The Constitution of India

Chapter IV A

Fundamental Duties
ARTICLE 51A
Fundamental Duties- It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-

(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions,
the National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national
struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon
to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst
all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional
or sectional diversities, to renounce practices derogatory to the
dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests,
lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living
creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry
and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and
collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels
of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education
to his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six
and fourteen years.
The coordination committee formed by GR No Abhyas - 2116 (Pra. Kra. 43/16) SD-4
Dated 25.4.2016 has given approval to prescrie this textbook in its meeting held on
20.06.2019 and it has been decided to implement it from the educational year 2019-20.

LOGIC
STANDARD XI

2019

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and

Curriculum Research, Pune.

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 First Edition : 2019 © Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production and
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and Curriculum Research reserves all rights relating to the
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written permission of the Director, Maharashtra State Bureau
of Textbook Production and Curriculum Research, Pune.

Logic Subject Committee Logic Study Group

Shri. Suresh Thombare
Smt. Dr. Smita Save, Chairman
Ms. Chhaya B. Kore
Smt. Shraddha Chetan Pai, Member
Shri. Vasant Vikramji Lokhande
Smt. Meeta Hemant Phadke, Member Ms. Farzana Sirajoddin Shaikh
Ms. Sandhya Vishwanath Marudkar, Smt. Pinki Hiten Gala
Member Shri. Dhanaraj Tukaram Lazade
Dr. Dilip Namdev Nagargoje, Member Ms. Janvi Shah

Dr. Balaji Marotrao Narwade, Member Co-ordinator

Dr. Sadanand M. Billur Dr. Sadanand M. Billur

Member - Secretary Special Officer, Kannada

Shri. R.M. Ganachari

Cover Asst. Special Officer, Kannada

Shri. Yashavant Deshmukh Production

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Type Setting
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NATIONAL ANTHEM
 PREFACE

Maharashtra State Bureau of Textbook Production & Curriculum Ressearch Pune,

takes immense pleasure to introduce ‘Logic’ as a subject for Standrad XI. Logic is a
science of reasoning. ‘Rationality’ is fundamental distinguishing characteristic of human
being. This unique ability helps man to draw conclusions from the available information.
Though ability to reason is an inbuilt feature of human beings, logicians have identified the
rules of reasoning. Logic deals with these rules of reasoning. In logic one studies methods
and principles of logic which enables one to distinguish between good and bad reasoning.
Training in logic sharpens our ability to reason correctly and detect fallacies in reasoning
if any. Logic, therefore is a fundamental discipline, useful to all branches of knowledge.
With the introduction of logic at Standard XI students will be able to understand, argue
and convince with considerable amount of maturity. Study of logic will enrich their ability
of logical, analytical and critical thinking.
The aim of this textbook is to explain basic principles of logic and their appllications.
We have tried to make this textbook more interesting and activity based, which will
facilitate easy understanding of the subject and create interest in the subject. The textbook
is written keeping in mind needs of students from both urban and rural areas.
Various activity based questions, exercises, puzzles given in the textbook will help
students to understand the basic concepts of logic and master the methods of logic. Q.R.
code is given on the first page of the textbook. You will like the information provided by
it.
The bureau of textbook is thankful to the Logic Subject Committee and Study Group,
Scrutiny and Quality Reviewers and Artist for their dedication and co-operation in
preparing this textbook.
Hope, Students, Teachers and Parents will welcome this textbook.

Pune (Dr. Sunil Magar)

Date : 22nd May, 2019 (Sankashta Chathurthi) Director
Indian Solar Date : 01 Jyeshtha 1941

Pune Maharashtra State Bureau of

Date : 20 June 2019 Text Book Production and
Indian Solar Date : 30 Jyestha 1941
Curriculum Research, Pune
 For Teachers

We are happy to introduce ‘Logic’ textbook for standard XI. As per the
revised syllabus, two new topics are added in this textbook. These are : Origin and
development of logic and Application of logic. Accordingly students will get brief
information about historical development of Western as well as Indian logic. It will
be interesting for students to know how logic has developed globally. Information
about origin and development of Indian Logic will facilitate in enhancing pride in
students mind about Indian contribution to the subject.
Logic is a fundamental subject and basis of all the branches of knowledge. The
chapter, Application of logic illustrates the importance of logic in day to day life
as well as in the important fields like - Law, Science and Computer science. This
chapter will enable students to understand the importance of logical thinking while
taking decisions in personal as well as professional life. They will also realize how
taking rational decisions at right time can lead to success and happiness in life.
Importance of logic can be highlighted by informing students, how study of logic
can help them to appear for various competitive exams, which test the reasoning
ability of students.
Logic as an independent subject is introduced as standard XI. At this stage
students begin to think independently and express their thoughts and opinions. Logic
being the science of reasoning, can help students in consistent and logical thinking.
As teachers of logic it is our responsibility to train students to think rationally and
reason correctly.
As Standard XI is the first year of stydying logic, it is necessary for teachers to
take in to account students age and level of understanding. Logic studies abstract
concepts, so the important concepts in logic need to be explained step by step, in
easy to understand language and by giving examples and various activities in such
a way that, students can relate the subject to their experiences in life. Keeping this
in mind the textbook is made activity based. Teachers are expected to make use
of various examples, teaching aids and activities like debates, logical puzzles and
giving examples of good arguments and fallacies from everyday experience. In this
way teaching and learning can become interesting and enjoyable experience for
both students and teachers.
 Competency Statements
Competency
• To acquire knowledge about the origin and development of logic.
• To understand the importance of logical thinking.
• To acquire knowledge about the fundamental concepts and principles of logic.
• To understand the types of argument and develop the ability to recognize the types of argument.
• To develop the ability of rational thinking.
• To understand the difference between sentence and proposition.
• To study the characteristics of propositions.
• To understand the types of propositions and to develop the ability to symbolize the propositions.
• To study the basic truth-tables.
• To study the method of truth-table.
• To develop the ability to apply the method of truth-table to decide whether a statement form is
tautologous or not and to decide the validity of arguments.
• To study the method of deductive proof
• To develop the ability to prove the validity of deductive argument. by the method of direct
deductive proof.
• To understand the need and importance of induction.
• To acquire knowledge about the types of inductive arguments and their use in our day to day
life and science.
• To develop the ability of recognizing the types of inductive arguments.
• To enhance argumentation skills.
• To understand the different types of fallacies.
• To devleop the ability of recognizing the types of fallacies.
• To develop the ability to reason correctly and to detect errors in others argument.
• To understand the application of logic in day to day life, in the field of law, science and Computer
science.
 INDEX

Chapter No. Title Page No.

1. Nature of Logic 1

2. Nature of Proposition 12

3. Decision Procedure 31

4. The Method of Deduction 46

5. Inductive Inference and its type 64

6. Fallacies 72

7. Application of Logic 84
 Chapter 1 Nature of Logic

.... bad reasoning as well as good reasoning is possible, and this fact is the foundation of the practi-
cal side of logic. ---- CHARLES SANDERS PEIRCE

DO YOU KNOW THAT ..............

Logic is a branch of philosophy.
Logic developed independently in India.
Ability to reason is the unique characteristic of man.
Logic will train you to reason correctly.
You need not have formal training in logic to use the rules of logic & reason correctly.

grammar, Panini (5th century BC) developed

1.1 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF
a form of logic which is similar to the modern
LOGIC
Boolean logic.
Logic is traditionally classified as a branch
The Buddhist and Jaina logic also comes
of philosophy. Philosophy is fundamental to
under the Indian logic. Jain logic developed
all spheres of human enquiry, and logic is the
and flourished from 6th century BCE to
basis that strengthens philosophical thinking.
17th century CE. Buddhist logic flourished
In philosophy one needs to think clearly to deal
from about 500 CE up to 1300 CE. The main
with the most fundamental questions related to
philosophers responsible for the development
our life and this universe. Use of principles of
of Buddhist logic are Nagarjuna (c. 150-250
logic in thinking, reasoning and arguments is
CE), Vasubandhu (400-800 CE), Dignaga (480-
central to the practice of philosophy.
540 CE) and Dharmakirti (600-660 CE). The
In ancient times Logic originated and tradition of Buddhist logic is still alive in the
developed in India, Greece and China. The Tibetan Buddhist tradition, where logic is an
beginning of modern logic as a systematic study important part of the education of monks.
can be traced back to the Greek philosopher
Mozi, “Master Mo”, a contemporary of
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Aristotle is regarded
Confucius who founded the Mohist School, was
as the father of logic. The development of logic
mainly responsible for the development of logic
throughout the world is mainly influenced by
in China. Unfortunately, due to the harsh rule of
the Aristotelian logic, except in India and China
Legalism in the Qin Dynasty, this line of study
where it developed independently.
in logic disappeared in China until Indian Logic
Logic originated in ancient India and was introduced by Buddhists.
continued to develop till early modern times. The
Aristotelian logic is also known as
Indian logic is represented by the Nyaya School
traditional logic. Aristotle’s logic reached its
of philosophy. The Nyaya Sutras of Akshapada
peak point in the mid-fourteenth century. The
Gautama (2nd century) constitute the core texts
period between the fourteenth century and the
of the Nyaya School. In Mahabharata (12.173.45)
beginning of the nineteenth century was largely
and Arthashastra of Koutilya (Chanakya) we find
one of decline and neglect. Logic was revived in
reference of the Anviksiki and Tarka schools of
the mid-nineteenth century.
logic in India. For his formulation of Sanskrit

1
 At the beginning of a revolutionary period to the mathematics. Development in mathematics
logic developed into a formal discipline. Logic along with the contribution of thinkers like
is therefore classified as a formal science. Leibniz, Francis Bacon, Augustus De Morgan,
The development of modern “symbolic” and Bertrand Russell, George Boole, Peirce, Venn,
“mathematical” logic during this period is the Frege, Wittgenstein, Godel and Alfred Tarski
most significant development in the history of has influenced the evolution of traditional logic
logic. As a formal science logic is closely related in to today’s modern logic.

Can you answer?

1. If you attend lectures then you will understand the subject
You attend lectures
Therefore .........................
2. Wherever there is smoke there is fire
There is smoke coming out from the building
Therefore ..............
Solve the puzzles
1. A famous mathematician was walking on a street. He saw a beautiful girl on a bus
stop and he asked her, ‘what is your name? The girl recognized him as a famous
mathematician and replied that her name was hidden in the date 19/9/2001. Guess
the girls name.
2. Manikchand was looking at the photo. Someone asked him, ‘Whose picture are you
looking at? He replied: “I don’t have any brother or sister, but this man’s father is my
father’s son. So whose picture was Manikchand looking at?

1.2 DEFINITION OF LOGIC The word logic is derived from the Greek
word ‘Logos’. The word ‘logos’ means ‘thought’.
We all can solve puzzles, give proofs So etymologically logic is often defined as,
and deduce consequences as illustrated above. ‘The science of the laws of thought.’ There are
This is possible because we are blessed with three types of sciences, 1) Natural sciences like
the ability to reason. This is the unique ability physics, chemistry etc. 2) Social sciences like
which differentiates man from other animals. history, geography, sociology etc. and 3) Formal
This ability of ours is revealed when we infer, science like mathematics. Logic is a formal
argue, debate or try to give proofs. We are born science. The etymological definition of logic,
rational and may not require any formal training however, is not accurate, firstly because it is
to reason. However our reasoning is not always too wide and may lead to misunderstanding that
good / correct / valid. Sometimes our reasoning logicians study the process of thinking, which
is good and sometimes it is bad. It is necessary is not correct. Thinking process is studied in
that we always reason correctly and this is where psychology. Secondly the word ‘thought’ refers
the role of logic is important because logic trains to many activities like remembering, imagining,
us to reason correctly. day dreaming, reasoning etc. and logic is
Reason has applications in all spheres of concerned with only one type of thinking i.e.
human affairs. The study of logic, therefore, reasoning.
has applications in many important fields Another very common and easy to
like Mathematics, Philosophy, Science, Law, understand definition of logic is – ‘Logic is the
Computer science, Education and also in our science of reasoning.’ But this definition also
day to day life. Training in logic thus can help is too wide. This definition restricts the study
one in all the endeavors of life.

2
of logic only to reasoning but logicians are not All artists are creative.
interested in studying the process of reasoning Sunita is an artist.
as is implied by this definition too. Logicians in Therefore, Sunita is creative.
fact are concerned with the correctness of the
completed process of reasoning. The propositions, ‘All artists are creative’
and ‘Sunita is an artist’ are premises and the
The aim of logic is to train people to proposition ‘Therefore, Sunita is creative’ is the
reason correctly and therefore the main task of conclusion which is established on the basis of
logic is to distinguish between good reasoning evidence in the premises.
and bad reasoning. This practical aspect of logic
is accurately stated in I.M. Copi’s definition of Thus premise (premises) and conclusion
logic. He defines logic as – ‘The study of the are the two basic constituent elements of an
methods and principles used to distinguish argument. In every argument the conclusion
good (correct) from bad (incorrect) is derived from the premises and an attempt is
reasoning.’ This definition is widely accepted made to show that the conclusion is a logical
by logicians. consequence of the premises.

Reasoning is a kind of thinking in which 2) Valid argument : Every argument claims

inference takes place i.e. a thinker passes to provide evidence for its conclusion. However,
from the evidence to the conclusion. The term every argument is not valid. The validity of an
‘inference’ refers to the mental process by argument depends on the nature of relationship
which one proposition is established on the basis between its premises and conclusion. If the
of one or more propositions accepted as the premises provide ‘good’ evidence for the
starting point of the process. An argument is a conclusion, the argument is valid otherwise it
verbal representation of this process of inference is invalid. What is regarded as ‘good’ evidence,
and logic is mainly concerned with arguments. however, depends upon the type of argument.
(In this text we shall use the words reasoning, 3) Form of argument : The two important
inference and argument as synonyms) aspects of any argument are – form and content.
1.3 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF Every argument is about something and that is
LOGIC the subject matter or the content of the argument.
In the same way every argument has some form.
To get precise understanding of the nature Form means pattern or structure of the argument.
of logic it is further necessary to understand For instance, pots may be of various shapes or
certain technical terms used in logic viz. patterns. These different shapes are the forms of
1) Argument 2) Valid argument 3) Form of pots. These pots may be made up of any material
argument. 4) True / False and Valid / Invalid. like clay, iron, bronze or silver. The material out
of which it is made is the content of the pot. Now
1) Argument / Inference : An argument we may have pots of the same shape but made
consists of proposition / statements. Every up of different material, we may have pots of the
argument attempts to establish a proposition same material but of different forms or the pots
by giving another proposition / propositions differing in both form and matter. In the same
in its support. An argument may be defined way the arguments may differ in the content and
as, ‘A group of propositions in which one have the same form, they may have the same
proposition is established on the evidence content but different forms or they may differ
of remaining propositions.’ The proposition both in the content and the form. For example –
which is established is called the conclusion and
the propositions which are stated in support of (1) All men are wise.
the conclusion are called premises. For instance Rakesh is a man.
in the given argument – Therefore, Rakesh is wise.

