THE USE OF PARTIALLY DEFATTED GROUNDNUT IN BREAD

MAKING

BY

AKINSANMI GRACE

MATRIC NUMBER: 170105018

BEING A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD

SCIENCE, AND TECHNOLOGY, SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND
NATURAL RESOURCES, OLUSEGUN AGAGU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY, OKITIPUPA, ONDO STATE. (OAUSTECH). IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B. TECH) IN FOOD SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY.

OCTOBER, 2023.
 DECLARATION

I, AKINSANMI GRACE with matric number 170105018 hereby declare that this project work was

written and compiled by me, with the sources of information clearly acknowledged by means of

references.

……………………………… ……………………………….

SIGNATURE OF STUDENT DATE

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that AKINSANMI GRACE with matriculation number 170105018, carried this

project under my supervision, in the Department of food science and technology, School of

Agriculture, Olusegun Agagu University of Science and Technology, Okitipupa, Ondo state in

partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of bachelor of technology (B.Tech) degree in

food science and technology having met the standard as required by the institution and approved as

to contents and styled by;

DR. O.O. AWOLU DATE

Project Supervisor

………………………………………… ………………………………….

PROF. E.A. AMAKOROMO DATE

Head of Department

............................................................. .......................................................

External Supervisor DATE

iii
 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to Almighty God who has mercifully saved me and has predestined me unto

good works in himself, also to my caring and loving parent and friends.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Praise goes to the almighty God the most merciful and the most beneficent for making this

project research a successful one. I also give thanks to my loving and caring parent Mr. and Mrs.

AKINSANMI for their inexhaustible efforts financially, and morally and their consistent prayer

toward my success in life.

My deep appreciation also goes to my very sincere and lovely supervisor DR. O.O AWOLU for

his guidance during the course of this project. DR. O.O AWOLU dexterity is really worthy of

celebration and admiration. A wonder personality and beautiful soul that aim towards student

success. Thank you so much for your mentorship, guidance and direction towards the success of

my project. I pray that God bless you and your family, make help come in time of needs for you.

Also, I want to thank the Head of Department PROF. E.A. AMAKOROMO for the motherly role

she played and help shown in student life. God blessings will continue to abide with you.

Though as I cannot mention all, but I believe that the Almighty God knows more than I do. I

regard all my friends and I pray that the most high continue to help you in all you do.

v
 ABSTRACT
The main reason why bread is consumed in large quantities is that it is affordable, a great source

of nutrients, and is available as a ready-to-eat food. The basic ingredient in bread making is

wheat which is one of the most important crops grown around the world.

Blended wheat flour and partially defatted groundnut flour was used for the production in order

to replace lost nutrients. Partially defatted groundnut paste was used to substitute wheat flour at

the ratios: A (95:5); B (90: 10); C (85: 15); D (80: 20); E (75: 25); which were mixed with other

ingredients to produce bread at 155–180 °C for 15–20 min, cooled and packaged for analyses.

The functional properties of the flour, proximate composition, antioxidants, and minerals of the

bread were determined using standard methods. Proximate composition revealed that protein,

moisture content, ash, crude-fat, crude-fiber, and carbohydrate respectively ranged thus: (9.68-

10.17%), (25.6–30.30%), (0.93-2.81%), (21.29-27.64%), (6.04–8.04 %), and (20.93-31.96%)

respectively. Sensory evaluation showed that sample D (80% wheat flour, 20% partially

defatted-groundnut paste) was the most preferred. Concluding, the incorporation of partially

defatted groundnut paste into wheat flour to produce bread could improve the nutritional content

and prevent malnutrition among consumers.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
TITLE PAGE i
DECLARATION ii
CERTIFICATION iii
DEDICATION iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Justification 2
1.2 Aim of the Study 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study 3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review on Baked Products Generally 4
2.1 Brief Review of Bread in Nigeria 4
2.2 Composite Flours for Baked Products 6
2.3 Bread – A universal food 6
2.4 Some studies on the use of composite flours 7
2.4.1 Cassava-Soya bean flours bread 7
2.4.2 Composite flour cake 7
2.4.2 Composite flour biscuits 8
2.5 Possible challenges of the use of composite flour 8
2.6 Flour properties 9
2.7 Nutritional Composition of Bread 12

vii
2.8 Health Benefits of Bread 14
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials and Methods 16
3.1 preparation of defatted ground nut 16
3.2 Procurement and Processing of ingredients 16
3.3 Materials used 17
3.4 Making groundnut bread 17
3.5 Proximate analysis 19
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Result 27
4.1 Results 27
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Discussion 32
5.1 Conclusion 37
5.2 Recommendation 38
References 39

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

1 Vitamin composition of bread from different flour mixtures 20

2 Antioxidant Composition 20
3 Proximate Result 21
4 Mineral Composition Result 22

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

3.1: 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product 20

3.2: 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product 21

3.3: kneaded bread in packaging pan 22

3.4: kneading of the bread 23

3.5: 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product 24

3.6: 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product 25

3.7: 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product………...26

x
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

The main reason why bread is consumed in large quantities is that it is affordable, a great source

of nutrients, and is available as a ready-to-eat food (Darko K 2002). The basic ingredient in

bread making is wheat which is one of the most important crops grown around the world;

however, it cannot be grown in all bread-consuming areas hence it may need to be imported

making it relatively expensive (Olaoye et al., 2006). Before now, imported wheat flour has been

the only kind of flour used in bread production in Nigeria. However, over the years, in response

to the increase in the price of wheat, reports have been published on successful composite bread

technology with indigenous crops like soybeans, plantain, cocoyam, sweet potato, breadfruit, etc.

(Fashakin et al., 2011).

Utilization of these composite flours would reduce the demand for imported wheat; conserve

foreign reserves and widen the utilization of indigenous crops in food formulation and hence

improve the nutritional quality of the products (Bolarinwa et al., 2008).

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea Linn.) is indigenous to Brazil and was imported by the Portuguese

to Africa (Anyanwu et al., 2001). As of 2008/2009, Nigeria is the largest producer of groundnut

in Africa and fourth in the world. Groundnuts are one of the major oilseed crops in the world

with a high nutritional profile especially in terms of protein because of which it is being used in

many diets to meet appropriate protein levels in the body. They are a good source of protein (21-

36.4%), carbohydrates (18%), and fats (36-54%). Groundnut and its byproducts are now gaining

their position to improve deficient diets. Groundnut flour is a byproduct of groundnut oil

extraction commonly known as partially defatted groundnut flour.

1
DGF, as a protein-rich, inexpensive, and underutilized product that offers the same health and

dietary benefits as groundnut has less fat content making its wide applications in the weight

watch diets. DGF contains 2.55 percent of moisture, 52.75 percent of protein, 14.39 percent fat,

11.02 percent fiber, 5.2 percent ash, 14 percent carbohydrates, and 396.91 percent energy. It is

also a source of calcium (74%) and iron (2.6%), thus making it a highly nutritious food

ingredient. It has been revealed that DGF can be more beneficial in different food formulations

as an ingredient when compared to groundnuts because of its high protein availability and low-

fat content (Bolarinwa et al., 2008)..

