organization information resource.
● Database Designers: Database Designers create the database structure
design necessary in producing a useful database environment.
● System Analysts and Application Developers: System Analysts and
Application Developers analyze the organization's data requirements, plan
and recommend solutions, design, and implement the application programs.
They create the graphical user interface (GUI) necessary for data entry,
manipulating the database, and retrieving reports.
● End Users: End users are any people throughout the organization who use
the application programs in routine operations to interact with the DBMS and
the database's content. The end-users perform the addition, deletion,
modification, and retrieval of data from databases.
Procedures
The procedures are the set of rules or instructions that govern DBMS, design,
and implementation of the database and the database system. Procedures are
composed of facts and information necessary in the enforcement of business-related
standards. Procedures are also essential to allow proper monitoring and audit of
data stored in the database and the information generated by the system.
Data
The data refers to the entire information resource, both the actual or
operational data and the metadata stored in its database.
Database Designers:
Tool Developers:
Software Engineers:
End users:
End-users are all people who frequently access the contents of the database
to accomplish the tasks assigned to them. They add new records, edit and modify
database contents, and retrieve database contents presented in reports (Elmasri &
Navathe, 2016).
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
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I. Answer the questions briefly.
1. Enumerate and define the five major components of database system
environment.
2. Identify the different kinds of end users and provide brief description.
Rubrics:
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major components of database system environment
different kinds of end users and provide brief description
Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The list of the components of database system
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environment is complete.
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The System Development Life Cycle
The system development life cycle (SDLC) is a traditional, time-tested way of
creating effective information systems. It comprises phases the developers follow to
develop, maintain, and replace information systems, where a database is its
essential component. Thus, the database life cycle is intrinsically connected with the
information system life cycle. In this regard, in every phase in SDLC, there is always
a correspondence activity in the database development cycle.
Figure 1.16 shows the system development life cycle and the related
database development activities.
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SDLC Planning Phase
The SDLC start is the system planning when the overall information system
plan, including estimates on time, staff, materials, and data, is established based on
users' requirements. It is in this initial phase where the analysts gain a preliminary
understanding of the business situations. It is in this phase where the possible
opportunity regarding creating or improving an information system is established.
In the initial stage, the analysts identify the data needed in general terms.
The analysis of the business functions included within the project's scope and their
database needs takes place to determine what data already exist and what data are
to be added to address the user needs in the proposed project. The analysts also
justify the proposed database and the possible data it will hold to support the
business activities.
During the planning phase, the analysts define the scope of the proposed
project's database requirements without considering what databases already exist.
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The data model developed here shows the high-level entities and the associated
relationships that support the overall data requirements for business functions.
In this phase, the designer also reviews in detailed the transactions, forms,
displays, and views that the database will support and decide the nature and format
of each transaction, form, display, and database view.
The final step in the logical database design ensures that the resultant
structure is indivisible yet sufficient by performing the normalization process and
adhering to well-structured data specifications.
The database's physical schema defines the database and describes how
data are stored in a computer's secondary memory by specific DBMS. In this phase,
the analyst decides on the organization of data and, together with the database
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designer outline and design, the data processing programs to generate required
reports. All aspects of the physical system, such as computer hardware, software,
and data communications, are also coordinated.
Also happening in this step are the actual database development, testing, and
installation. Databases are tested for any required data conversion from prior or
legacy systems. Data is also loaded and, whenever necessary, performs data
conversion from earlier systems. Lastly, production databases are created. The
database then and its associated applications are ready for use by system users.
Database maintenance is the most extended phase in SDLC and DBLC since
it covers its entire lifespan and the associated information system. Database
performance tuning or schema changes happen to improve performance, meet
evolving information requirements, or fix errors when databases become
contaminated.
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
Rubrics:
Weight Actual
No. Items
Score
1. The difference between the conceptual data model
developed during planning and analysis phases is 5
appropriately illustrated.
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Three-Level Database Architecture
The three-level database architecture aims to achieve the essential
characteristics of the database approach, including self-describing, program-data
independence, and support of multiple views. The architecture illustrates in figure
1.17 the separation of the user applications from the physical database (Coronel,
Morris, & Rob, 2011).
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External Level (External View, User View or External Schema)
The internal level where the internal or physical schema lies describes
how data are stored in the computer's memory. It provides all the
specifications to the database technology to allocate and manage physical
secondary memory space where data are stored and accessed. It considers
storage space utilization, runtime performance optimization, and data
encryption techniques.
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The three-level architecture shows the clear separation of users' external
level, the database's conceptual level, and the internal storage level for designing a
database. In the three-level architecture, the actual data are stored at the physical
level while the other levels are only descriptions of data. Each group of users refers
to its user view or external schema for any request to the database, and then the
DBMS transforms it into a request against the conceptual schema. When the
internal schema received the request, it will perform processing over the stored
database and ensure that the result is reformatted to match the user’s external view.
Data Independence
Data independence implies that the changes performed at the schema at one
level of a database system should not affect the schema at another level. There are
two types of data independence:
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
Rubrics:
Weight Actual
No. Items
% Score
1. The description of three-level architecture is detailed
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and correct.
Project Description:
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Bulacan State University (BulSU) is a trade college transformed into a
university in 1993.
Note: the given case study is intentionally simplified (focus only on the scheduling
part) for demonstration and easy understanding. However, database design
development, in reality, considers several numbers of entities.
Some of the high-level entities identified at the College Admission Test System
are the following: EXAMINEE, EXAMINATION, COLLEGE, COURSE, FACULTY with
definition showing below:
The team has also established a list of business rules describing the BulSU
College Admission Test System's policies. Some of these rules are as follows:
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1. A COLLEGE offers one or more COURSEs. Conversely, each COURSE is
offered by only one COLLEGE.
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
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Name: _______________________________ Date: _______________________
Course & Section: _____________________ Result: _____________________
Crossword Puzzle. Identify the term by filling out the puzzle with correct letters based on
the clues given below.
1 8
2 7
HORIZONTAL
1. a column
3. named table
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VERTICAL
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