3
(2) All doctors are rich. states that a narrower class (men and doctors)
Sunil is a doctor. is included in a wider class (wise and rich). The
Therefore, Sunil is rich. second premise of both the arguments states that
an individual (Rakesh and Sunil) is a member
The content or the subject matter of the of the narrower class. In the conclusion of both
above given arguments is different. The first the argument it is inferred that the individual
argument is about men, wise and Rakesh. is, therefore, a member of the wider class. The
The second is about doctors, rich and Sunil. following diagram clearly reveals how the form
However, the form of both the arguments is of both the arguments is same.
same. The first premise of both the arguments
Argument – 1 Argument – 2

Wise Rich

Men Doctors

Men Rakesh Doctors Sunil

Wise Rich

Rakesh Sunil

The form of the above arguments can also

be expressed as follows ---
All A is B
X belongs to A
Therefore, X belongs to B

Can you give examples of .......

1. Two arguments having different forms and same content?
2. Two arguments having different forms and different content?
Can you state the form of the following arguments?
1. All scientist are intelligent. 2. All men are rational.
All intelligent are creative. Some rational beings are good.
Therefore, all scientists are creative. Therefore, some men are good.

4
4) True / False and Valid / Invalid An arguemnt consists of propositions
/ statements. Proposition is either true or
True / False and Valid / Invalid are false. The terms valid / invalid are not used
important terms in logic. The terms valid / invalid for propositions in logic. A proposition is
are used for arguments in logic. An argument considered to be true if whatever is stated in the
is either valid or invalid and never true or proposition agrees with actual facts, if not it is
false. Validity of an argument depends upon false. For example, ‘Washington is an American
the evidence in the premises for the conclusion. city’ is a true proposition. And ‘London is an
If the conclusion of an argument necessarily Indian city’ is a false proposition.
follows from the evidence in the premises then
the argument is valid otherwise it is invalid.

1.4 DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS / INFERENCES

Can you find the difference in the evidence of following arguments?

1. If it rains then roads become wet. 2. All observed crows are black.
It is raining. No observed crow is non-black.
Therefore, roads are wet. Therefore, all crows are black.

Arguments are classified into two types Another important feature of a deductive
1) Deductive arguments 2) Inductive arguments. argument is that, its conclusion is implicit in the
This classification of argumments into deductive premises i.e. the conclusion does not go beyond
and inductive is based on the nature of relationship the evidence in the premises. This means
between premises and conclusion. Premises of we don’t arrive at any new information. By
deductive arguments claim to provide sufficient deductive argument we can know what is implied
evidence for the conclusion, whereas premises by the premises. Deductive arguments do not
of inductive arguments provide some evidence give us any new information. For this inductive
for the conclusion. arguments are useful. Thus, the certainty of
deductive arguments comes at a cost.
Deductive Argument / Inference – Every
argument attempts to prove the conclusion. The In an invalid deductive argument, however,
evidence needed to establish the conclusion is the claim that premises provide sufficient
given in the premises. The evidence given in the evidence is not justified, therefore, the relation
premises is not always sufficient. A deductive of implication does not hold between its premise
argument claims to provide conclusive and conclusion. Even when the premises are true
grounds i.e. sufficient evidence for its the conclusion may be false. For example, let us
conclusion. If the claim that premises provide consider the following arguments.
sufficient evidence is justified, the deductive
argument is valid, if not it is invalid. (1) If Amit passes S.S.C. with good marks, he
will get admission in college.
In a valid deductive argument where the Amit passed S.S.C. with good marks.
evidence is sufficient the relation between the Therefore, he well get admission in
premises and the conclusion is of implication. college.
Premises imply the conclusion means, if
premises are true the conclusion is also true, it is (2) Meena will either go to college or study
impossible for the conclusion to be false. Thus at home.
the conclusion of a valid deductive argument is Meena did not go to college.
always certain. Therefore, Meena is studying at home.

5
(3) If Anita gets the prize then she will become The form of all the above given deductive
famous. arguments is as follows :
Anita did not get the prize. All X is Y.
Therefore, Anita will not become famous. All Y is Z.
Therefore, All X is Z.
(4) If it rains heavyly, the college will
declare holiday. It is obvious that the form is valid and
College has declared a holiday. therefore all the arguments being its substitution
Therefore, it is raining heavily. instances are also valid. It is easy to accept that
the first two arguments are valid because the
All these arguments are deductive premises and conclusions of these arguments
arguments as the conclusions of all the arguments are all true and conclusion necessarily follows
don’t go beyond the evidence in the premises. from the premises. But one may find it difficult
The first two arguments are valid as premises to accept that, the third and fourth argument is
provide sufficient evidence. The premises imply valid as premises and conclusion of both the
the conclusion. If premise are true, conclusion arguments are false. However they are also valid.
cannot be false. The last two arguments, though Validity of deductive argument is conditional.
deductive, are not valid because the claim that In case of a valid deductive argument if
premises provide sufficient evidence is not premises are true the conclusion must be
justified. Even when premises are true, the true. So if premises of the last two arguments
conclusion may be false. So there is no relation of are assumed as true then the conclusions of
implication, the conclusion does not necessarily both the arguments necessarily follow from the
follow from the premises. premises and therefore both the arguments are
The deductive arguments are formally valid. If conclusion necessarily follows from the
valid. A formally valid argument is one whose premises then the deductive argument is valid.
validity is completely determined by its form. Premises and conclusion of valid deductive
In case of deductive arguments the content of argument may or may not be true. When the
its premises and conclusion does not affect its deductive argument is valid and its premises
validity. There is no need to judge the content and conclusion are true, such an argument is
of the premises and conclusion, also there is no called sound argument.
need to find out whether they are true or false to As deductive arguments are formally
determine the validity. One only needs to check valid, the validity of deductive arguments can
the form of the argument. If the form is valid the be determined or proved by using the rules and
argument is also valid. For example – methods developed by logicians.
(1) All men are animals. Inductive Argument / inference ---
All animals are mortals. Inductive argument is an argument which
Therefore, all men are mortals. provides some evidence for the conclusion.
(2) All crows are birds. The conclusion of an inductive argument goes
All birds have wings. beyond the evidence in the premises. There is a
Therefore, all crows have wings. guess, prediction or something new is asserted in
the conclusion for which the evidence given in
(3) All singers are actors. the premises is not sufficient. As the evidence in
All actors are leaders. the premises is not sufficient, the premises of an
Therefore, all singers are leaders. inductive argument don’t imply the conclusion.
(4) All cats are rats. This means even when the premises are true the
All rats are lazy. conclusion may be false. The conclusion of an
Therefore, all cats are lazy. inductive argument is always probable. Whether

6
the argument is good (valid) or bad (invalid), the the form of the argument, but is decided by its
possibility of its conclusion being false always content. Inductive arguments are materially
remains. valid. A materially valid inference is one
whose validity is completely determined by its
Technically the terms ‘valid’ and ‘invalid’ content. To decide whether the given inductive
cannot be used for inductive arguments. Only argument is good or bad, one has to consider
deductive arguments are either valid or invalid. the content / the subject matter of the argument.
Inductive arguments can be judged as better or The form of the first and second argument is the
worse. More the possibility of the conclusion same but the first one is bad whereas the second
being true, better the argument. The addition one is good.
of new premises may alter the strength of an
inductive argument, but a deductive argument, The amount of evidence in the premises
if valid, cannot be made more valid or invalid by determines whether the argument is good. If the
the addition of any premises. We shall use the evidence in the premises makes it reasonable
terms ‘good’ or ‘bad’ for inductive arguments. to accept the conclusion, then, the argument
For example, consider the following arguments. is good otherwise it is bad. From the above
given arguments, the first arguments is a bad
(1) Whenever cat crossed my way in the past, one because the conclusion is based on the
something bad happened on that superstition, there is no connection between
day. a cat crossing the way and good or bad events
Today morning a cat crossed my way. happening in our life. In the other two arguments,
Therefore, I am sure that something bad is though, the conclusions may turn out to be
going to happen today. false, the evidence on the basis of which the
(2) Every morning I have seen the sun rising conclusions are derived is scientific. Hence the
in the east. last two arguments are good.
It is early morning now. Though the content decides whether
So, I am sure I will find sun rising in the an inductive argument is good, this does not
east. mean that the premises and conclusion of
(3) The doctor told me that, Suresh is suffering good inductive arguments are true and of bad
from cancer and he will not survive for inductive arguments are false. In case of the
more than three months. first argument, even if premises are true and the
After two months I got the news that conclusion turns out to be true, still the argument
Suresh is no more. is bad. Similarly in case of the last argument
So, Suresh must have died due to cancer. even if conclusion turns out to be false when the
premises are true, the argument is good because
All the above given arguments are inductive the inference is based on the doctor’s verdict.
arguments as conclusions of all the arguments
go beyond the evidence in the premises. The Like deductive arguments, whether the
premises don’t imply the conclusion. Even given inductive argument is good or bad cannot
if premises are true the conclusions of all the be determined by the methods and rules of logic.
arguments are probable. The conclusion is In case of common man’s inductive arguments,
probable does not mean that the argument is bad. as given above, one can easily decide whether
In the above given arguments the first one is bad they are good or bad. However, in case of the
where as the other two are good. inductive arguments, in various sciences, by
judging the evidence in the premises only the
Like deductive arguments the validity of experts in the field can decide whether it is good or
inductive arguments i.e. whether the inductive bad. Unlike deductive arguments, the Inductive
argument is good or bad, is not determined by arguments, provide us with new information and

7
thus may expand our knowledge about the world. an argument may be valid when one or more
So, while deductive arguments are used mostly or even all its premises and conclusion are
in mathematics, most other fields of research false and an argument may be invalid with all
make extensive use of inductive arguments. its premises and conclusion true. The truth or
falsity of an argument's conclusion does not
Truth and Validity of arguments – The by itself determine the validity or invalidity of
relation between validity or invalidity of the that argument. And the fact that an argument
argument and truth or falsity of its premises and is valid does not guarantee the truth of its
conclusion is not simple. As discussed earlier, conclusion.

DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT

1. Premises claim to provide sufficient 1. Premises provide some evidence for the
evidence for the conclusion. conclusion.
2. In valid deductive argument premises 2. Premises do not imply the conclusion.
imply the conclusion.
3. In valid deductive argument if premises 3. Even when premises are true conclusion
are true, conclusion must be true. may be false.
4. Conclusion of valid deductive argument 4. Conclusion is always probable.
is always certain.
5. Conclusion does not go beyond the 5. Conclusion goes beyond the evidence in
evidence in the premises. the premises.
6. Arguments are formally valid. 6. Arguments are materially valid.
7. Validity can be determined by rules 7. Correctness of arguments can be decided
and methods of logic. by an appeal to experience and not by
rules and methods of logic.
8. Deductive arguments cannot expand 8. With inductive arguments we can discover
our knowledge of the world, by deduction something new and expand our knowledge
we can only know what is implied by the of the world.
premises.

Summary
• In past logic developed independently in India, Greece and China.
• Modern logic is evolved from Aristotelian or traditional logic.
• Logic is study of methods and principles used to distinguish between good and bad reasoning.
• Arguments, Valid argument, Form of argument, True / False, Valid / Invalid are some
important concepts in logic.
• The two important types of arguments are – Deductive and Inductive arguments.
• Deductive arguments claim to provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.
• Inductive arguments provide some evidence for the conclusion.

8
 Exercises

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words 15. Conclusion of .............. inference does not
given in the brackets. go beyond the evidence in the premises.
1. .............. is regarded as the father of logic. (Deductive / Inductive)
(Aristotle / De Morgan) Q. 2. State whether following statements are
2. The development of logic throughout the true of false.
world is mainly influenced by the .............. 1. Logic is a branch of Psychology.
logic. (Aristotelian / Indian)
2. Philosophy is fundamental to all spheres
3. The Nyaya Sutra of .............. constitute the of human enquiry.
core texts of the Nyaya School. (Gautama
/ Nagarjun) 3. The Jaina logic is represented by the
Nyaya School of philosophy.
4. The proposition which is established
in the argument is called the .............. 4. Mozi, "Master Mo" was mainly responsible
(Conclusion / Statement) for the development of logic in China.
5. The proposition which is stated in support 5. Etymologically logic is often defined as
of the conclusion is called .............. the science of the laws of thought.
(Premise / Conclusion) 6. Form means pattern or structure of the
6. .............. means pattern or structure of the argument.
argument. (Content / Form) 7. Argument is either true or false.
7. .............. is either valid or invalid.
8. The classification of arguments into
(Proposition / Argument)
deductive and inductive is based on the
8. A deductive argument claims to provide nature of relationship between premises
.............. evidence for its conclusion. and conclusion.
(Some / Sufficient)
9. When the deductive argument is valid and
9. In Inductive argument premises provide its premises and conclusion are true, such
.............. evidence for the Conclusion. an argument is called sound argument.
(Some / Sufficient)
10. A formally valid argument is one whose
10. In case of a valid .............. argument if validity is completely determined by its
premises are true the conclusion must be content.
true. (Deductive / Inductive)
11. Conclusion of inductive is always certain.
11. A materially valid inference is one whose
validity is completely determined by its 12. Conclusion of inductive argument goes
.............. (Content / Form) beyond the evidence in the premises.
12. Conclusion of valid deductive argument is 13. Even when premises are true conclusion
always .............. (Certain / Probable) of valid deductive argument may be false.
13. Validity of .............. arguments can be 14. The truth or falsity of an argument's
determined by rules and methods of logic. conclusion does not by itself determine the
(Deductive / Inductive) validity or invalidity of that argument.
14. Correctness of .............. arguments is 15. Deductive arguments cannot expand our
determined by an appeal to experience. knowledge of the world.
(Deductive / Inductive)

9
Q. 3. Match the columns. Q. 6. Explain the following.
(A) (B) 1. Truth and validity.
1. Nyaya 1. Sufficient evidence 2. Form of argument.
2. Aristotle 2. Mozi ‘Master Mo’ 3. Distinction between form and content.
3. Mohist school 3. Some evidence 4. Distinction between formal and material
4. Nagarjun 4. Valid or Invalid validity.