Groundnut flour is made through a process of grinding roasted peanuts into a paste and then

pressing them to extract the oil. It is often marketed as "defatted" or "partially defatted" and is

sold in a plastic jar or bag. Groundnut flour is essentially a natural protein powder. Because it

contains only one ingredient (roasted peanuts), it's less processed than most other protein

powders. Because of this, it also has a stronger peanut flavor than peanut butter-flavored protein

powders (Bolarinwa et al., 2008).

1.1 Justification

For many years Nigeria has been relying on the importation of wheat and wheat flour for its

bakery industry. Such importations have led to high production costs for baked products,

resulting in skyrocketing retail prices, making the majority of the rural communities unable to

purchase such products. Past research has demonstrated that groundnut flour can be partially

substituted for wheat flour in baking bread. This offers a great opportunity to reduce overreliance

on wheat flour as the only raw material for bread making and also should reduce retail prices of

2
baked products. Groundnut flour is good raw material to be substituted with wheat flour for

products with increased baking qualities, human nutrition, and reduced costs of production.

As a result, import costs for raw materials will be significantly reduced. In general, the utilization

of groundnut flour will reduce overreliance on wheat flour and result in nutritious products

affordable to the rural masses, hence improving both Nigerian nutrition and the national

economy.

Knowledge of these characteristics will enhance the utilization of groundnut flour in bread

making. Successful results from the study will be extended to the rural communities so that they

can have skills on the standalone ability to make bread from groundnut raw materials.

1.2 Aim of the Study

The study aims to use defatted groundnut flour to make bread

1.3 Objectives

The specific objectives of this study were

I. To produce acceptable enriched bread using defatted groundnut and its nutritional properties.

II. To determine the antioxidants, minerals, and vitamins present in the defatted groundnut bread.

III. To reduce the usage of wheat and see groundnut as a major alternative material for breading

making in Nigeria, hence improving both Nigerian nutrition and the national economy.

3
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Brief Review of Bread in Nigeria

Bread is an important ready-to-eat staple food in many countries. According to Singh et al.

(2014), ready-to-eat food (RTE) refers to what could be eaten as purchased, without further

processing. Bread is produced in various forms, and sizes and eaten almost everywhere as

reported by Emeje et al. (2010). Bread is usually baked in an electric or firewood oven and is

characterized by its distinct taste, aroma, quality, appearance, and texture which account for its

appetizing appeal to consumers. (Emeje et al. 2010) reported that bread is made from wheat or

cassava flour added with table salt, sugar, flavor, and fruits among other ingredients. Bread is

currently an important staple food both in the developed and developing world (Abdel et al.

2011) In Nigeria, bread is consumed in all geopolitical zones irrespective of socioeconomic and

cultural backgrounds and religious affiliations in Nigeria (NAFDAC, 2010). It has become the

second most widely consumed food after rice (Shittu et al. 2007). According to the bread and

bakery market overview, from 2007 to 2015, 8.5 M tonnes of bread was consumed by Nigerians

and therefore constituted the product with the largest volume (BBM, 2017). Bread is

conventionally produced from whole wheat flour (Triticum aestivum).

A research report by Adebayo (2012) on “Cassava bread will save Nigeria a sum of N300bn

annually” and Olanrewaju’s (2012) position on “We are triggering cassava-based industrial

revolution” has reported that Nigeria spends between $3.7b and $ 4.2b yearly on wheat

importation. Similarly, a research report by Momoh (2011) on “Bakeries to enjoy a smooth

4
transition to 40 % cassava bread”, reported that Nigeria spent $ 4.2 billion on wheat importation,

in 2010 alone. It was estimated that Nigeria’s wheat importation could reach 17 million metric

tonnes (MMT) by 2020, at this growth rate (Olanrewaju, 2012; Adeniyi, 2012).

The cassava flour used as composite flour is called High-Quality Cassava Flour (HQCF). The

HQCF is defined as fine flour produced from wholesome freshly harvested and rapidly processed

cassava tubers. A number of studies (Defloor, 1995; Eddy et al. 2007) have investigated the

inclusion of cassava flour in bread making. The studies revealed that imported wheat flour can be

replaced by 5 percent to 10 percent cassava flour without adverse effects on processing, taste and

quality of bread. Many scholars have also alluded to the good quality of cassava inclusion flour

for the production of bread. For instance, Eddy et al. (2007) reported that wheat flour, replaced

by 5 percent to 10 percent cassava flour allows for easy processing and ensures quality bread

while substitutions of up to 30 percent cassava also resulted in quality bread (Jensen et al. 2015).

Cassava flour substitutions from 30 to 100 percent have been evaluated in the production of

cakes; as the proportion of cassava was increased, the firmness, chewing, and cohesiveness

decreased, a tendency that remained over time (Cueto et al. 2011).

Studies (Shittu et al. 2007 and Olanrewaju, 2012) have reported the economic benefits of the

utilization of cassava for bread production in Nigeria. The utilization of cassava for bread

production could lead to a reduction in wheat importation and propel it as an industrial crop in

Nigeria. This is possible because Nigeria is the largest cassava producer in the World, and more

than 80 percent is used for human food (Oyewole and Eforuoku, 2019).

Nigeria produced 42.5, and 48.10 million metric Tonnes (MMT) of cassava in 2010 and 2018

respectively (FAO, 2020). These figures represent 18 percent and 21.5 percent of global

production respectively. Studies conducted by Akinwumi (2012) and Ndichu et al. (2015)

5
reported low utilization of cassava for industrial purposes in Nigeria while Thailand has used 80

percent of cassava produced for industrial purposes.

2.2 Composite Flours for Baked Products

Consumption of bread and other baked aerated wheat flour products has spread in Nigeria and

other developing countries of the world. Wheat which is popular and unique among other cereals

for making bread and other aerated baked products can only grow in very few developing

countries. The exceptions are where there is a temperate zone caused by high latitude or high

altitude or both (examples are Mexico, Northern India, and Eastern Africa) (Dendy, 2001).

Nigeria cannot grow wheat in large quantities. Wheat is imported from temperate countries that

have a surplus. Due to urbanization and rapid population growth, wheat imports to Nigeria have

grown rapidly. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, Nigeria imported 4.1

million metric tonnes of wheat in 2011. These imports are paid for with scarce foreign currency

and this, no doubt, is depleting Nigeria’s external currency earnings and reserve.

In the bid to lower or stop out rightly imports of wheat, the Nigerian government and Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO) have encouraged the use of composite flours and blends of

wheat less flours or meals for the production of aerated products such as bread, biscuit, cake,

doughnut, etc.