5. Argument 5. Greek logician 5. Distinction between deductive and

inductive argument.
6. Statement 6. Buddhist
philosoper Q. 7. Answer the following questions.

7. Deductive 7. Akshapad Gautama 1. Explain in brief origin and development of

argument logic.

8. Inductive 8. True or false 2. Write short note on Indian Logic.

argument 3. Define logic and explain the terms -
Q. 4. Give logical terms for the following : Argument, Premise and Conclusion.

1. The study of methods and principles used 4. Explain the difference between terms -
to distinguish good from bad resoning. Reasoning, Inference and Argument.

2. A proposition that is stated in support of 5. Explain with illustration nature of

the conclusion in an argument. Deductive argument.

3. The proposition that is established in the 6. Explain with illustration nature of

argument. Inductive argument.

4. An argument that claims to provide Q. 8. State whether the following arguments

sufficient evidence for its conclusion. are deductive or Inductive.

5. An argument in which premises provide 1. Either it is a bank holiday or the bank is

some evidence for the conclusion. open. It is not a bank holiday. Therefore
the bank is open.
6. An argument whose validity is completely
determined by its form. 2. There are no good players in our college
team. So the team will not win the match.
7. An argument whose validity is completely
determined by its content. 3. Whenever I went to my sister’s house she
cooked biryani for me. As I am visiting
Q. 5. Give reasons for the following : my sister today, I am sure my sister will
1. Etymological definition of logic is not make biryani.
accurate. 4. My aunty is a doctor, so she is a female
2. Deductive arguments cannot expand our doctor.
knowledge of the world. 5. If Mohan takes admission for science then
3. Conclusion of valid deductive argument is he will take computer science. Mohan has
always certain. taken admission for science. So he must
have opted for computer science.
4. Conclusion of an inductive argument is
always probable. 6. Meena is smart. Seema is smart, Neena
is smart. These are all girls. Therefore all
girls are smart.

10
7. Sunil is hardworking, intelligent and 12. India has taken loan from the world bank,
smart. Therefore Sunil is smart. so India is sure to develop economically.
8. Nikita is not happy with her job, so I am 13. If and only if a student is sick during
sure she will leave the job. examination, he is allowed to appear
9. Mukesh is an actor and Mukesh is for re-examination. Ashok is allowed to
handsome. Therefore Mukesh is handsome appear for re-examination. So Ashok must
actor. have been sick during examination.

10. If I go to college then I will attend lecture. 14. Suresh is taller than Naresh. Naresh is
If I attend lecture then I will understand taller than Ramesh. Therefore Suresh is
logic and if I understand then I will pass taller than Ramesh.
with good marks. Therefore if I go to 15. Hardly any man lives for more than
college then I will pass with good marks. hundred years. Mr. Joshi is ninety nine
11. Amit and Sumit are in same class, they year old. So he will die next year.
both play cricket and go to same tuition
class. Amit is a good singer. Therefore
Sumit is also a good singer.
v v v

11
 Chapter 2 Nature of Proposition
Logic studies the preservation of truth and propositions are the bearers of truth and falsity.

Identify the following arguments.

EXAMPLE 1. EXAMPLE 2.
All men are mortal. All actors are handsome.
All artists are men. Prasad is an actor.
Therefore, all artists are mortal. Therefore, ---------------

We have seen earlier that one of the 2.1 PROPOSITION (STATEMENT)

functions of logic is to study arguments. AND SENTENCE
However, to study the arguments, it is essential
Definition of proposition –
to understand the statements that constitute an
argument. A proposition is defined as a sentence,
which is either true or false.
We begin by examining propositions,
the building blocks of every argument. An Activity : 1
argument consists of premises and conclusion.
These premises and conclusion are in the Make a list of true or false
form of propositions or statements. Hence, a propositions.
proposition is a basic unit of logic. From the definition of proposition we can
Find the premises and the conclusion conclude that all propositions are sentences but
from the following : all sentences are not propositions. Only those
sentences which are either true or false will be
propositions. Hence, the class of proposition is
EXAMPLE 1
narrow, whereas the class of sentences is wider.
All monuments are beautiful. This leads to a question that, which sentence can
be true or false? To answer this question we shall
Taj Mahal is a monument. have to consider various kinds of sentences.
Therefore, Taj Mahal is beautiful. Activity : 2
EXAMPLE 2 Make a list of sentences you know and
state its kind.
All Mangoes are fruits
Kinds of Sentences :
All fruits grows on trees.
(1) Interrogative Sentence : This kind of
Therefore, All mangoes grow on trees. sentence contains a question.
Example : What is your name?

12
(2) Exclamatory Sentence : It is a kind of Grammatically given examples are Inerrogative
sentence which expresses some kind of and exclamatory sentences respectively but
feelings. logically they are propositions .
Example : Oh! God Activity : 3
(3) Imperative Sentence : This sentence Make a list of Assertive / Declarative /
expresses a command or an order. Informative sentences.
Example : Get Out. PICTURE: 1.
(4) Optative Sentence : This sentence
expresses a wish, desires, urges.
Example : May God bless us all.
(5) Assertive Sentence : It is a sentence which
asserts something about an individual.
This sentences can make positive or
negative assertion. (It refers to identifiable
particular individual possessing definite,
particular property.) PICTURE: 2
The word “Individual” stands not only
for persons but for anything like city, country,
animal, or anything to which attributes can
be significantly predicated and the property/
attribute may be an adjective, noun, or even a
verb.
Example : Sanika visits her grandmother
during the holidays. (Positive assertion)
Example : The tiger is not a domestic
animal. (Negative assertion) Activity : 4

These kind of sentences can be either Observe and describe these pictures and
true or false. Hence, they are considered as make a list of assertive propositions.
statements or propositions in logic. They are (positive assertion and negative
also called as declarative sentences. They are assertion)
informative sentences because they provide us
A proposition is expressed in the form of a
with information. So declarative sentences can
sentence. But it is not the same as sentence. The
make logical propositions. So, we can conclude
same proposition may be expressed by different
that all sentences are not propositions. Only
sentences.
those sentences which can be either true or false
can be propositions. Example : (1) This is a fish (English)
Sometimes declarative sentence may be (2) Das ist ein fisch (German)
in the form of a question or an exclamation
e g. (1) Do you feel you can fool your friend.
(3) ¶h ‘N>br h¡& (Hindi)

(2) Thief ......... Thief (4) hm ‘mgm Amho. (Marathi)

(5) kore wa sakana desu. (Japanese)

13
 Here a sentence in English, Marathi, If a proposition does not represents a
Hindi, German, Japanese may differ as sentence fact and if the claim is not justified then, the
but they express the same proposition. proposition is false.
Anything that is known through sense Example : Mumbai is capital of India.
organs has physical existence. A proposition (truth value of this proposition is false)
refers to the meaning or content expressed in the
form of a sentence. Therefore, it does not have (2) A proposition has only one truth value.
a physical existence. It is expressed through the A proposition cannot be true and false
medium of a sentence. together.
On the other hand a sentence has a physical
existence. A sentence when spoken, is in the E. g. Chalk is white. (This proposition
form of sound waves. When written, it is a sign cannot be both true and false.)
or a symbol on a surface. e.g. In five different (3) The truth value of a proposition is
sentences given above. The meaning expressed definite :
in these sentences is the proposition which does
not have a physical existence because one A proposition has unique truth value. If a
cannot see it, touch it but one can understand it if proposition is true, it is always true. If it is false,
and only if the language in which it is expressed it is always false. In other words truth value of a
is known. proposition does not change.
The following are the main characteristics Example : The earth is a flat disc.
of proposition :
Though, the truth value of the above
(1) Every proposition has a truth value : proposition appears to have changed but in
The truth or falsity of proposition are reality it not so. This proposition was believed
called truth values. The truth value of a true to be true due to ignorance (lack of scientific
proposition is true and that of a false proposition knowledge) but it is proved to be false today.
is false.
Thus, all propositions are sentences but
Now the question arises, “what determines all sentences are not propositions. Only those
the truth value of a proposition? sentences which are either true or false are
The answer is “The Fact”. propositions.

If a proposition represents a fact or facts,

it is true. It means a proposition is true when the
assertion in a proposition {that which is said in a
proposition} agrees with the facts.
Example : Butter melts in heat.

Activity : 5 Look at the pictures carefully and construct the propositions describing the pictures.

14
There are important differences between the proposition and sentence. Yet they are interconnected.

Proposition (Statement) Sentence

(1) It is sentence which is either true or (1) It is a meaningful group of words in a
false. grammatical order.
(2) A proposition is conveyed through (2) A sentence is a vehical through which a
a sentence. statement is expressed.
(3) Only declarative sentences are proposition. (3) The sentences which expresses feeling,
wish etc are sentences only.
(4) Every proposition has a truth value (4) Sentence does not have a truth value.
i.e it is either true or false. It is neither true nor false.
(5) A proposition does not have physical (5) A sentence has a physical existence.
existence.
(6) Example : Taj Mahal is white. (6) Example : How are you?

2.2. Classification of proposition : Compound proposition :

Classification of proposition can be Example :
done on the basics of whether the statement
(1) (Delhi is the capital of India) and (it is a
contains another statement as it’s component
crowded city).
propositions. Some propositions do not contain
another proposition as a component, while others (2) (Peacock generally lives in jungle) or
do. The former are called simple proposition and (bushes.)
the later are compound propositions.
(3) If (polygon has six sides) then (it is a
Simple Proposition : hexagon.)
It is a basic unit in logic. Simple (4) If (turmeric reduces my arthritis pain)
proposition is defined as a proposition that then (I will eat turmeric everyday).
does not contain any other proposition /
propositions as it’s component. (5) (Anil is eligible to drive) if and only if (he
is eighteen years old).
Example :
(6) It is false that (Mumbai is the capital of
(1) Delhi is the capital of India. England).
(2) Peacock generally live in jungle. Proposition that comes as a part of
a proposition is called as a component
(3) Polygon has six sides.
proposition. The propositions in a compound
(4) Turmeric reduces my arthritis pain. statements are called its components.
(5) Anil is eligible to drive. Activity : 7
(6) Mumbai is the capital of England Identify Component proposition from
the above example.
Activity : 6
Thus, a compound proposition is defined
Make a list of simple propositions. as a proposition which contains another
proposition / propositions as its component.

15
 Activity : 8 (4) Class membership proposition :

Construct compound propositions using A class membership proposition asserts

statements constructed by you in Activity 6. that an individual is a member of a class. Thus, it
shows that the subject term belongs to the class
Kinds of simple proposition : indicated by predicate. So, here predicate term
is general.
There are four kinds of simple proposition.
These are : Example :
(1) Subjectless proposition : (1) Rani Lakshmi bai was a great warrior.
The simplest kind of proposition is the (2) Bhagat Singh was a freedom fighter.
subjectless proposition.
Kinds of compound proposition :
Example :
Compound proposition are further
(1) Bomb! classified into two kinds –
(2) Fire! (1) Truth – functional compound proposition
Subjectless propositions make an (2) Non Truth – functional compound
assertion. They give information. Therefore proposition.
they are propositions. However the subject of
the assertion is not clear. They are primitive (1) Truth functional compound proposition:
propositions. In a compound proposition there are two or
(2) Subject – Predicate proposition : more component propositions that are connected
by some expression like ‘and’, ‘or’ etc. These
A subject – predicate proposition states component propositions are either true or false.
that an individual possesses a quality or attribute. The component proposition as a whole also has
A subject predicate proposition is that which has some truth value.
a subject , a predicate and a verb. An individual
is a singular term. Therefore, the subject of this Example : Sameer is intelligent and
kind of proposition is a singular term. Sameer is smart.

Example : Ashok is intelligent. In this proposition there are two

propositions
(3) Relational Proposition :
(1) Sameer is intelligent.
A relational proposition states a relation
between two subjects. The subjects between (2) Sameer is smart.
which a relation is stated are called terms of
relation.
Example : Ram is taller than Shyam.
The above proposition expresses a relation
between two subjects namely Ram and Shyam.

16
 Now when there are two component propositions, we get four possibilities as given below :
Sameer is intelligent And He is smart
TRUE TRUE TRUE
TRUE FALSE FALSE
FALSE FALSE TRUE
FALSE FALSE FALSE

The truth value of compound propositions Thus Non – truth functional compound
(which is stated in the middle column) changes as proposition is defined as a compound
per the truth value of its component proposition. proposition whose truth value is not
determined by the truth value of its component
In the above example when both the proposition / propositions.
components are true one can say that the
compound proposition is true. Otherwise under Types of truth functional compound
other possibilities it is false. proposition :
Thus the truth functional compound On the basis of the connectives which
proposition is defined as a compound combine the components in truth functional
proposition whose truth value is determined propositions, we get five types of truth functional
by the truth value of its component proposition compound proposition.
/ propositions.
(1) Negative proposition
(2) Non – truth functional compound
proposition : Example : This book is not interesting.

There are some compound propositions (2) Conjunctive proposition

whose truth value is not determined by the truth Example : This book is interesting and
value of its component proposition / propositions. informative.
Such compound propositions are called (3) Disjunctive proposition
Non – truth functional compound proposition
Example : Either this book is interesting
Example : I believe that Soul exist. or informative.
Here the component proposition “Soul (4) Material Implicative or conditional
exist” may be either true or false. proposition –
Whatever may be the truth value of the Example : if this book is interesting then
component proposition, the truth value of the people will buy the book.
compound proposition does not get affected.
(5) Material Equivalent or Bi – conditional
If the proposition, ‘I believe that Soul proposition –
exit” is say true, then whether the component
proposition “Soul exist” is true or false. The Example : People will buy this book if
truth value of the compound proposition will and only if it is interesting.
remain true.
Hence, It is a Non Truth functional
compound proposition.

17
 (3) It prevents confusion of vague and
2.3 Symbolization of proposition :
ambiguous words.
Need, uses and importance of
Symbols are kind of short – forms. In a
symbolization.
natural language a proposition or an inference
Symbolization is necessary because has a much longer expression. When we use
arguments are expressed in language. The use symbols the expression becomes much more
of symbols is not misleading but it helps us to shorter.
reason correctly.
For symbolizing of truth functional
There are certain defects of natural compound propositions. We need certain
language as follows. symbols. They are –
(1) use of ambiguous words and vague words. (1) Propositional Constant
(2) use of misleading idioms. (2) Propositional Variable
(3) confusing metaphorical style. (3) Propositional Connective or Operator
The symbolic language is free from the (4) Brackets
above mentioned defects.
(1) Propositional Constant :
Logic is concerned with arguments.
Propositional constant is defined as
Arguments contain propositions or statements
a symbol, which stands for a specific (or
as their premises and conclusion. Arguments
particular) proposition as a whole. They are
may be valid or invalid. To determine the
called constants because they have definite
validity of the arguments we have to use certain
meaning. The capital letters from A to Z (English
logical procedures. These procedures can not
alphabet) are used as propositional constants.
be applied directly to the propositions with
We are free to use any propositional constants
ordinary language. Logicians have developed
for symbolizing of a proposition.
specialized techniques to bring out the form
of the proposition. It is done by symbolizing Example : Yogasanas act as bridges to
propositions. unite the body with the mind.
Deductive Logic is concerned with the The above proposition can be symbolized
form of an argument and not with the content of as “A” or by any other capital letter which will
argument. It is form of a proposition. This can be stand for the whole proposition.
done by symbolization.
When an argument contains more number
Use of symbols is convenient and of propositions as components we have to
advantageous, for better understanding of observe following conditions or restrictions.
arguments and drawing of inference from it.
(1) The same propositional constant is to be
Significance of symbolization in Logic – used for symbolizing a proposition if it
occurs again in the same argument (or in
(1) It helps to focus on what is important in
the same compound propositions)
an argument and to ignore unnecessary
details, thus helps to decide it’s validity (2) The same propositional constant can not
easily. be used for different propositions in the
same argument. (or in the same compound
(2) It helps to understand the logical structure
proposition)
of propositions and arguments more
clearly.

18
 Example : Santosh will take salad or for any specific proposition. It only marks or
sandwich. indicates the place of proposition.
Santosh will not take salad. For Example : The expression “if p then
q” indicates that “p” stands for any proposition
Therefore, Santosh will take sandwich. and “q” stands for any other proposition and
In the above example for the proposition these two different propositions are connected
“Santosh will take salad.” we will choose by the expression “if………….then”.
the propositional constant “S” and for the A propositional variable is a symbol used
proposition “Santosh will take sandwich” we to substitute a proposition.
cannot use the same propositional constant “S”.
(as per restriction no.2) so we will have to use When an argument form contains more
different propositional constant, like “D” number of propositions as components we have
to observe following conditions or restrictions.
Example :
(1) The same propositional variable is to be
The first proposition (premise) is substituted by the same proposition if it
Santosh will take salad or sandwich occurs again in the same argument (or in
the same compound proposition)
The symbolization of this proposition will
be (2) The same propositional variable can not be
substituted by different propositions in the
S or D
same argument. (or in the same compound
The second proposition (premise) is proposition)
Santosh will not take salad. In an argument of the following form, for
The symbolization of this proposition will instance by substituting any proposition for “p”
be and any other proposition for “q” we will get
innumerable arguments.
Not S
Example : if p then q
The third proposition (conclusion) is
Not q
Santosh will take sandwich
Therefore Not p
The symbolization of this proposition will
be Example No : 1
Therefore D If a figure is a square then it has four sides.

Thus the argument may now will be The figure does not have four sides.
symbolized thus: Therefore the figure is not a square.
S or D
Example No : 2
Not S
Therefore D If you have a password then you can log
on to the network.
(2) Propositional Variable :
You can not log on to the network.
Propositional variable is defined as
a symbol which stand for any proposition Therefore, you do not have a password.
whatsoever. Small latter p, q, r, s …….. We can substitute any proposition for a
(English alphabet) are used as propositional propositional variable, it is therefore said to be a
variable. Propositional variable does not stand place marker / place holder or dummy letter.

19
 Activity 9. Read the following arguments forms carefully and construct arguments form it.
(1) Either p or q (2) If p then q (3) If p then q
Not p p If q then r
Therefore q Therefore q Therefore If p then r

Propositional Connective symbol Name of the symbol

(1) Not ~ Tilde / Curl
(2) And · Dot
(3) Either ………. Or Ú Wedge
(4) If ……….. then  Horse - shoe
(5) If and only if then º Tripple Bar
(3) Propositional connective – (Truth – Example : (from English Language)
Functional logical operator) –
Why we need commas because
Propositional connective is defined as “I like cooked vegetables, fruits and dogs.”
an expression which operates on proposition is not same as
or propositions or they connects two “I like cooked vegetables fruits
propositions in a truth functional compound and dogs.”
proposition. There are five expressions which
connect component or components in a truth In mathematics, to avoid ambiguity and to
functional compound proposition. The name make meaning clear, punctuation marks appear
of the symbols for five connectives, are given in the form of brackets.
below. These symbols are also called logical Example : 6 + 7  8
constants / operators. It could be 6 + (7  8) or (6 + 7)  8
The propositional connective “not” So, in Logic some punctuation marks
operates on one proposition only. are equally essential, to clear the complicated
Therefore it is known as Monadic operator. propositions. In symbolic Logic parentheses,
brackets and braces are used as a punctuation
On the other hand, the last four connectives marks.
or operators namely [and, either…….or, if…..
then……, if and only if…… then…..] connects (1) Parentheses : It is a symbol ‘( )’ that is put
two propositions. Therefore, they are known as around a word or a phrase or a sentence.
Binary or Dyadic operators. Example : (p · q)  r
Importance of Bracket (s) in symbolization – (2) Box Brackets : It is used to enclose words
or figures. In logic it is used to group
In language punctuation is requires to expressions that include parentheses.
make complicated statements clear.
Example : [ (p · q) Ú (q · p) ] º r
Punctuation are a mark such as full stop,
comma or question mark, exclamation mark,
semicolon, inverted comma etc. which are
used in writing to separate sentences and their
elements and to clarify their meaning.

20
(3) Braces : It is used to group expressions Symbolization :
that include box brackets. Example: { }
Example : Sadanand is not a mathematician.
Example : ~{[(p · q) Ú ( q · p) ] º p }
Step 1: The above example consists of one
Truth functional compound propositions proposition and one propositional operator.
On the basis of five propositional Underline the proposition and put a propositional
connectives, there are five types of Truth operator in the box.
functional compound propositions. They are as
follows – So we will get following expression:

(1) Negative proposition Example :

(2) Conjunctive proposition Sadanand is not a mathematician.

(3) Disjunctive proposition ~S

(4) Material Implicative or Conditional Thus the form of negative proposition is
proposition ‘~ p’. This is read as ‘Not p’.
(5) Material Equivalent or Biconditional Always Remember :
proposition
~ Sign to be written before the letter or
(1) Negative proposition : on the left hand side of the letter.
When any proposition is negated or ~P  P~ 
denied we get negative proposition. Negation is
commonly expressed in English language by the Truth value for negation –
word “Not”. But a proposition can be negated Negation is also known as contradictory
with the help of words like it is not the case function.
that, it is not true that, it is false that, none,
never. A negative statement is true when its
component proposition is false and vice versa.
Example :
Basic truth table for negation :
(1) Sadanand is not a mathematician.
(2) It is false that Ajit is taller than Rajesh. ~ P

(3) It is not true that Urmila is a magician. F T

(4) It is not the case that Ajay is a singer. T F
In Logic we use symbols for propositional (2) Conjunctive Proposition – (conjunction)
connectives as well as propositions. For the
connective “Negation” or the word “not” the When two propositions are joined together
symbol “ ~ “ is used. by truth – functional connective “and” it is
called a conjunctive proposition.
This symbol is called as “Tilde” or
“Curl” The components of conjunctive proposition
are called as Conjuncts.
Using the symbol “~” for negation and the
propositional variable “p” for any proposition The word “and” is called dyadic
whatsoever, we get the form of negative connective or binary operator, as it connects two
propositions as follows : propositions.
~p

21
 Example : Be good and you will be happy. (7) Chocolates are neither nutritious nor
good for teeth.
The above example consists of two
propositions – (8) Mr. Patil is a politician and Sai baba is a
saint.
(1) Be good
Symbolic form of conjunctive
(2) You will be happy. proposition will be as follows :
These are connected by the word “and”. Example : Be good and you will be happy.
Often we use word such as but, though, To symbolize a propositional operator
although, while, yet, also, still, nevertheless, “And” we can use symbol ( · )
however, moreover, further, as well as,
neither……. nor, in the conjunctive sense. Symbolic from of conjunctive proposition
is as follows:
Example :
‘p · q’
(1) The lion is called king of the forest and it
has a majestic appearance. Example : Sugandha is a mother and a
grandmother.
(2) I want to go to the party, but I am tired.
Above proposition consists of two parts
(3) Gauri is playing, while Varsha is studying. (components)
(4) The couch was shouting, yet the players (1) Sugandha is a mother.
remained noisy.
(2) Sugandha is a grandmother.
(5) Hemangi kept working even though she
was tired. These two parts or components of a
conjunctive proposition are called as Conjuncts
(6) It’s a small house still it is spacious. in the language of Logic.

Sugandha is a mother and a grandmother.

(First conjunct) (Second conjunct)
Thus symbolization of above proposition is M·G
Thus the form of conjunctive proposition is ‘p · q’. It is read as ‘ p and q’.

Truth Value : Basic truth table for conjunction :

A conjunctive proposition is a kind of truth p · q
functional compound proposition. Hence, the
truth value of a conjunctive proposition depends T T T
on its components i.e. conjuncts. T F F
A conjunctive proposition is true only F F T
when both the conjuncts are true otherwise it
is false. F F F

22
(3) Disjunctive proposition – (Disjunction) Example :
When two propositions are joined together Either he is rich or poor.
by truth functional connective …. ‘either …….
…… or’, it is called a disjunctive proposition. In the above example there are two
The word “either …… Or” is called dyadic propositions.
connective or binary operator, which connects (1) he is rich
two statements. The components of disjunctive
proposition are called as “Disjuncts”. (2) he is poor

Example : These two propositions are connected

by truth – functional connective or logical
(1) Either I will go to Prague or Vienna. connective” Either…………..Or”.
(2) Either she is weak or coward. Form of the disjunctive proposition is
(3) The car is either blue or red. “p Ú q”. This is read as “p or q”.

Symbolization :
Either he is rich or he is poor.

Proposition Logical connective or operator Proposition

(First disjunct) (Second disjunct)

R Ú P
Therefore, symbolization of the above proposition will be:
RÚP
Form of disjunctive proposition is ‘p Ú q’. This is read as ‘p or q’.

Truth Value : Disjunctive proposition may be used in

the inclusive (weak) sense or exclusive (strong)
A disjunctive proposition is a kind of truth sense.
functional compound proposition. Hence, the
truth value of a disjunctive proposition depends (1) The Inclusive or weak sense of “OR” –
on its components i.e. disjuncts.
When both the disjuncts can be true, the
A disjunctive proposition is false, only word or is said to be used in inclusive sense.
when both the disjuncts are false otherwise it
Rajvi is either a mother or an actress.
is true.
In the above proposition there are two
Basic truth table for disjunction :
disjuncts.
p Ú q
(1) Rajvi is a mother.
T T T
(2) Rajvi is an actress.
T T F
Both these disjuncts can be true together
F T T because a person can be both a mother and an
actress.
F F F

23
 In other words the statement can be (4) Material Implicative or Conditional
interpreted as “either p or q or both”. Means “p” proposition –
alone can be true, “q” alone can be true and both
When two propositions are joined together
can be true together but cannot be false.
by truth functional connective if …… then
(2) Exclusive or strong sense of OR : ……. it is called an implicative proposition.
When both the disjuncts cannot be true Example :
together, the word “Or” is said to be used in
(1) If you want a good pet then you should
exclusive sense.
get a dog.
Example : Either it is a sparrow or a crow.
(2) If my car is out of fuel then it will not run.
In the above proposition there are two
(3) If a figure is a rhombus then it is not a
disjuncts.
rectangle.
(1) A bird is a sparrow.
4] If you do all the exercises in the book, you
(2) A bird is a crow. will get full marks in the exam.
Both these disjuncts cannot be true 5] If it is a molecule then it is made up of
together. If one is true, other is necessarily atoms.
(exclusively) false.
(sometimes ‘ , ’ (coma) is used instead of
In other words this can be interpreted as, word “then”)
either “p” is true or “q” is true but both cannot
Words indicating implicative proposition
be true together. i.e. if a bird is a sparrow then it
– The expression like “if ………then”, “in
cannot be a crow or vice versa.
case”, “had it”, “unless” (if not) indicate that
In logic, disjunctive proposition is used the proposition is a conditional proposition.
in the inclusive sense only.

If it rains then the trains will run late.

Proposition 1 Proposition 2
If ……….. then ………. is logical operator.
The symbolic expression :
RT
Thus, the form of the implicative proposition is “ p  q. This is read as “if p then q” or “p
implies q”.

An implicative proposition is also called The proposition that states the condition
as conditional proposition because they state is called as antecedent and the proposition that
the condition and its consequences. states result is called as consequent.