2.3 Bread – A universal food

Bread, biscuit, cake, doughnut, noodles and other wheat flour based products are popular in

Nigeria and indeed all parts of the world. Bread is the most popular among all the wheat-based

products. Wheat flour bread celebrates the richest and simplest pleasures of daily living. In most

6
European cultures, it is the single inevitable presence at the table during all three meals of the

day (Kent, 2000).

In Nigeria, it is consumed by people in every socioeconomic class and it is acceptable to both

children and adults. Bread has gained wide consumer acceptance for many years in Nigeria

(Badifu et al., 2005; Abulude, 2005). There is no household or family in Nigeria that does not

consume at least one wheat-based product a day.

2.4 Some studies on the use of composite flours

2.4.1 Cassava-Soya bean flours bread

The Institute for Flour and Bread TND Wageningen, Netherlands, had reported baking

acceptable and good quality bread from composite flour mixture using cassava and soybean

flours in the ratio of 4:1. Glycerol monosterate (an emulsifier or improver) at 1.0% level of

addition was used as a gluten substitute. The cassava-soya bean flour dough according to the

Institute is a semi-liquid that lacks cohesive and elastic properties and resembled conventional

cake batters. Bread from the cassava-soybean composite flour was rather made with cake-baking

equipment than traditional bread-making equipment because of the loaf resemblance to cake

(Iheadiohanma et al. 2009).

2.4.2 Composite flour cake

Composite flour cakes were produced from wheat-alum treated African breadfruit (Treculia

africana) flours by Iheadiohanma et al. (2009) using combination ratios of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50,

25:75 and 0:100. They reported that the physical properties (weight and volume) of all the cake

7
samples were similar as there were no significant differences (P < 0.05) in their physical

properties.

The reason for this is that cake is a product made from soft wheat flour batter. It does not require

retention of gas (carbon dioxide) or proof as bread dough. However, the sensory quality

attributes of the cakes from 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 wheat-alum treated African breadfruit flour

ratios were inferior to that of 100% wheat flour cake (Iheadiohanma et al. 2009).

2.4.2 Composite flour biscuits

Unlike yeast-leavened baked products, high-quality and acceptable biscuits are reported to have

been produced from wheat-non-wheat composite flours containing 50% and above non-wheat

flours. Iwe and Egwuekwe (2010) produced biscuits from the composite flour blends of wheat-

Xanthosoma sagitifolum and wheat-Colocasia esculenta flours. They blended the wheat flour

with each of the cocoyam species flours at the ratio of 100:0, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100. The

sensory evaluation results showed that the products were acceptable to the panelists.

2.5 Possible challenges of the use of composite flour

These are possible challenges that may likely arise if the use of composite and wheatless flours

are enforced for the making of leavened and unleavened baked products in Nigeria.

1. There may not be adequate and ready availability of non-wheat crops (e.g. cassava) for the

production of composite flours.

2. Unwillingness of multinational companies operating in Nigeria to incorporate non-wheat

flours for composite flour production, as this will reduce the quantity of wheat they import and

the profit their parent companies make from the sale of wheat.

8
3. Acceptability of the products baked with composite flours and blends of wheatless flours by

Nigerians will be difficult. Most Nigerians have a penchant for imported items or foreign-made

products. They may find it difficult to accept composite flour and blends of wheatless flour for

baked products unless adequate and vigorous sensitization is carried out.

4. Infrastructural problems such as lack of reliable power supply from the Power Holding

Company of Nigeria (PHCN) and public water supply especially for small and medium-scale

would-be operators who will like to venture into the non-wheat flour milling business.

5. Detoxification to low and safe levels of the cyanide content of cassava if this crop flour is to

be used as a component of the composite flour.

6. Competition between the consumers and processors of the non-wheat crop if the crop is

consumed as a staple food. This would no doubt increase the cost of the staple food.

7. Possible sabotage from multinational flour milling companies through the importation of low-

quality wheat for their mills since the percentage of non-wheat flour incorporated with wheat

flour to form composite flour suitable for bread making depends on the quantity and quality of

gluten protein (Maki et al., 2019).

2.6 Flour properties

The milled flour we buy and use today was once ground using a mortar and pestle. Milling of

different grains dates back to prehistoric times and through the ages, automation of the milling

process was perfected. Most people think of flour in terms of “wheat” flour. When in fact flour

can be ground from a variety of nuts and seeds. Some types of flour available are barley,

buckwheat, chickpea, corn, oats, potato, rice, rye, soy, wheat, and vegetables (McRae et al.,

2017).

9
When used in baking flour contributes body and structure, texture and flavor to baked goods.

When used in baking it binds the ingredients together and supports the batter. It can also be used

to thicken sauces, creams and pie fillings. Recipes calling for dusting cake pans or counters with

flour help prevent batters and bread dough from sticking to surfaces. Flour can also be used to

coat fruits and nuts before adding to batters, thus preventing them from sinking to the bottom of

the pan when baked.

The type of flour used will ultimately affect the finished product. Flour contains protein and

when it comes in contact with water and heat it produces gluten, which gives elasticity and

strength to baked goods. Different types of flour contain different amounts of protein. Therefore

using a different type of flour than what is called for in a recipe (without compensating for this

change) will alter the outcome of the baked good. A cake flour is used to make a white cake

where a delicate tender crumb is desired. Bread flour is used to make a chewy bread and all-

purpose flour makes a delicious batch of chocolate chip cookies.

All-purpose flour has a 10-12% protein content and is made from a blend of hard and soft wheat

flours. It can be bleached or unbleached which are interchangeable. However, Southern brands

of bleached all-purpose flour have a lower protein content (8%) as they are made from a soft

winter wheat. All-purpose flour can vary in its protein content not only by brand but also

regionally. The same brand can have different protein contents depending on what area of the

country in the United States you are buying it. Good for making cakes, cookies, breads, and

pastries.

10
Cake flour has a 6-8% protein content and is made from soft wheat flour. It is chlorinated to

further break down the strength of the gluten and is smooth and velvety in texture. Good for

making cakes (especially white cakes and biscuits) and cookies where a tender and delicate

texture is desired. To substitute cake flour for all-purpose flour use 1 cup plus 2 tablespoons

cake flour for every cup of all-purpose flour. Make your own – one cup of sifted cake flour can

be substituted with 3/4 cup (84 grams) sifted bleached all-purpose flour plus 2 tablespoons (15

grams) of cornstarch.

Pastry flour is similar to cake flour, although it has not been chlorinated, with an 8-10% protein

content, and is made from soft wheat flour. It is soft and ivory in color. Can find it in health food

stores or through mail-order catalogs. To make two cups of pastry flour, combine 1 1/3 cups (185

grams) of all-purpose flour with 2/3 cup (90 grams) of cake flour. Good for making pastry, pies

and cookies.

Self-Rising flour has 8-9% protein and contains flour plus baking powder and salt. I do not use

this type of flour because I prefer to add my own baking powder and salt. Also, if the flour is

stored too long the baking powder will lose some of its strength and your baked goods will not

rise properly. If you want to make your own add 1 1/2 teaspoons baking powder and 1/4

teaspoon salt per cup (130 grams) of all-purpose flour.

Bread flour has a 12-14% protein content and is made from hard wheat flour. The high gluten

content causes the bread to rise and gives it shape and structure. Comes in white, whole wheat,

organic, bleached and unbleached. Good for making breads and some pastries.

Store your flour in a cool dry well-ventilated place for up to six months. To prevent insects you

can store flour in the refrigerator or freezer making sure the flour is defrosted before using.

11
Flour is sometimes labeled pre-sifted. This means that the flour was sifted before packaging but

it compacts during shipping and handling and therefore is no longer sifted by the time you get it

home. So if your recipe calls for sifted flour make sure you sift it again. (If your recipe calls for 1

cup sifted flour this means you sift the flour before measuring. However, if the recipe calls for 1

cup flour, sifted this means you sift the flour after measuring.) Sifting flour removes lumps and

aerates it so that when liquid is added the dry ingredients will be fully moistened (McRae et al.,

2017).

Proper measuring of your flour is important, as too much flour will result in a tough and/or heavy

baked good. When measuring flour spoon your flour into a measuring cup and then level off the

cup with a knife. Do not pack it down. As stated above, flour gets compacted in the bag during

shipping, so scooping your flour right out of the bag using your measuring cup will result in too

much flour.

Flour, when packaged, has about a 14% moisture content. When stored, however, its moisture

content will vary. In general, the longer flour is stored the more moisture it loses. This is why

on a dry day using old flour your pastry will require more water than on a wet day using new

flour.

2.7 Nutritional Composition of Bread

Bread can be a nutritious food and part of any diet. Nutrition experts recommend choosing

whole-grain options more often since they provide more vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Bread can

be made from various grains in either whole or refined varieties. The nutritional information for

bread varies by brand and type, as do the number of calories in bread (wang et al., 2015). The

12
following nutritional information are for one slice (32g) of whole wheat bread (McRae et al.,

2017).

 Calories: 82

 Fat: 1.1g

 Sodium: 144mg

 Carbohydrates: 13.8g

 Fiber: 1.9g

 Sugars: 1.4g

 Protein: 4g

 Manganese: 0.7mg

 Carbs

One slice of whole wheat bread contains 13.8 carbohydrates. Bread is considered a high-carb

food and can also be a source of fiber, depending on the type. Whole wheat bread contains 1.9g

of fiber.

 Fats

Bread is low in fat, with a slice of whole wheat bread providing 1.1 grams of fat.

 Protein

Whole wheat bread contains 4 grams of protein per slice. Bread is relatively high in protein,

though it is not a complete protein source.

 Vitamins and Minerals

13
Whole wheat bread is a good source of vitamins and minerals, including several B vitamins,

manganese, folate, selenium, zinc, magnesium, calcium, iron, and vitamin D. These come from

the whole wheat grain.

Refined bread can also contain vitamins and minerals that have been added back during

manufacturing. Sometimes, you will see the word "enriched" on a package of commercially

prepared bread.

Enriched foods have had the nutrients added back into them because these vitamins and minerals

were stripped away during the manufacturing process. Enriched products are usually made from

refined grains (grains that have been processed so that the whole grain is no longer intact).

 Calories

A single slice of commercially prepared whole wheat bread provides roughly 82 calories.

Commercially prepared white bread is slightly lower in calories (about 75 calories per slice).

This type of bread typically has slightly more carbohydrates than whole-wheat bread, but less

fiber, meaning the net carb intake is about the same (McRae et al., 2017).

Rye bread may or may not be made from whole grains depending on the brand. It can also be

made from a mixture of refined grains and whole grains. A typical slice of rye bread provides 83

calories.

2.8 Health Benefits of Bread

Most of the health benefits of bread come from the whole grain variety.

 Provides a Nutritious Source of Energy

14
Bread provides calories (energy) primarily in the form of carbohydrates. Carbs are your body's

preferred energy source. When you eat bread, you are providing your body with fuel for your

daily activities.

 May Improve Heart Health

If you choose bread made from whole grains, you're also getting a source of fiber. Whole grains

high in fiber have been shown to help reduce the risks of cardiovascular disease (wang et al.,

2015). Consuming 28 to 30 grams each day of whole grains may lower total serum cholesterol

and low-density lipoprotein (LDL), considered “bad” cholesterol.

 May Help with Blood Sugar Control

Studies show that consuming more whole grains can help control blood sugar levels and reduce

the risk of type 2 diabetes. Research shows eating 1.5 servings of whole grains, such as bread,

daily can help lower blood sugar and insulin levels (Maki et al., 2019).

 May Support Weight Loss

Weight loss experts generally recommend consuming foods with fiber if you're trying to lose

weight. Fiber can help you feel more satisfied after eating less, which can be useful if you're

trying to create the calorie deficit needed for weight loss (Maki et al., 2019).

Research supports consuming whole grains for reaching a healthy weight. Those who consume

more whole grains tend to have more ideal body fat percentages and lower weight than those

who do not.

15
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Materials and Methods

3.1 preparation of defatted ground nut

16
3.2 Procurement and Processing of ingredients

Groundnut, sugar, baking powder, egg, butter, yeast, and salt were purchased from the local

market in Okitipupa.

3.3 Materials used

Jar, blender, jug, log, dehydrator, paper towel, drier, sieve, water, active dry yeast, wooden

spoon, mixing bowl, wheat flour, peanut, sugar.

17
Methods

Groundnut defatting process and making of groundnut powder

 Prepare the roasted groundnut

 Pour the roasted groundnut into a blender, then blend smoothly until a slurry is formed

which is the groundnut butter.

 Pour the butter into a glass jar. Cover the jar and allow the oil to separate from the

groundnut butter for 1hr

 Pour out the oil and pour the groundnut into a cleaned bowl, add hot water, and knead.

 Place it on a paper towel and roll it into a log. Place a heavy object on it to still extract

oil.

 Break into pieces and dry by using a dehydrator or dry via the sun.

 Blend once dry and sieve (powder).

3.4 Making groundnut bread

Partially-defatted groundnut paste was incorporated into refined wheat flour at different ratios

(5:95, 10:90, 15:85, 20:80, and 25:75). All the ingredients (pre-weighed flour, sugar, salt and

baking powder) were weighed accurately, mixed thoroughly with shortening and eggs added to

form batter/dough. The batter was rolled to a sheet of uniform thickness, cut to the desired shape

and size of bread with a cutter and baked in the oven.

The various blends are as given below:

18
A = 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and partially defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

B = 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and partially defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

C = 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and partially defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

E = 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and partially defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

F = 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and partially defatted groundnut paste in the bread product

The making

 Prepare the dough: In a large bowl or stand mixer add the yeast, water, and a pinch of the

sugar or honey. Allow to rest for 5-10 minutes until foaming and bubbly. (This is called

“proofing” the yeast, to make sure it is active. If it doesn’t foam, the yeast is no good, and

you need to start over with fresh yeast).