Example :
If she is tall then she can become a model.
Condition Result

antecedent consequent

24
Truth value : The expression “if and only if ” indicates
that the statements is a biconditional statement.
An implicative proposition is false only
when its antecedent is true and its consequent Example :
is false. Otherwise it is always true.
Birds fly if and only if sky is clear.
Basic truth table for material implication :
Proposition 1 logical proposition 2
P  q connective
T T T The symbolic expression :
T F F BºS
F T T OR
F T F SºB
(5) Material Equivalent or Biconditional Thus, the form of the biconditional
proposition. – statement is “ p º q”. This is read as “if and
A biconditional proposition is a compound only if p then q “or” “p is materially equivalent
proposition in which two component propositions to q”.
materially imply each other. Truth value :
When two propositions are joined together A biconditional proposition is true if and
by truth – functional connective if and only if only if both the components have the same
…. then…, it is called as an material equivalent truth value. i.e. either both the components
proposition. are true or both the components are false.
Example : Otherwise the statement is false.

(1) You can take a flight if and only if you Basic true table for material equivalance :
buy a ticket. p º q
(2) Two angles are congruent if and only if T T T
their measurements are equal.
T F F
(3) You can enter the theatre if and only if
you have the entry pass. F F T
(4) If and only if you study hard, you will F T F
pass.
Activity : 10
Always remember
(1) I will go to a mall.
‘ ,’ (coma) is used to make the statement
meaningful. (2) I will go to a movie.
In a conditional statement antecedent (3) I will go to gym
implies consequent but consequent does not
imply the antecedent. In biconditional statement, Use the above propositions and construct
however, the first component implies the second 5 types of truth functional propositions.
and the second component also implies the first.

25
 2.4 Symbolising compound proposition :

(1) Roses are red and Jasmines are white.

Proposition 1 logical connective proposition 2
R · J
So, we will answer this with the help of two steps.
Symbolization : R·J
Kind of proposition : Conjunctive proposition.

(2) He is poor but not hardworking.

Proposition 1 logical connective proposition 2
P ·~ H
Symbolization : P·~H
Kind of proposition : Conjunctive proposition

(3) Mira is not both a good singer and a good (7) Either Sun is a star or not a star.
actress.
Symbolization : SV~S
Symbolization : ~ (S · A)
Kind of proposition : Disjunctive proposition
Kind of proposition : Negative proposition.
(8) Neither it is hot nor cold today.
(4) If the road is wet, then either it has rained
today or the fire truck spilled water on the Symbolization : ~H·~C
road. Kind of proposition : Conjuctive proposition
Symbolization : W  (R Ú F) (9) If fast food is not healthy then one must
Kind of proposition : Implicative or conditional not eat it.
proposition.
Symbolization : ~H~E
(5) He goes to play a match if and only if it
Kind of proposition : Implicative or Conditional
does not rain.
proposition.
Symbolization : ~RºM
(10) A living being is either mortal or immortal.
Kinds of proposition : Equivqlent or Bi –
conditional proposition. Symbolization : MÚI

(6) It is false that if and only if I will go to Kind of proposition : Disjunctive proposition.
Australia, I will earn money.
Symbolization : ~ (A º M)
Kind of proposition : Negative proposition.

26
 Monadic operator Dyadic operator
(1) It operates on one proposition. (1) It operates on or connects two propositions.
(2) ~ is a monadic operator. (2) ·, , Ú, º are dyadic or binary operator.

Always remember
All dyadic connectives are always placed in between the two component proposition.
p·q  ·pq 
p Ú q  Úpq 
p  q  pq 
p º q  ºpq 

Summary
Proposition : A proposition is a sentences which is either true or false. Most logicians use the
words, “proposition” and “ statements” in the same sense. If a proposition represents facts, it is
true, Otherwise, it is false.
Proposition and a sentence : A proposition is expressed in the form of a sentence. However,
proposition differs from a sentence.
In /modern propositional logic, proposition are classified into –
(1) Simple Proposition :
(a) Subject less proposition
(b) Subject – Predicate Proposition
(c) Relational Proposition –
(d) Class – membership proposition
(2) Compound Proposition –
(a) Truth – functional compound proposition.
(b) Non – truth functional compound proposition.
Classification of Truth functional compound proposition –
(1) Negative proposition
(2) Conjunctive proposition
(3) Disjunctive proposition
(4) Material Implication or conditional proposition
(5) Material Equivalent or Biconditional proposition
Modern Logicians use constants, variables, logical operators and brackets for symbolizing
propositions.

27
 Exercises

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words 7. The symbol  is a logical operator.
from those given in the brackets: 8. A proposition is neither true nor false.
1. ……… is a basic unit of Logic. (Sentence 9. In class – membership proposition,
/ Proposition) predicated is general.
2. A proposition is conveyed through a ……. 10. The components of disjunctive proposition
(Statement / Sentence) are called as disjuncts.
3. If a proposition represents a fact, it is said
to be ……… (False / True) Q. 3. Match the columns :

4. Only ……… sentences are proposition. Group (A) Group (B)

(Declarative / Exclamatory) 1. Sentence a. v
5. ……… proposition does not contain 2. Dyadic Connective b. Negation
any other proposition as its component. 3. Strong Disjunction c. Conjunctive
(Simple / Compound) proposition
6. A, B, C, D are …….. (Propositional 4. ~ (p Ú q) d. Either he is tall
Constant / Propositional Variable) or short.
7. ‘ · ’ is a ……… connective. (Binary / 5. And, yet, still etc. e. physical existence
Monadic)
Q. 4. Give logical terms for the following :
8. In logic disjunctive proposition is used
in the ………… sense only. (Exclusive / 1. It is a meaningful group of words in a
Inclusive) grammatical order.
9. An implicative proposition is false when 2. A proposition asserts that an individual is
its ….. is true and ….. is false. (Consequent a member of a class.
/ Antecedent) 3. It is a symbol which stands for any
10. The symbol used for a biconditional proposition whatsoever.
proposition is ….. . (º / Ú) 4. The components of disjunctive proposition.
Q. 2. State whether the following statements 5. Truth or falsity of proposition.
are true or false.
Q. 5. Give reasons for the following :
1. The premise and conclusion are known as
1. ‘~’ is called a monadic operator.
prpopsitions.
2. When we negate simple proposition we
2. Every sentence asserts a proposition.
get compound proposition.
3. A proposition is false, if it stands for actual
3. Equivalent proposition is also called as
state of affairs.
Bi-conditional proposition.
4. When we negate simple proposition, we
4. “Suresh is either a doctor or a teacher’ is
get a compound proposition.
an inclusive sense of disjunction.
5. A conjunctive proposition is false, when
5. When we use symbols, the expression
any one conjunct is false.
becomes much more shorter.
6. A variable is not proposition but is a “place
holder” for any proposition.

28
Q. 6. Explain the following : 11. Either Danashree is a talented musician or
1. Basic unit of logic she is not. (M)

2. Conjunctive proposition 12. If Ramesh was warm and caring person

then I am an alien from outer space.
3. Logical operator. (W, C, A)
4. Truth – functional compound proposition 13. B.E.S.T. is the heart of Mumbai city. (M)
Q. 7. Answer the following questions. 14. If “Ted Talks’ are informative and
1. Explain the difference between proposition inspirational then people will follow it.
and sentence. (I, N, P)
2. All propositions are sentences but all 15. She is simple yet presentable. (S, P)
sentences are not proposition. Explain. 16. If the road is wet then either it rains today
3. What are the restrictions on a propositional or the water tanker spill water on the road.
constants? Explain with example. (R, T, W)
4. When a conjunctive proposition is true 17. You are not allowed to take leave without
and false? permission. (L)
5. What is the difference between 18. It is not the case that Bhalchandra is a
conditional proposition and Bi-conditional superstar and not a superstar. (S)
proposition. 19. Either cat fur or dog fur was found at the
Q. 8. Symbolize the following propositions scene of the crime. (C, D)
using appropriate symbols given in the 20. Siddharth Mukherjee is a cancer physician
bracket and identify their kind: and winner of the 2011 Pulitzer Prize.
1. He is creative and hardworking. (C, H) (P, W)
2. If a student completes academic course 21. It is false that if Ranjit is a good singer
then he will be graduated. (A, G) then he will be a great musician. (G, M)
3. It is false that parking is prohibited in this 22. If company does not increase the salary
area. (P) of the workers then the union will go on
strike. (S. U)
4. If and only if Viraj scores double century,
we will win the match. (V, M) 23. The Young inventor Richard Turere
invented “lion lights” an elegant way
5. This tour is not both safe and exciting.
to protect his family’s cattle from lion
(S, E)
attacks. (E)
6. It is not the case that, the professor will take
24. Himalaya is snowy and majestic. (S. M)
a leave if and only if the administration
allow him. (P, A) 25. If Mom’s brinjal plants are ruined then an
elephant was walking in her garden. (B, E)
7. Pizza and Burger is a perfect combination
(P, B) 26. Sujata will eat the fruit if and only if it is
mango. (F, M)
8. She is neither well behaved nor humble.
(W, H) 27. If sharks are disturbed then they become
aggressive. (D, A)
9. I will buy this dress if and only if it is not
expensive. (D, E) 28. It is true that poverty is a worst enemy of
man. (P)
10. Puranpoli is delicious, but it is not good
for diabetic patient. (P, D)

29
29. Either no students are interested in 35. If Seema is in Denmark, then she is in
giving feedback or it is not the case that Europe and If Seema is not in Europe, then
administration requires the students’ she is not in Denmark. (S. E)
feedback. (F, A) 36. Memory Banda is Malawian children’s
30. If hydrochloric acid (HCI) and sodium rights activist who has drawn international
hydroxide (NaOH) are combined, then attention for her work in opposition to
table salt (NaCI) will be produced. child marriage. (M)
(H, S, T) 37. If a triangle is equilateral then its angles
31. Success does not mean a lot of money or all measure 60 and if all the angles of a
gaining lot of fame. (M,G) triangle measure 60 then the triangle is
32. If the pavement is not wet, then it did not equilateral. (T, A)
rain. (W, R) 38. If I pass then I will have a party and if I fail
33. Cats are good pets and they are affectionate. then also I will have a party. (P, T, F)
(P, A) 39. Swayam talks is not just another talk
34. Omkar ran fast but he missed the train. series but its presentation make it a unique
(F, T) concept. (T, U)
40. Either Leena will learn music or dance.
(M, D)

Activity 11 : Complete the following table

Sr. No. Kinds of Proposition Propositional connective symbol
1. ‘’
2. Conjunctive Proposition
3. Either ….. Or …..
4. Negative Proposition
5. º

v v v

30
 Chapter 3 Decision Procedure

The concept of decision procedure is predominantly concerned with the concept of decidability.

DO YOU KNOW THAT ..............

Logic can help us to determine correctness of certain reasoning by formulating tables.
Some statement forms are always false.
When you ask your friend, would you go to London or Paris, he can choose both.

3.1 CONCEPT OF DECISION always gives a correct answer, provided

PROCEDURE we use the method and rules correctly.

In the earlier chapter, we have studied (2) Mechanical : A decision procedure is

about the nature of proposition, its kinds and its mechanical ie just by following certain
basic truth values. In this chapter, we are going steps in a certain order one can get an
to study the procedure for deciding the validity answer. There is no scope for one's
of arguments. In logic, we use the decision imagination and intelligence.
procedure (method) to decide whether a truth
(3) Finite : A decision procedure must be
functional form is Tautologous, Contradictory
finite ie it should have limited number
or Contingent. It also tests whether an argument
of steps. There should be a last step for
is valid or invalid. Decision Procedure may be
getting the answer.
defined as a method of deciding whether an
object belongs to a certain class. 3.2 NATURE OF TRUTH TABLE
There are five types of Decision Procedures: Truth table is one of the decision
procedures. A truth table is defined as a
(1) Truth Table
tabular way of expressing the truth value
(2) Shorter Truth Table of expressions containing propositional
connectives (a truth functionally compound
(3) Truth Tree statement).
(4) Conjunctive Normal Form Procedure of Construction of a truth
table (for truth – functional statement form)
(5) Disjunctive Normal Form
(1) To construct a truth table we shall first
In this text we shall study the method of
make two columns: one on the left hand
constructing Truth Table as a decision procedure.
side for the matrix and the other on the right
Characteristics of decision procedure : hand side for the truth – functional form
for which the truth table is constructed.
A decision procedure must be effective,
to be an effective decision procedure certain Example : (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
conditions need to be fulfilled. – Matrix Truth – Functional Form
(1) Reliable : A decision procedure must be (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
reliable. A reliable procedure is one which

31
 The first step is to write down the Truth (4) Fourth step is to construct the matrix.
functional form in the column for Truth
functional form. A matrix consists of all the possible
combinations of the truth values of the
(2) The second step is to write down in the propositional variables in the truth
matrix column all the distinct variables function or argument.
occurred in the truth functional form.
(a) Matrix for one variable
In above example, there are two, distinct
variables 'p' and 'q'. So we write them as Example : (p · p) Ú p
follows. Matrix Truth – Functional Form
Matrix Truth – Functional Form p (p · p) Ú p
p q (q Ú p ) º [(p · q)  p] T

(3) The third step is to determine the number F

of rows the truth table will have. The (b) Matrix for two variables:-
number of rows depends upon the number
of propositional variables, occurred in the Example : (p Ú q)  (q  p)
truth functional form. The simple formula Matrix Truth – Functional Form
is,
p q (p Ú q)  (q  p)
2n = Number of rows.
T T
(n = Number of distinct variables occurring T F
in the expression)
F T
No. of No. of F F
distinct rows
variable (c) Matrix for three variables:-
Example : p º (q · r)
21 2x1 2
Matrix Truth – Functional Form
22 2x2 4
p q r p º (q · r)
23 2x2x2 8 T T T
24 2x2x2x2 16 T T F
25 2x2x2x2x2 32 T F T
T F F
Activity : 1 F T T
26 = = F T F
F F T
27 = =
F F F

32
Always Remember Let us continue with same example

The propositional variables are written in Matrix Truth – Functional Form

the alphabetical order in the matrix. p q (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
E.g. (r Ú q) · r T T
Matrix Truth – Functional Form T F
q r (r Ú q) · r
F T
T T
F F
T F
F T (5) Let us construct the truth table. In the
above truth – functional form, there are two
F F distinct variables i. e,. 'p' and 'q', wherever
'p' occurs in the truth functional form we
Activity 2 : 1 shall write down the truth values written
under 'p' in the matrix. Then wherever 'q'
Construct matrix for 4 variables i.e. p, q, r, s
occurs in the truth function we shall write
Construct matrix for 5 variables i.e, p, q, r, down the truth – values written under 'q' in
s, t. the matrix. After assigning the values to 'p'
and 'q' variables, the truth table will be as
Activity 2:2 Complete the matrix column follows.
Activity : 1 Matrix Truth – Functional Form
r (r  r) Ú (r · r) p q (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
T T T T T T T
T F F T T F T
Activity : 2 F T T F F T F
q (t · q) º (q Ú t) F F F F F F F
(6) In the previous chapter, we have learnt
the basic truth values of compound
propositions. Accordingly we shall now
determine the truth value of the truth
Activity : 3 functional form.
Example : (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
(p Ú s) º (p  s)
v In our expression, 'º' is the main
Activity : 4 connective.
(r  s) · (p º t) (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]

33
v First we shall find out the truth value of v Finally, let us determine the truth value
the expression on the left – hand side of of material equivalent statement which
the truth functional form, i.e. disjunction is the main connective i.e. between
between 'q' and 'p' as follows. (q Ú p) and [(p · q)  p] which will give
us the truth value of truth – functional
Matrix Truth – Functional Form form under all possibilities. We need to
P q (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p] consider disjunction in the left bracket and
implication in the right bracket. Taking
T T T T T T T T these two values, we will determine the
T F F T T T F T value of equivalence which is the main
connective.
F T T T F F T F
Thus, the final truth table will be as
F F F F F F F F follows:
v Then, we shall determine the truth value Matrix Truth – Functional Form
of the expression on the right – hand side
of the truth functional form i.e the value of p q (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
conjunction between 'p' and 'q' as follows. T T T T T T T T T T T
Matrix Truth – Functional Form T F F T T T T F F T T
P q (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p] F T T T F T F F T T F
T T T T T T T T T F F F F F F F F F T F
T F F T T T F F T This truth table shows that under the main
F T T T F F F T F connective, only in one possibility i.e, in
the fourth row, the truth functional form is
F F F F F F F F F false. In remaining possibilities it is true.
v Let us determine the truth value of the v Let us understand truth table with more
conditional statement between conjunction examples.
i.e., p · q and variable 'p' to the right side.
Example 2 : (~ r · ~ p)  (r Ú ~ p)
Matrix Truth – Functional Form
Matrix Truth – Functional Form
P q (q Ú p) º [(p · q)  p]
p r (~ r · ~ p)  (r Ú ~ p)
T T T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F T T T T F T
T F F T T T F F T T
T F T F F F T T F F F T
F T T T F F F T T F
F T F T F T F T T T T F
F F F F F F F F T F
F F T F T T F T F T T F

34
Example 3 : ~ (t Ú q) · ~ (~ t · ~ q) (1) Tautology :
Matrix Truth – Functional Form A tautology is a truth functional
statement form which is "True" under
q t ~ ( t Ú q) · ~ (~ t · ~ q) all truth possibilities of its components.
T T F T T T F T F T F F T It means that in the truth table for a
tautology truth value "True" appears under
T F F F T T F T T F F F T the main connective in all the rows. Thus,
tautology is a statement form which has all
F T F T T F F T F T F T F
true substitution instances.
F F T F F F F F T F T T F
Example : (p · ~ p)  ~ p
Activity : 3
Matrix Truth - Functional Form
Complete the following tables
p (p · ~ p)  ~ p
Matrix Truth – Functional Form
T T FF T T F T
q (q  ~ q) · ~ q
F F FT F T T F
T F F T In the above statement form, truth value T's
F F appear under the main connective, so the
given truth functional form is tautology.
(2) Contradiction :
Matrix Truth – Functional Form
A contradiction is defined as a truth
p s t t º (p Ú s) functional statement form which is
'False' under all truth possibilities of
TTT T T its components. It means that in the truth
table for a contradiction truth value 'False'
TTF F
appears under the main connective in all
TFT T the rows. A contradiction is a statement
form which has only 'False' substitution
TFF T instances.

FTT F Example : (p º ~ p) · ( ~ p  p )
Matrix Truth - Functional Form
FTF F T T
P (p º ~ p) · ( ~ p  p)
FFT F
T T F FT F F T T T
FFF T
F F F T F F T F F F
Concept of Tautology, Contradiction
and Contingency In the above statement form, truth value
F' s appears under the main connective,
The truth functional statement forms so the given truth functional form is
are broadly classified into three kinds. contradiction.
They are Tautology, Contradiction and
Contingency.

35
(3) Contingency : Let us now construct truth table for some
truth – functional statement forms and
A contingency is defined as a truth
determine whether they are tautology,
functional statement form which is
contradiction or contingency.
'True' as well as 'False' under some
truth possibilities of its components. Example 1 : : ~ [p · (p Ú ~ p) ]  (p  p)
It means that in the truth table for
contingency truth value 'True' as well as Matrix Truth Functional Form
'False' appears under the main connectives p ~ [p · (p Ú ~ p) ]  (p  p)
in truth possibilities. Thus contingency is
a statement form which has some true as T F TT TT F T T T T T
well as false substitution instances. F T FF FT T F T F T F
Example : (p · ~ p) º ( p  ~ p) Example 2 :
Matrix Truth - Functional Form Matrix Truth - Functional Form
P (p · ~ p) º (p  ~ p) pqr (p  q) Ú r
T T FF T T T F F T TTT T T T T T
F F FT F F F T T F TTF T T T T F
In the above truth functional statement TFT T F F T T
form T's and F' s appears under the main
connective. So, the given propositional TFF T F F F F
form is a contingency.
FTT F T T T T
Relation between Tautology,
FTF F T T T F
Contradiction and Contingency:
FFT F T F T T
(1) Denial of tautology leads to contradiction.
FFF F T F T F
For Example : the truth – functional form
'(p · p)  p ' is a tautology. Its denial i.e. Example 3 :
~ [(p · p)  p]is a contradiction.
~ (q Ú p) · ~ (~ q · ~ p)
(2) Denial of contradiction leads to tautology.
Matrix Truth 0 Functional Form
For Example : the truth – functional form
' (p · ~ p)' is a contradiction. Its denial i.e. p q ~ (q Ú p) · ~ (~ q · ~ p)
~ (p · ~ p) is a tautology. T T F TTT FTFTFFT
(3) Denial of contingency leads to contingency. T F F FTT FTTFFFT
For Example : the truth -functional form F T F TTF FTFTFTF
(~p ·q) is a contingency. Its denial i.e.
~ (~p ·q) is a contigency. F F T FFF FFTFTTF

Activity : 4
State whether the above statement forms
are tautology, contradiction or contingency
with reason.

36
 Activity : 5 Let's symbolize the given argument.

Construct the truth table for the following v Symbolization of an argument

truth – functional forms and determine (1) I·C
whether they are tautologies, contradictions
(2) I
or contingencies.
(3) C
1. (~ q  ~ p) º (p  q)
IVC
2. p Ú (q · r)
v Now we will convert the given symbolized
3. (~p · p) Ú p argument in argument form.

3.3 Truth table as a decision procedure (1) p·q

for arguments (2) p
An a argument is a group of statements. (3) q
An argument consists of simple and truth – pÚq
functionally compound propositions.
Let's now examine a truth table method
to determine an argument form to be valid or
invalid.
Example :
Amita is intelligent and courageous.
Amita is intelligent.
Amita is courageous.
Therefore either Amita is intelligent or
courageous.
(I, C)

v Now let us construct a truth table for a given argument form. Write down the matrix and then
column for premises and conclusion in a single row in order.
Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise 3 Conclusion
p q p·q p q p Úq
v Construct a matrix for a given argument form, then assign the truth - values under each variables.

Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise 3 Conclusion

p q p·q P q pÚq

TT T T T T T T
T F T F T F T F
F T F T F T F T
F F F F F F F F

37
 • By using the truth values of propositions, assign the truth value to the premises and conclusion
separately.
Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise 3 Conclusion
p q p · q P q pÚq

T T T T T T T T TT
T F T F F T F TT F
F T F F T F T FTT
F F F F F F F FFF
Also, highlight the column under the v Symbolization of an argument
main connective of each premise and
conclusion. (1) M·I
v Next step is the criteria of deciding the (2) M
validity of an argument. In the first chapter,
we have learnt that in case of a valid (3) ~I
deductive argument, if all the premises are v Argument form :
true, its conclusion is also true. It cannot
be false. (1) p·q
Accordingly, to determine whether the (2) p
given argument form is valid, one should
~q
see all the rows in which all the premises
are true. If in these rows, the conclusion Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
is also true, then the argument is valid.
Even if in one such row where all the p q p · q P ~ q
premises are true, and the conclusion is T T T T T T F T
false. Then the argument is invalid.
T F T F F T T F
v We need to select those rows where
premises are true. In our example, only F T F F T F F T
in the first row, all the three premises are
true and conclusion is also true. Therefore F F F F F F T F
the given argument form is valid. The All the premises are true only in row no. 1
argument being substitution instance of wherein the conclusion in false. Therefore
this form is also valid. the given argument is substitution instance
Let's Determine the validity of some of this argument form and therefore the
more arguments: above argument is invalid.
(1) Macro Economics and Micro Economics (2) Either Nainital is a city or it is a beautiful
are sub branches of Economics. hill station.
Macro Economics is a sub branch of Nainital is not a city.
Economics.
Therefore it is a beautiful hill station
Therefore, the Micro Economics is not a
sub branch of Economics (C, H)
(M, I)

38
v Symbolization of an argument v Argument form :
(1) CÚH (1) pÚq
(2) ~C (2) ~p
H q
Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
p q p Ú q ~ P q
T T T T T F T T
T F T T F F T F
F T F T T T F T
F F F F F T F F

All the premises are true only in row no. 3 v Symbolization of an argument
wherein even the conclusion is 'true'. Therefore
the argument form is valid. The given argument (1) (P Ú K)  J
is substitution instance of this argument form (2) ~P·~K
and therefore the above argument is valid.
~J
(3) If either mobile games are helpful in
development of personality or in achieving v Argument from :
knowledge then it is useful in securing
(1) (p Ú q)  r
jobs.
Mobile games are neither helpful in (2) p·~q
development of personality nor in ~r
achieving knowledge.
Therefore mobile games are not useful in
securing job.
(P, K, J)
Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
pq r (p Ú q)  r ~p·~q ~r
TTT TTT T T FTFFT FT
TTF TTT F F FTFFT TF
TFT TTF T T FTFTF FT
TFF TTF T F FTFTF TF
FTT FTT T T TFFFT FT
FTF FTT F F TFFFT TF
FFT FFF T T TFTTF FT
FFF FFF T F TFTTF TF

39
 All the premises are true in 7th and 8th v Symbolization of an argument
row wherein the 8th row conclusion is true.
But in 7th row where the premises are true but (1) T·P
the conclusion is false. Therefore the given (2) ~O~P
argument form is invalid. The given argument
is substitution instance of this argument form. ~O
Therefore the above argument is invalid. v Argument form :
(4) Dr. Krishnan was a teacher and a
(1) p·q
philosopher.
If Dr. Krishnan was not a politician then (2) ~r~q
he was not a philosopher. ~r
Therefore, Dr. Krishanan was not a
politician. (T, P, O)
Matrix Premise 1 Premise 2 Conclusion
pq r p·q ~r~q ~r
TTT TTT FTTFT FT
TTF TTT TFFFT TF
TFT TFF FTTTF FT
TFF TFF TFTTF TF
FTT FFT FTTFT FT
FTF FFT T F F FT TF
FFT FFF FTTTF FT
FFF FFF TFTTF TF
All the premises are true in the 1st row and the conclusion is false. Therefore the given argument
form is invalid. The given argument is substitution instance of this argument form. Therefore the
above argument is invalid.
Activity : 6
With the help of truth table method determine whether the following arguments are valid or
invalid.
(1) If examinations are held on time then the results will not be delayed.
It is not true that examinations are not held on time.
Therefore the results will not be delayed. (E, R)
(2) If workers join the strike then the production will suffer.
Either workers do not join the strike or production will not suffer.
Production does not suffer.
Therefore workers do not join the strike. (W, P)
(3) If Hiteksha studies hard then her mother will be happy and if she joins games then her friends
will be happy.
Either she studies hard or she joins games.
Therefore either her mother will be happy or her friends will not be happy. (S, M, G, F)

40
 the instructions for construction of matrix and
3.4 Truth table as decision procedure :
the order of constructing the rows of truth values
Truth table method is one of the effective then the method will always be correct.
decision procedures by which we can solve the
Truth table method is also mechanical. It
problem of deciding whether a propositional
goes step by step in a systematic manner. It does
form is tautology, contradiction or contingency.
not require any imagination or intelligence or
And also decides whether an argument form is
abstract principles to solve the problem.
valid or invalid.
Truth table method is finite. It has a limited
It satisfies all the conditions of effective
number of steps. There is a last step in truth table
decision procedure. i.e. reliable, mechanical and
for getting the answer.
finite.
Truth table method is reliable. It always
gives correct answer. The method never fails if
one follows the basic truth values of propositions,

Summary
• A decision Procedure is a method which decides whether a proposition belongs to certain
class.
• Truth table is a tabular way of expressing the truth values of the truth functional statements.
• Truth table method is a decision procedure which helps us to decide whether propositional
form is tautology, contradictory, contingent.
• Truth table tests the validity and invalidity of arguments.
• Truth table method is an effective decision procedure as it is reliable, mechanical and finite.