 Add remaining sugar or honey, salt, oil, and 3 cups of flour. Mix to combine.

 Add another cup of flour and mix to combine. With the mixer running add more flour, ½

cup at a time, until the dough begins to pull away from the sides of the bowl. The dough

should be smooth and elastic, and slightly stick to a clean finger, but not be overly sticky.

Add a little more flour, if needed.

 Knead the dough: Mix the dough for 4-5 minutes on medium speed (or knead with your

hands on a lightly floured surface, for 5-8 minutes).

 First Rise: Grease a large bowl with oil or cooking spray and place the dough inside,

turning to coat. Cover with a dish towel or plastic wrap and allow to rise in a warm

place* until doubled in size, about 1 ½ hours.

19
  Spray two 9x5'' bread pans generously with cooking spray on all sides. (I also like to line

the bottom of the pans with a small piece of parchment or wax paper, but this is optional.)

 Punch the dough down well to remove air bubbles. Divide into two equal portions. Shape

each ball into long logs and place into greased loaf pans.

 Second rise: Spray two pieces of plastic wrap with cooking spray and lay them gently

over the pans. Allow dough to rise again for about 45 minutes to one hour, or until risen

about 1 inch above the loaf pans. Gently removing the covering.

 Bake: Preheat oven to 350 F. Bake bread for about 30-33 minutes or until golden brown

on top. Give the top of a loaf a gentle tap; it should sound hollow.

 Invert the loaves onto a wire cooling rack. Brush the tops with butter and allow to cool

for at least 10 minutes before slicing.

 Once cool, store in an airtight container or bag for 2-3 days at room temperature, or up to

5 days in the refrigerator.

3.5 Proximate analysis

The proximate composition (protein, moisture, crude fibre, fat, ash and carbohydrate) of the

samples was determined using the standard method of AOAC (2005).

20
Fig 3.1: 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

21
Fig 3.2: 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

22
Fig 3.3: kneaded bread in packaging pan

23
Fig 3.4: kneading of the bread

24
Fig 3.5: 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

25
Fig 3.6: 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product

26
Fig 3.7: 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut paste in the bread product.

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

From table 4.1 Sample A is 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample B is 90%:

10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample C is 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted

groundnut, Sample D is 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut and Sample E is 75%:

25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut. The average vitamin composition for Vitamin A

present is 6.19 while Vitamin E is 1.01.

Table 4.1 Vitamin composition of bread from different flour mixtures

SAMPLES VITAMIN A VITAMIN E

75W/25P 6.33 E3 ± 2.40a 1.11 ± 0.163a
80W/20P 6.15E3 ± 0.00c 1.26 ± 0.86a
85W/15P 6.105E3 ± 9.60d 1.13 ± 0.00a
90W/10P 6.22E3 ± 7.17b 0.89 ± 0.007bc
95W/5P 6.16 ± 9.61c 0.68 ± 0.07c

Sample A= 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample B= 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample C = 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample D = 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample E= 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

28
From Table 4.2 Sample A is 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample B is 90%:

10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample C is 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted

groundnut, Sample D is 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut and Sample E is 75%:

25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut. The average antioxidant properties for phenol

flavonoid, frap, and DPPH present are 32.52, 1.87, 11.53, and 54.54 respectively.

Table 4.2 Antioxidant Properties of defatted groundnut and wheat bread

SAMPLES PHENOL FLAVONOID FRAP DPPH

75W/25P 33.44± 0.32b 2.69 ± 0.20a 14.15 ± 0.056a 49.21 ± 0.24d
80W/20P 35.78 ± 0.21a 1.27 ± 0.9c 10.87 ± 0.00c 43.11 ± 0.11e
85W/15P 30.27 ± 0.11d 1.74 ± 0.00b 9.70 ± 0.16d 54.44 ± 0.79c
90W/10P 32.31 ± 0.21c 2.69 ± 0.20a 9.40 ± 0.05e 67.38 ± 0.80a
95W/5P 30.80 ± 0.86d 0.98 ± 0.08c 13.55 ± 0.16b 58.57 ± 0.28b

Sample A= 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample B= 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample C = 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample D = 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample E= 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

29
 From Table 4.3 Sample A is 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample B is 90%:

10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample C is 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted

groundnut, Sample D is 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut and Sample E is 75%:

25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut. The average proximate composition of the defatted

groundnut and wheat bread for moisture, ash, fat, protein, fiber, and CHO present are 23.71,

1.81, 24.44, 11.53, 7.02, and 26.68 respectively.

Table 4.3 Proximate Composition of the defatted groundnut and wheat bread

SAMPLES MOISTURE ASH FAT PROTEIN FIBER CHO

c a a d b
75W/25P 2.560 ± 0.64 2.81 ± 0.57 27.64 ± 0.43 9.68 ± 0.12 6.04 ± 1.36 28.17 ±
1.50b
80W/20P 30.30 ± 0.00a 2.73 ± 0.21a 22.82 ±0.30b 14.68 ± 8.05 ± 0.0ab 21.40 ±
0.09a 0.44c
85W/15P 28.60 ± 0.05b 1.20 ± 0.01b 21.29 ± 0.30c 8.95 ± 0.06e 7.22 ± 0.30ab 31.96 ±
0.09a
90W/10P 30.23 ± 0.95a 0.93 ± 0.99d 26.86 ± 0.44a 14.18 ± 6.86 ± 0.03ab 20.93 ±
0.13b 1.09c
95W/5P 26.9 ± 0.45c 1.39 ± 0.42d 23.62 ± 0.52b 10.17 ± 6.92 ± 0.05ab 30.96 ±
0.08c 0.18a

Sample A= 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample B= 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample C = 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample D = 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample E= 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

30
From Table 4.4 Sample A is 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample B is 90%:

10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample C is 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted

groundnut, Sample D is 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut and Sample E is 75%:

25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut. The average minerals composition of defatted

groundnut and wheat bread for K, Na, Ca, and Mg present are 4.67, 3.05, 1.56, and 0.75

respectively.

Table 4.4 Minerals Composition of defatted groundnut and wheat bread

SAMPLES K Na Ca Mg
75W/25P 5.46 ± 0.56a 3.64 ± 0.05a 1.28 ± 0.03d 0.70 ± 0.00b
80W/20P 5.29 ± 0.02b 3.53 ± 0.04b 1.92 ± 0.03a 0.90 ± 0.00a
85W/15P 4.15 ± 0.04d 2.71 ± 0.02d 1.48 ± 0.03c 0.73 ± 0.01b
90W/10P 4.56 ± 0.56c 3.00 ± 0.00c 1.66 ± 0.56b 0.74 ± 0.56b
95W/5P 3.9± 0.4e 2.39 ± 0.01e 1.47 ± 0.04b 0.69 ± 0.01b

Sample A= 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample B= 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample C = 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample D = 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample E= 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

31
From Table 4.5 Sample A is 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample B is 90%:

10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut, Sample C is 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted

groundnut, Sample D is 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut and Sample E is 75%:

25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut. The average proximate composition of the defatted

groundnut and wheat bread for moisture, ash, fat, protein, fiber, and CHO present are 23.71,

1.81, 24.44, 11.53, 7.02, and 26.68 respectively.

Table 4.5 Proximate Composition of defatted groundnut and wheat bread

SAMPLES MOISTURE ASH FAT PROTEIN CHO FIBER

75W/25WN 28.06 ± 0.25c 1.97 28.43 ± 16.20 ± 14.62 ± 10.73 ±
±0.00b 0.33c 0.06a 0.62b 0.00a
80W/20WN 30.40 ± 0.11b 1.91 ± 26.66 ± 14.77 ± 16.63 ± 9.62 ±
0.00b 0.08d 0.04b 0.00a 0.06b
85W/15WN 32.05 ± 0.34a 2.18 ± 30.41 ± 14.66 ± 12.65 ± 8.05 ±
0.06a 0.33ab 0.13b 0.09b 0.06c
90W/10WN 32.37 ± 0.20a 2.28 ± 31.13 ± 16.07 ± 10.69 ± 7.45
0.08a 0.80a 0.06a 0.50d ±0.45d
a
95W/5WN 32.47 ± 0.14 1.72 ± 29.56 ± 12.40 ± 15.37 ± 8.52 ±
0.08 c 0.10b 0.30c 0.18b 0.06c

Sample A= 95%: 5% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample B= 90%: 10% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample C = 85%: 15% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample D = 80%: 20% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

Sample E= 75%: 25% Ratio of wheat and defatted groundnut.

32
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Discussion

5.0.1 Proximate Composition of defatted groundnut and wheat bread

Proximate composition of the bread samples is as shown in Table 3, with significant differences

(at p < .05) among some of the samples. From the table, it could be seen that protein content

ranged from 9.68% to 10.17%; fat (21.29 % - 27.64%); moisture content (25.60%–30.30 %); ash

(0.93 % and 2.81%); fibre (6.04%–8.04 %); while the carbohydrate values ranged between

(20.93 % to 31.96%).

The protein content increased by 6–30% based on the quantities of the added defatted groundnut

flour. Crude fat increased by about 1–11%, ash (23–121%), while the crude fiber and

carbohydrate contents respectively reduced by 13–50% and 2.7–19%. It was reported by

Moretzsohn et al., 2013 that groundnuts by virtue of their low content in saturated fat and

cholesterol, could lead to a reduction in the risk of heart diseases. Incorporating partially-defatted

groundnut paste into wheat flour for bread production not only affords consumers of the above-

mentioned benefits, but it equally gives them the opportunity to consume bread that is very rich

in terms of protein, crude fat, and ash contents and with improved flavor, a result similar to the

report of Hefferon, 2015. The protein content of the bread produced was far higher than that

reported by Onabanjo & Ighere, 2014. They reported 9.34%–12.71% protein content for bread

made from wheat and sweet potato flour, while Ayo, Ayo, Nkama, & Adewori, 2007 reported

5%–14.19% for Acha-wheat bread that was complemented with soybean flour. The high

concentration of the protein recorded in these bread supported the report of Khan et al., 2004,

33
that groundnut is second only to soybean in terms of protein content and equally improves

flavour (Alper & Mattes, 2003). It showed a direct increase in the crude protein content as the

quantity of partially-defatted groundnut paste was being added.

The moisture content ranged from 25.60% to 30.30 %. Bread produced from ratio 90:10 wheat

and partially-defatted groundnut flour had the highest moisture content. The values of the

moisture content recorded showed that the bread produced could store for an appreciable period

of time, when compared with the recommended storage moisture content of grains and bread

made from wheat flour.

The ash content ranged between 0.93 % and 2.81%. Samples E (75% wheat flour and 25%

partially-defatted groundnut paste) had the highest ash content, while sample B containing 90%

and 10% partially-defatted groundnut paste wheat flour had the lowest values. The ash content

increased, as the quantity of the added partially-defatted groundnut paste was increasing and

quantity of wheat flour decreasing. The increase in the ash content was a reflection of an increase

in the mineral content of the bread produced, which was comparable to that reported by

Oluwamukomi et al., 2010 (1.06%–2.78%) for bread made from blend of wheat and soybean

flour.

The crude fibre ranged from 6.04% to 8.05%, with Sample D (80% wheat flour and 20%

partially-defatted groundnut paste) having the highest value (8.05%). Crude fibre decreased with

increase in the quantity of partially-defatted groundnut paste content. The result obtained was

similar to that of Niaba-Koffi, Gildas, Beugre, & Gnakri, 2013 (0.85%–2.44%) for wheat bread

fortified with Macrotermes Subhyalinus. Crude fibre increase may lead to bulkiness and low

caloric intake from nutrients (Alvisi et al., 2015).

34
The fat contents ranged from 21.29 % to 27.64%%. Sample E (75% wheat flour and 25%

partially-defatted groundnut paste) had the highest value, while sample C containing 85% wheat

flour and 15% partially-defatted groundnut paste had the least value (21.29 %). The values

obtained were still higher than that reported by Grah, Beda, Aubin, Niaba, & Gnakri, 2014

(19.1%–21.4%) for bread made from wheat flour and lentil seeds, even with partial defattening

and that reported by Usman, Ameh, Alifa and Babatunde, 2015 (22.86%–25.41%) for bread

made from wheat and maize bran composite flour. It should be noted that Cherkaoui, Alizadehr,

Asai, Edmond, & Laurie, 2015 reported that availability of refined groundnut oil will not cause

allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies, which informed the use of partially-

defattening.

The carbohydrate content ranged from 20.93 % to 31.96%. Sample C containing 85% wheat

flour and 15% partially-defatted groundnut paste had the highest value, while sample B

containing 90% wheat flour and 10% partially-defatted groundnut paste had the least. It was seen

that as the quantity of partially-defatted groundnut was increasing, the quantity of carbohydrate

was reducing.

5.0.2 Mineral composition of defatted groundnut and wheat bread

The mineral composition of the product is shown in Table 4. The potassium content varied from

3.9 to 5.46 mg/100 g. The high potassium values of sample B, C, D, and E were significantly

different from the other breads (P < 0.05). The Sample A product had the least potassium value

(3.9 mg/100 g). The sodium content from 2.39 to 3.64 mg/100 g. The sample B, D and E each

had 3.00 mg/100 g, 3.53 mg/100 g, and 3.64 mg/100 g respectively whereas the Sample A had

2.71 mg/100 g and Sample A had the least amount of sodium. The sodium content of the

products were similar at P > 0.05. The magnesium content varied from 0.69 to 0.90 mg/100 g.