41
 Exercises

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words Q. 2. State whether the following statement
given in the brackets. are true or false.
(1) ……....… is a tabular way of expressing (1) There are many decision procedures.
the truth value of any truth functional (2) The truth table method is an effective
compound proposition. decision procedure.
(Truth table, Truth tree)
(3) The truth table method is mechanical.
(2) A tautology is a truth – functional
propositional form which is ……....… (4) A contradiction is a truth functional
under all truth possibilities of its propositional form which is true under all
components. (True, False) truth possibilities of its components.
(3) A contradiction is a truth – functional (5) A contingency is a truth – functional
propositional form which is ……....… propositional form which is true under
under all truth possibilities of its some and false under some truth
components. (True, False) possibilities of its components.
(4) A …….. is a truth – functional proposition (6) A tautology is a truth – functional
which is true under some and false under propositional form which is true under all
some truth possibilities of its components. the truth – possibilities of its components.
(Contradiction, Contingency) (7) The method of truth table requires use of
(5) By denying a tautology, we get a ……....… intelligence.
(Contingency, Contradiction) (8) In the truth – table method, the matrix is
written on the left hand side.
(6) By denying a contradiction, we can get a
……....… (Tautology, Contingency) (9) Propositional form contains propositional
variables.
(7) By denying a contingency, we can get a
……....… (Tautology, Contingency) (10) The method of truth table can be used to
test the validity of all types of arguments.
(8) p Ú ~ p is a ……....… (Tautology,
Contradiction) Q. 3. Match the column.
(9) ~ (p • ~ p) is a ……....… (Tautology, (A) (B)
Contingency) 1. Tautology a. Always false
(10) p • ~ p is a ……....… 2. Decision b. Sometimes true and
(Contingency, Contradiction) procedure sometimes false
(11) The truth table method can also be used 3. Contradiction c. Truth table
for testing the ……....… of arguments. 4. Contingency d. Always true
(Validity, Reliability)
Q. 4. Give logical terms for the following.
(12) ~ (p Ú ~ p) is a ……....…
(1) A method of deciding whether an object
(Tautology, Contradiction) belongs to a certain class.
(13) p Ú q is a ……....… (2) A tabular way of expressing the truth value
(Contingency, Contradiction) of expressions containing propositional
connectives.

42
(3) A column consists of all possible (6) Differentiate between contradiction and
combinations of the truth values of the continguency.
propositional variables in the truth function (7) Why is truth table method called
or argument. mechanical?
(4) A truth functional statement form which (8) Differentiate between tautology and
is 'True' under all truth possibilities of its contingency.
components.
(5) A truth functional statement form which Q. 8. Construct truth – table to determine
is 'False' under all truth-possibilities of its whether the following statement forms
components. are tautologous, contradictory or
contingent
(6) A truth-functional statement form which is
'True' as well as 'False' under some truth (1) p·~p
possibilities of its components. (2) p É (q É p)
Q. 5. Give reasons for the following : (3) P V (r · p)
(1) Truth table is an effective decision (4) (r Ú q ) º r
procedure.
(5) (~ t · q) É (q É t)
(2) By denying tautology, we get contradiction.
(6) (p É ~ p) · (~ p É q)
(3) By denying contradiction, we get
tautology. (7) p É (p Ú r)
(4) By denying contingency, we get (8) ~ q É (q · q)
contingency. (9) (t É t) · (t É ~ t)
Q. 6. Explain the following : (10) [(p É s) · p] É s
(1) Decision procedure (11) [q Ú (p · ~ q)] º [~ p · (q Ú p)]
(2) Tautology
(12) (p É t) · ~ (~ p Ú p)
(3) Contradiction
(13) (~ p · p) É [(s Ú ~ p) · (~ s Ú ~ p)]
(4) Contingency
(14) (p · p) Ú ~ p
(5) Truth table method as an effective decision
procedure (15) ~ { ~ p É [(p · q) Ú p ] }

Q. 7. Answer the following questions : (16) ~ (p Ú q) · ~ ( ~ p · ~ q)

(1) What is decision procedure? What are (17) [(p · (q · r)] º [(p · q) · r]
the conditions of an effective decision (18) [(p Ú q) · ~ p] É q
procedure?
(19) ( t º ~ q) É (~ q É t)
(2) Differentiate between statement form and
argument form. (20) [ p É ( r · q)] º [(p É q) · (p É r )]
(3) What is truth table? How to construct a Q. 9. With the help of truth table method, test
truth table? the validity of the following arguments:
(4) Differentiate between tautology and (1) ~MÉN
contradiction.
~N
(5) How do we determine the number of rows
in the truth table? \M·N

43
(2) (P Ú Q) · p (13) ~ E · M
\P ~ (M º E)
(3) P É (Q · R) \~M
~QÚ~R (14) C É F
\~P ~F·C
(4) QÉp \~C
~P (15) G º W
\Q ~W
(5) (P · Q) É R ~G

~R \WÉG

\Q Q. 10. Symbolize the following arguments

using propositional constants given in
(6) (~ P V Q) É P the bracket and state whether they are
PÉR valid or invalid by using the method of
truth table.
\ (P É Q) É R
(1) Either Germans are disciplined or they are
(7) ~QVP not progressive. Germans are disciplined.
\PÉQ Therefore they are not progressive.
(D, P)
(8) (P º Q) É R
(2) Nitin Shankar is a rhythm aranger.
R Therefore it is false that Nitin Shankar is
\~PVQ both a rhythm arranger and a singer.
(R, S)
(9) ~QºS
(3) If Picasso was not an Italian artist, then
PºQ he was an explorer. Picasso was not an
\QV~P explorer. Therefore, Picasso was either an
Italian artist or a dancer.
(10) ~ (A · B)
(A, E, D)
~B
(4) It is not the case that Kalansh is serious
\A and humorous. Kalansh is humorous.
Therefore he is not serious.
(11) J V K
(S, H)
~J
(5) It is false that if Sparsh opts for
\~K mathematics, then he cannot offer history.
(12) M É ~ B Sparsh does not opt history. Therefore he
opts for mathematics, but not history.
~BVM (M, H)
\B·M (6) Durvansh plays vollyball. Hence Durvansh
plays vollyball but not football.
(V, F)

44
(7) If a man overeats, then he either invites (12) Either the books are interesting or
diabetes or develops heart problems. informative. If the books are informative,
Some men have both diabetes and heart then they improve one’s knowledge.
problems. Therefore, some men overeat. Therefore, if the books are interesting then
(O, D, H) it improves one’s knowledge.
(I, F, K)
(8) If Zoey has a strong will- power, then
she can achieve many things. Zoey has (13) Either luck or courage is needed for
a strong will power. Therefore she can success. He does not have courage.
achieve many things. Therefore he has luck.
(W, A) (L, C)

(9) Riddhi took either taxi or a bus. (14) If it rains, then the crops will be good. The
crops are good. Therefore, it rains.
If she takes a taxi, then she would be on
time. (R, C)
She was not on time. Therefore Riddhi (15) If and only if Mann is a government servant,
took a bus. then he is called a public servant. Mann is
(T, B, M) not a government servant. Therefore he is
not a public servant.
(10) If the family planning program is effective (G, P)
then population can be cotrolled. The
family planning program is not effective. (16) Shruti loves her brothers, if and only if
Therefore, population cannot be controlled. they work for her.
(F, P) If Vinayak and Vaibhav are Shruti's
brothers then they work for her.
(11) If Het is a batsman, then Smit is a bowler.
Smit is not a bowler. Hence Het is a Thererfore Shruti loves her brothers.
batsman. (S, W, V, B)
(B, O)

Q. 11. Complete the following table

Left Right conjunction disjunction implication equivalence
component component · Ú É º
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

v v v

45
 Chapter 4 The Method of Deduction
For as one may feel sure that a chain will hold when he is assured that each separate link is
of good material and that it clasps the two neighbouring links, viz: the one preceding and the one
following it, so we may be sure of the accuracy of the reasoning when the matter is good, that is to
say, when nothing doubtful enters into it and when the form consists into perpetual concatenation
of truths which allow no gap - Gottfried Leibniz

a logical consequence of the premises i.e. in a

4.1 DEDUCTIVE PROOF
valid deductive argument premises imply the
Logic aims at distinguishing between conclusion. Therefore, if one is able to deduce
good and bad reasoning. One of the basic the conclusion from the premises by using valid
problems in logic, therefore is to decide whether elementary arguments, the argument is proved
a given argument is valid. Another important to be valid. The proof constructed to establish
task of logicians is to find out whether the given the validity of an argument by deductive proof is
statement form is a tautology, contradiction called formal proof of validity.
or contingency. Various methods are used by
Deductive proof is of three types - 1. Direct
logicians to deal with these. The methods are of
Proof 2. Conditional Proof 3. Indirect Proof. In
two types : (1) Decision procedure (2) Methods
this chapter we will study Direct proof.
that are not Decision procedures.
Direct proof can be used only to prove
Truth table as we have seen is a decision
validity of arguments whereas Conditionl proof
procedure whereas Deductive proof is another
and Indirect proof can be used for proving the
important method used in logic which is not a
validity of arguments as well as tautologies.
decision procedure as all the three conditions of
an effective decision procedure are not satisfied 4.2 DIRECT PROOF
by the deductive proof. The Deductive proof is
reliable, finite but not mechanical as intelligence The method of direct proof consists
is required to use the method. Unlike decision in deducing the conclusion of an argument
procedure, deductive proof is used to prove the directly from its premises by a sequence of
validity of arguments and not to decide whether (valid) elementary arguments. This method
it is valid or invalid and it is also used to prove is called diret proof because it does not involve
that the statement form is a tautology and not to an assumption at any step before arriving at the
decide whether it is a tautology, contradiction or conclusion
contingency. Construction of formal proof of validity
The method of deductive proof consists involves the following steps :
in deducing the conclusion of an argument 1. Write down the premises in order and
from its premises by a sequence of (valid) number them.
elementary arguments. These elementary
arguments are known to be valid. They are 2. Write the conclusion on the line where
substitution instances of elementary valid the last premise is written. Separate it from the
argument forms which are called rules of premise by a slanting line as shown below :
inference. 1. Premise
The method of deductive proof can be used 2. Premise
to prove the validity of deductive arguments only. 3. Premise / \ Conclusion
In a valid deductive argument the conclusion is

46
3. Deduce the conclusion from the premises pq
by applying rules of Inference along with rule of p
Replacement. Before arriving at the conclusion
\ q
one may have to derive some statements.
These statements can be taken as additional The following argument illustrates the rule :
premises for further proof. These statements are
to be numbered and the justification for each (a) If you study Logic then your reasoning
statement should be written on the right side of skill improves.
the statement. The justification for a statement You study Logic.
consists in stating the number of step/steps from Therefore, your reasoning skill improves.
which the statement is derived and the rule (b) If a student is intelligent then he will pass.
applied to derive it. It is advised to use only one The student is intelligent.
rule at a time while constructing the proof. Therefore, he will pass.
4. Once the conclusion is derived from the Application of the rule ---
premises the proof is complete and the validity
of the argument is established. If in an argument, a conditional statement
is given as one of the premises and antecedent
4.3 RULES OF INFERENCE AND RULE of the same statement is also given as another
OF REPLACEMENT premise then by applying the rule of M. P. one
For constructing formal proof of validity by can validly infer the consequent of the same
deductive proof, nineteen rules are used. These conditional statement.
nineteen rules are of two types. First nine rules For example ---
of Inference form one group and are different in
nature from remaining ten rules which are based (1) BM
on the rule of Replacement. To begin with let us (2) B
study the first nine rules of inference and their (3) MA /\A
application. (4) M 1, 2, M.P.
First nine rules of Inference are elementary (5) A 3, 4, M.P.
valid forms of argument. Any argument which is
a substitution instance of such form is also valid. TRY this :
With the help of these valid forms of inference (1) MR
one can deduce the conclusion from the premises (2) M
and show that it is a logical consequence of the (3) RS
premises.
(4) ST /\T
It should be noted that these rules can (5) ________ 1, 2, M.P.
be applied only to the whole statement and (6) S ________
not to a part of the statement. The first nine
(7) ________ 4, 6 M.P.
rules of inference are as follows.
(1) Modus Ponens (M. P.) (2) Modus Tollens (M.T.)
This rule is based on the nature of The rule of Modus Tollens is also based on
conditional statement. In a conditional statement the nature of conditional statement. A conditional
the antecedent implies the consequent, which statement is false only when the antecedent is
means if a conditional statement is true and its true and the consequent is false. Therefore if a
antecedent is also true, its consequent must be conditional statement is true and the consequent
true, it cannot be false. The form of the rule is as is false then the antecedent must be false. The
follows -
47
form of the rule is as follows - The following argument illustrates the rule :
pq If it rains then the harvest is good.
~q If the harvest is good then the farmers are happy.
\ ~p Therefore, if it rains then the farmers are happy.
The following argument illustrates the rule : Application of the rule ---
If Karan is hardworking then he will get a (1) AS
scholarship. (2) ~RK
Karan did not get a scholarship. (3) S  ~R / \AK
Therefore, Karan is not hardworking.
(4) A~R 1, 3, H.S.
Application of the rule --- (5) AK 4, 2, H.S.
If in an argument a conditional statement TRY this :
is given as one of the premises and negation of
its consequent is also given then from these two (1) KR
premises one can infer negation of the antecedent (2) SK
of that conditional statement. (3) RM / \SM
For example -- (4) SR ________
(5) ________ 4, 3, H.S.
(1) M~T
(2) ST (4) Disjunctive Syllogism (D.S.)
(3) M / \~S
(4) ~ T 1, 3 M.P. This rule states that if a disjunctive
(5) ~ S 2, 4 M.T. statement is given and its first disjunct is denied
then one can affirm the second disjunct in the
TRY this : conclusion. This rule is based on the nature of
(1) RT disjunctive statement. Disjunctive statement is
true when at least one of the disjuncts is true.
(2) ~T The form of Disjunctive syllogism is as follows-
(3) ~RK / \K
(4) ________ 1, 2, M.T. pq
~p
(5) K ________ \ q
(3) Hypothetical Syllogism (H.S.) The following argument illustrates the rule :
For this rule we need two conditional Either Nilraj will learn to play the guitar or the
statements such that, consequent of one piano.
statement is the antecedent of the other. From Nilraj did not learn to play the guitar.
such two statements we can deduce a conditional Therefore, Nilraj will learn to play the piano.
statement whose antecedent is the antecedent of
the first conditional statement and consequent Application of the rule ---
is the consequent of the second conditional (1) TB
statement. The form of Hypothetical Syllogism
(2) ~B
is as follows -
(3) TR /\R
pq (4) ~ T 1, 2, M.T.
qr
(5) R 3, 4, D.S.
\ pr