35
The Sample D had the highest value which was significantly different from the other breads at P

< 0.05 (0.90 vs 0.74, 0.73, 0.70 and 0.69 mg/100 g). The Sample B and Sample C had

comparable values of 0.74 and 0.73 mg/100 g respectively. The calcium content varied from 1.28

to 1.66 mg/100 g. The Sample D had the highest value (1.92 mg/100 g). The Sample A, B and C

had comparable values of 1.47, 1.66 and 1.48 mg/100 g, respectively. The Sample E had the least

calcium value (1.28 mg/100 g).

Minerals like potassium, sodium and calcium were high in the products as compared to bread

made with brown eyed bean by Okaka and Potter (1977). This might be as a result of soaking

process and a long period of fermentation.

Table 1 showed that Vitamin A varied from 6.10 to 6.33 mg/100 g. Sample E had the highest

value which was significantly different from the other breads even for Vitamin E at P, 0.05 [6.33

vs 6.22, 6.16, 6.15, and 6.10% (for four samples)]. Vitamin E varied from 0.68 to 1.26 mg/100 g.

Sample D had the highest value which was significantly different from the other breads at P, 0.05

[6.33 vs 1.11, .1.13, 0.89, and 0.68% (for four samples). This might be as a result of the

percentage of ground flour. The present of Vitamin E is really encouraging. Vitamin E may have

antioxidant properties. That means it may prevent cell damage caused by free radicals and

oxidative stress (NIH, 2021; Mohd Mutalip, 2018).

The different forms of vitamin E also help the cells of the body communicate with one another.

They play a role in healthy immune system functioning, and they help prevent inappropriate

inflammation. There’s also some evidence linking them to a reduced risk for certain cancers,

heart disease, and other chronic diseases (NIH, 2021; Azzi, 2019). Finally, some research has

found that, without sufficient vitamin E, people may be at risk for a specific type of deficiency

disease. This disease is rare, but it can cause weakness, poor coordination, slurred speech, and

36
other muscle-related symptoms (Khadangi, 2019). There’s also some evidence that low vitamin

E levels are linked to an increased risk for infections and anemia (low red blood cell counts, poor

growth in kids, and pregnancy complications (Traber, 2014). For vitamin A, Vitamin A also

stimulates the production and activity of white blood cells, takes part in remodeling bone, helps

maintain healthy endothelial cells (those lining the body's interior surfaces), and regulates cell

growth and division such as needed for reproduction.

5.0.3 Antioxidant Properties of defatted groundnut and wheat bread

It show that phenol varies from 30.27 to 35.78. Phenol show much present in Sample D (35.78).

This shows that the formulation of wheat breads and partially defatted groundnut flours is rich in

phenolic compounds and has shown to be a successful strategy to improve the antioxidant and

health properties of bread while satisfactory modifying certain sensory characteristics, including

texture, color, odor and flavor, without losing product acceptability. Sample B and E had the

highest present (2.69) of flavonoid in the formulation of wheat breads and partially defatted

groundnut flours. Sample E had the highest present (14.15) of frap in the formulation of wheat

breads and partially defatted groundnut flours. Sample B had the highest present (67.38) of

DPPH in the formulation of wheat breads and partially defatted groundnut flours. Antioxidants,

are chemical substance that acts as oxidation reaction inhibitors and as such prevents the

production of free radicals, and plays major roles in preventing oxidative stress and associated

chronic diseases like hypertension, diabetes, obesity and cancers. The antioxidant activity of

these formulated bread samples indicates that regular intakes of the food products could inhibit

free radicals’ formation and thereby preventing oxidative stress occurrence as well as

hypertension, diabetes etc.

37
5.1 Conclusion

This research work revealed that the nutritional composition of defatted groundnut bread is good

for consumption. The protein, fat and ash contents increased with increase in the addition of

partially-defatted groundnut flour, while carbohydrate, moisture and crude fibre decreased with

the increasing quantities of the partially-defatted groundnut paste. The fortification increase

nutritional qualities and equally enhanced consumer's acceptability, a step that could help in

fighting against children protein malnutrition by improving the nutritional quality of snacks

eating by children, most especially in the third world countries of which Nigeria is inclusive.

Here, malnutrition and poor quality protein consumption is prevalent. This study indicates that

though the samples were accepted, but the blend of 95% wheat and 5% partially defatted

groundnut paste was the most preferred. Addition of partially defatted groundnut paste to wheat

flour helped to reduce carbohydrate content, but enhanced availability of desirable mineral.

Therefore, incorporating partially-defatted groundnut paste into biscuit production would

improve nutritional content, prevent malnutrition among children and reduce the cost of bread

production.

38
5.2 Recommendations

Defatted groundnut flour is a nutritious and healthy ingredient that can be used to make bread. It

is rich in protein, fiber, and minerals, and has a low-fat content. Here are some recommendations

on how to use defatted groundnut flour to make bread:

1. Substitute wheat flour with defatted groundnut flour: Defatted groundnut flour can be used as

a substitute for wheat flour in bread production. A study shows that defatted groundnut flour can

be used as a substitute for wheat flour in bread production. The study also provides information

on the proximate composition, physical parameters, sensory evaluation, and microbial load of

wheat-defatted groundnut bread.

2. Add defatted groundnut flour to wheat flour: You can add defatted groundnut flour to wheat

flour to increase the nutritional value of your bread. A study shows that adding defatted

groundnut flour to wheat flour increases the protein content of the bread.

3. Use defatted groundnut oil: You can use defatted groundnut oil instead of other oils in your

bread recipe. Defatted groundnut oil is low in saturated fat and high in unsaturated fat, making it

a healthier option.

39
References

Abbey, B. W., & Ibey, G. O. (1986). Functional properties of raw and heat processed cowpea

flour. Journal of Food Science, 53, 1775–1777.

Adebowale, A. A., Adegoke, M. T., Sanni, S. A., Adegunwa, M. O., & Fetuga, G. O. (2012).

Functional properties and biscuit making potentials of sorghum-wheat flour composite.

American Journal of Food Technology, 7, 372–379.

Adebowale, A. A., Sanni, L. O., & Awonarin, S. O. (2005). Effect of texture modifies on the

physicochemical and sensory properties of dried fufu. Food Science and Technology

International, 11, 373–385.

Ajanaku, K. O., Ajanaku, C., Edobor, O., & Nwinyi, O. C. (2012). Nutritive value of sorghum

fortified with groundnut seed. Journal of Food Technology, 79, 82–88.

Akpapunam, M. A., & Darbe, J. W. (1999). Chemical composition and functional properties of

blend of maize and bambara groundnut flours for cookie production. Plant Foods for

Human Nutrition, 46, 147–155.

Alper, C. M., & Mattes, R. D. (2003). Peanut consumption improves indices of cardiovascular

disease risk in healthy adults. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 22(2), 133

141.

40
Alvisi, P., Brusa, S., Landi, L., Loroni, L., Marani, M., Ostil, M., et al. (2015). Recommendation

on complementary feeding for healthy, full term infants. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 46,

36.

AOAC (2005). Official methods of analysis (17th ed.). Washington. D.C: Association of Official

Analytical Chemists.

Ayo, J. A., Ayo, V. A., Nkama, I., & Adewori, R. (2007). Physicochemical, in-vitro digestibility

and organoleptic evaluation of acha wheat biscuit supplemented with soybean flour.

Nigerian Food Journal, 25(1), 77–89.

Banureka, V. D., & Mahendran (2009). Formulation of wheat-soybean biscuits and their quality

characteristics. Tropical Agriculture Resource and Extension, 12(2), 121–123.

Chen, Z., Zhu, C., Zhang, Y., Niu, D., & Du, J. (2010). Effects of aqueous chlorine dioxide

treatment on enzymatic browning and shelf-life of fresh-cut asparagus lettuce (Lactuca

sativa L.). Postharvest Biology and Technology, 58(3), 232–238.

Cherkaoui, M., Alizadehr, R., Asai, Y. C., Edmond, S. H., & Laurie (2015). Accidental

exposures to peanut in a large cohort of Canadian children with peanut allergy.

Clinical and Translational Allergy. Journal of Food Technology Research, 33(1), 59–66.

Damiana, E., Tiziana, B., Lucia, P., Lucia, T., & Patricia, C. (2014). Antioxidant activity of

different white teas: Comparison of hot and cold tea infusions. Journal of Food

Composition and Analysis, 33(1), 59–66.

Duncan, M. (2001). Biscuit, cracker and cookies recipes for the food industry. Cornwall

England: Woodhead publishing.

41
Enujiugha, V. N. (2003). Chemical and functional characteristics of conophor nut. Pakistan

Journalof Nutrition, 2(6), 335–338. Fagbemi, T. N., & Olaofe, O. (2000). The chemical

composition and functional properties of raw and precooked taro (Colocasia esculenta).

Journal of Biological and Physical sciences, 1, 99.

Gbadamosi, S. O., Enujiugha, V. N., & Odepidan, F. O. (2011). Chemical composition and

functional characteristics of wheat/African oil bean flour blends and sensory attributes of

their cookies. University of Ife Journal of Technology, 20(2), 17–22.

Grah, A. M. B., Beda, M. Y., Aubin, P. D., Niaba, K. P. V., & Gnakri, D. (2014). Manufacture of

biscuit from the flour of wheat and lentil seeds as a food supplement.

European Journal of Food Science and Technology, 2(2), 23–32. Hefferon, K. L. (2015).

Nutritionally enhanced food crops: Progress and perspectives. International Journal of

Molecular Sciences, 16(2), 3895–3914.

Hsu, C. L., Chen, W., Weng, Y. M., & Tseng, C. Y. (2003). Chemical composition, physical

properties, and antioxidant activities of yam flours as affected by different drying

methods. Food Chemistry, 83(1), 85–92.

Hussain, S., Anjum, F. M., Butt, M. S., Khan, M. I., & Ashaghar, A. (2006). Physical and

sensory attributes of flaxseed flour supplemented cookies. Journal of Biology, 30, 87–89.

Ikujenlola, A. V., Oguntuase, S. O., & Omosuli, S. V. (2013). Physico-chemical properties of

complementary food from malted quality protein maize (Zeamays L.) and defatted fluted

pumpkin flour (Telfairia occidentalis Hook, F). Journal of Food and Public Health, 3(6),

323–328.

42
Iwegbue, C. M. A. (2012). Metal contents in some brand of biscuits consumed in southern

Nigeria. Food Technology, 7, 160–167.

Kent, N. L. (2000). Technology for cereals. 2nd education. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Khan, M.,

Ashari, M., & Siraj, U. D. (2004). Chemical control of weeds in soybeans. Pakistan

Journalof Weed Science Research, 10(4), 161–168.

Kulkarni, S. D. (1997). Roasted soybean in cookies. Influence on product quality. Journal of

Food Science & Technology, 34, 503–505.

Kumar, P., Yadav, R. K., Gollen, B., Kumar, S., Verma, R. K., Yadav, S. (2011). Nutritional

contents and the medicinal properties of wheat. A review Life Science, (22), 1–10.

Moretzsohn, Marcio C., Gouvea, Ediene G., Inglis, Peter W., & Bertioli, D. J. (2013). A study of

the relationships of cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea) and its most closely related

wild species using intron sequences and microsatellite markers. Annals of Botany, 111(1), 113

126.

Narayana, K., & Narasinga, R. (2002). Effect of partial hydrolysis on winged bean flours.

Journalof Food Science, 49, 944–947.

Niaba-Koffi, P. V., Gildas, G., Beugre, A. G., & Gnakri, D. (2013). Nutritional and sensory

qualities of wheat biscuits fortified with defatted macrotermes subhyalinus. International

Journal of Chemical Science and Technology, 3(1), 25–32.

Okoli, E. V., Okolo, B. N., Moneke, A. N., & Ire, F. S. (2010). Effect of cultivar and germination

time on amylolytic potential, extract yield and work fermenting properties of malting

sorghum. Asian Journal of Biotechnology, 2, 14–26.

43
Oladipo, F. Y., & Nwokocha, L. M. (2011). Effect of sida acuta and corchorus olitorius

mucilages on the physicochemical properties of maize and sorghum starches. The Asian

Journal of Animal Science, 4, 514–525.

Oluwamukomi, M. O., Oluwalana, I. B., & Akinbowale, O. F. (2010). Physicochemical and

sensory properties of wheat-cassava composite biscuit enriched with soy flour. African

Journal of Food Science, 5(2), 50–56.

Onabanjo, O. O., & Ighere, D. A. (2014). Nutritional, functional and sensory properties of biscuit

produced from wheat-sweet potato composite. Journal of Food Technology Research,

1(2), 111–121. Onwuka, G. I. (2005). Food analysis and instrumentation. Theory and practice.

Lagos Nigeria: Naphtali prints.

Oyarekua, M. A., & Adeyeye, E. I. (2009). Comparative evaluation of the nutrition quality,

functional properties and amino acid profile of co-fermented maize/cowpea and

sorghum/cowpea ogi as infant complementary foods. Asian Journal of Nutrition, 1,

31–39.

Potter, N., & Hotchkiss, J. (2006). Food science (5th ed.). New Delhi, India: CBS Publishers and

Distributors Danyangaji. USDA (2016). GRIN taxanomy. retrieved 29 June, 2016.

Usman, G. O., Ameh, U. E., Alifa, O. N., & Babatunde, R. M. (2015). Proximate composition of

biscuits produced from wheat flour and maize bran composite flour fortified with carrot

extract. Journal of Nutrition & Food Sciences, 5, 395.

Wright, K. P., & Kader, A. A. (1997). Effect of slicing and controlled-atmosphere storage on the

ascorbate content and quality of strawberries and persimmons. Postharvest Biology and

Technology, 10(1), 39–48.

44