48
 TRY this : (6) Destructive Dilemma (D.D.)
(1) R  T For this rule we need two statements
(2) ~ T such that, one statement is a conjunction of two
(3) R  ~ S /\~S conditional statements and the second statement
(4) ________ 1, 2, M.T. is a disjunctive statement which denies
(5) ~ S ________ consequents of the conditional statements. From
such two statements we can infer a disjunctive
(5) Constructive Dilemma (C.D.) statement which denies antecedents of the
conditional statements. The form of Destructive
To apply this rule we need two statements
Dilemma is as follows ---
such that, one statement is a conjunction of two
conditional statements and the second statement (p  q) × (r  s)
is a disjunctive statement which affirms ~q~s
antecedents of the conditional statements. From \ ~p~r
such two statements we can infer a disjunctive
statement which affirms consequents of the The following argument illustrates the rule :
conditional statements. The form of Constructive If you use solar power then it reduces
Dilemma is as follows - pollution and if you use dustbins then you keep
(p  q) · (r  s) the city clean.

pr Either pollution is not reduced or you do

not keep the city clean.
\ qs
Therefore, either you do not use solar
The following argument illustrates the rule : power or you do not use dustbins.
If you exercise then you become healthy Application of the rule ---
and if you eat fast food then you become
unhealthy. (1) A
Either you exercise or you eat fast food. (2) A~P
Therefore, either you become healthy or (3) P  (~ S  ~ R)
unhealthy. (4) (T  S) × (B  R) /\~T~B
(5) ~ P 2, 1, M.P.
Application of the rule --- (6) ~S~R 3, 5, D.S.
(7) ~T~B 4, 6, D.D.
(1) A  (J  K)
(2) A TRY this :
(3) (J  R) × (K  T) / \ R  T
(4) J  K 1, 2, M.P. (1) M~R
(5) R  T 3, 4, C.D. (2) R  (~ S  ~ T)
(3) M
TRY this :
(4) (J  S) × (K  T)
(1) (A  B) × (R  S) (5) ~ ~ J /\~K
(2) M  (A  R)
(6) ~ R ________
(3) M
(7) ________ 2, 6, D.S.
(4) ~ B /\S
(8) ~JÚ~K ________
(5) AR ________
(6) ________ 1, 5, C.D. (9) ~ K ________
(7) S ________

49
(7) Simplification (Simp.) The following argument illustrates the rule :
The rule of Simplification states that, if Radhika loves reading.
a conjunctive statement is given as one of the She writes poems.
premises then one can validly infer the first Therefore, Radhika loves reading and she writes
conjunct. This rule is based on the nature of poems.
conjunctive statement. A conjunctive statement
is true only when both the conjuncts are true, Application of the rule ---
therefore, from a conjunctive statement one can (1) FÚT
derive the first conjunct. The form of rule of (2) AK
Simplification is as given below --- (3) A
p·q (4) ~ F /\T×K
(5) K 2, 3, M.P.
\ p
(6) T 1, 4, D.S.
The following argument illustrates the rule : (7) T×K 6, 5, Conj.
Ishita practices yoga and Ishita is flexible. TRY this :
Therefore, Ishita practices yoga.
(1) ST
Application of the rule --- (2) AB
(1) (M  N) × (R  S) (3) S Ú A
(2) (M Ú R) × D / \ N Ú S (4) M / \ (T Ú B) × M
(3) MÚR 2, Simp. (5) ________ 1, 2, Conj.
(4) NÚS 1, 3, C.D. (6) TÚB ________
TRY this : (7) ________ 6,4, Conj.

(1) ~~M×A (9) Addition (Add.)

(2) ~MÚ~S As per the rule of Addition, from any given
(3) (A  S) × (P  T) /\~A statement, we can infer a disjunctive statement
(4) ~~M ________ whose first disjunct is the statement itself and the
(5) ________ 2, 4, D.S. second disjunct is any other statement. This rule
is based on the nature of disjunctive statement.
(6) ________ 3, Simp.
Such type of inference is valid because a
(7) ~ A ________ disjunctive statement is true when at least one
of the disjuncts is true. So, if ‘p’ is true then its
(8) Conjunction (Conj.)
disjunction with any other statement irrespective
The rule of Conjunction is also based on of its truth value must also be true.
the nature of conjunctive statement. It states
The form of the rule is as follows -
that if two statements are true seperately then
the conjunction of these two statements is also p
true. Thus from two different statements, their
conjunction can validly be inferred. The form of \ pÚq
rule of conjunction is as given below - The following argument illustrates the rule :
p Tejas plays football.
q Therefore, Tejas plays football or Rohan plays
\ p×q hockey.

50
Application of the rule --- (10) De Morgan’s Laws (De M.)
(1) S The De Morgan’s Laws are as follows -
(2) (S × T)  A
~ (p × q) º (~ p Ú ~ q)
(3) T / \AÚK
~ (p Ú q) º (~ p × ~ q)
(4) S × T 1, 3, Conj.
(5) A 2, 4, M.P. The first De Morgan’s law is based on the nature
(6) AÚK 5, Add. of conjunctive statement. Conjunctive statement
is false when at least one of the conjuncts is
TRY this :
false. So, the first De Morgan’s law states
(1) A that, the denial of the conjunctive statement
(2) (A Ú S)  ~ T ‘~ (p × q)’ is the same as saying that either ‘p’ is
(3) TÚ~M / \~MÚ~S false or ‘q’ is false.
(4) AÚS _________ The following argument illustrates the rule :
(5) _________ 2, 4 M.P. The statement, ‘It is not true that Niraj is
(6) ~ M _________ hardworking and lazy’ is logically equivalent to
(7) ~MÚ~S _________ the statement - ‘Either Niraj is not hardworking
or Niraj is not lazy’.
THE RULE OF REPLACEMENT
The second De Morgan’s law is based on
The nine rules of Inference, cannot prove the nature of disjunctive statement. Disjunctive
the validity of all arguments. statement is false when both the disjuncts are
For example, to prove the validity of the false. So, the second De Morgan’s law states
argument- A × D / \ D, nine rules are not that, the denial of the disjunctive statement
sufficient. The Rule of replacement is therefore ‘~ (p Ú q)’ is the same as saying that ‘p’ is false
accepted in addition to the nine rules of and ‘q’ is false.
Inference. The rule of replacement is also called The following argument illustrates the rule :
the Principle of Extensionality.
The statement, ‘It is false that plastic
It is based on the fact that, if any compound bags are either eco friendly or are degradable’
statement is replaced by an expression which is is logically equivalent to the statement - ‘Plastic
logically equivalent to that statement, the truth bags are not eco friendly and are not degradable.’
value of the resulting statement is the same as
that of the original statement. Application of the rule ---
(1) ~ (A Ú M)
When the rule of replacement is adopted
as an additional rule of inference, it allows us (2) ~ (S × T)
to infer a statement from any given statement (3) A Ú J
which is logically equivalent to it. This rule (4) ~ ~ S / \ ~T×J
can be applied to the whole as well as part (5) ~ A × ~ M 1, De M.
of a statement. Since these rules are logically (6) ~ S Ú ~ T 2, De M.
equivalent statements they can be applied in
(7) ~ T 6, 4, D.S.
both the ways i.e. left hand expression can be
replaced by right hand expression and vice (8) ~ A 5, Simp.
versa. Based on the rule of replacement, ten (9) J 3, 8, D.S.
logical equivalences are added to the list of rules (10) ~ T × J 7, 9, Conj.
of inference and are numbered after the nine
rules. They are as follows -

51
 TRY this : TRY this :
(1) S É T
(1) ~ S × T
(2) ~ (T Ú K)
(2) (T É R) × (A É B)
(3) S Ú M / \MÚ~R
(3) A / \R×B
(4) _________ 2, De M.
(4) _________ 1, Com.
(5) ~ T _________
(5) T _________
(6) ~ S _________
(6) T É R _________
(7) _________ 3, 6, D.S.
(7) _________ 6, 5, M.P.
(8) M Ú ~ R _________
(8) _________ 2, Com.
(11) Commutation (Com.) (9) A É B _________
The Commutative Laws are as follows - (10) _________ 9, 3 M.P.
(11) R × B _________
(p × q) º (q × p)
(p Ú q) º (q Ú p) (12) Association (Assoc.)
Commutation means changing the place of The Association Laws are as follows -
components. The first commutative law which
deals with conjunctive statement states that [p × (q × r)] º [(p × q) × r]
‘p × q’ is logically equivalent to ‘q × p’.
[p Ú (q Ú r)] º [(p Ú q) Ú r]
Changing the place of conjuncts makes no
difference to the truth value of a statement. The Associative Laws state that in case
of conjunctive and disjunctive statements if
The following argument illustrates the rule : there are three components joined with the
The statement, ‘I like to study logic same connective i.e. either by dot or by wedge,
and philosophy is logically equivalent to the then, whichever way you group them makes no
statement’ I like to study philosophy and logic.’ difference to their truth value.
The second commutative law deals with The following argument illustrates the first
disjunctive statement and allows us to change rule:
the order of disjuncts. Changing the place of
disjuncts makes no difference to the truth value The truth value of the statement, ‘Rutuja
of a statement. is beautiful and (hardworking and successful)’
remains the same even when expressed as,
The following argument illustrates the rule : ‘(Rutuja is beautiful and hardworking) and
The statement, ‘Either I will use cloth successful.’
bags or paper bags’ is logically equivalent to the
The following argument illustrates the second
statement ‘Either I will use paper bags or cloth
rule :
bags.’
The truth value of the statement, ‘Shreyas
Application of the rule ---
will either eat a burger or (a sandwich or a pizza)
(1) ~ (A Ú K) remains the same even when expressed as,
(2) T×K /\K×~K ‘(Shreyas will either eat a burger or a sandwich)
(3) ~A×~K 1, De M. or a pizza.’
(4) ~K×~A 3, Com.
(5) K×T 2, Com.
(6) ~ K 4, Simp.
(7) K 5, Simp.
(8) K×~K 7, 6, Conj.

52
Application of the rule --- it is the same as saying that, it is in disjunction
with the first conjunct and it is in disjunction
(1) (S × B) × T
with the second conjunct.
(2) A Ú (K Ú T)
(3) ~ T / \ S × (A Ú K) The following argument illustrates the rule :
(4) S × (B × T) 1, Assoc.
The statement,
(5) S 4, Simp.
(6) (A Ú K) Ú T 2, Assoc. ‘Either Vikas plays cricket or he sings and
(7) T Ú (A Ú K) 6, Com. paints’ is logically equivalent to the statement
(8) AÚK 7, 3, D.S. ‘Either Vikas plays cricket or he sings and either
(9) S × (A Ú K) 5,8, Conj Vikas plays cricket or he paints’.

TRY this : Application of the rule ---

(1) P Ú (Q Ú M) (1) ~ (S · A)
(2) S × (A Ú B)
(2) ~ (P Ú Q)
(3) K Ú (P × D) / \ (S × B) × (K Ú D)
(3) S × (R × A) / \A×M (4) (S × A) Ú (S × B) 2, Dist.
(4) _________ 1, Assoc. (5) S × B 4, 1, D. S.
(5) M _________ (6) (K Ú P) × (K Ú D) 3, Dist.
(6) (S × R) × A _________ (7) (K Ú D) × (K Ú P) 6, Com.
(7) _________ 6,Com. (8) KÚD 7, Simp.
(9) (S × B) × (K Ú D) 5, 8, Conj.
(8) A _________
(9) A×M _________ TRY this :

(13) Distribution (Dist.) (1) P Ú (R × S)

(2) ~ R
The Distributive Laws are as follows - (3) ~ (P Ú M) / \~M×P
[p × (q Ú r)] º [(p × q) Ú (p × r)] (4) _________ 1, Dist.
[p Ú (q × r)] º [(p Ú q) × (p Ú r)] (5) P Ú R _________
(6) _________ 5, Com.
In the first distributive law, conjunction
is distributed over disjunction. If a statement is (7) P _________
conjoined with a disjunctive statement then it (8) _________ 3, DeM.
is the same as saying that, either it is conjoined (9) ~ M × ~ P _________
with the first disjunct or it is conjoined with the (10) _________ 9, Simp.
second disjunct.
(11) ~ M × P _________
The following argument illustrates the rule :
(14) Double Negation (D. N.)
The statement,
The form of this rule is as follows -
‘Anuja is an actor and she is either a
singer or a dancer’ is logically equivalent to the pº~~p
statement ‘Either Anuja is an actor and a singer The rule of Double Negation states that
or Anuja is an actor and a dancer.’ a statement is equivalent to the negation of its
In the second distributive law, disjunction contradictory.
is distributed over conjunction. If a statement is
in disjunction with a conjunctive statement then

53
The following argument illustrates the rule : Application of the rule ---
To say that, ‘Global warming is a current (1) ~~K
world crisis’ is logically equivalent to saying, (2) KÉA / \~~A
‘It is not the case that global warming is not a (3) ~AÉ~K 2, Trans.
current world crisis.’
(4) ~ ~ A 3, 1, M. T.
Application of the rule ---
TRY this :
(1) ~ R Ú (S Ú B)
(1) TÉA
(2) R
(2) ~SÉR
(3) ~ S / \~~B
(3) (~ A É ~ T) É ~ R / \ S Ú (B × Q)
(4) ~ ~ R 2, D. N.
(4) ~AÉ~T _________
(5) SÚB 1, 4, D. S.
(5) _________ 3,4 M.P.
(6) B 5, 3, D. S.
(6) ~ ~ S _________
(7) ~ ~ B 6, D. N.
(7) _________ 6, D.N.
TYR this : (8) S Ú (B × Q) _________
(1) ~AÉB (16) Material Implication (Impl.)
(2) ~B
(3) ~(~ M Ú R) /\A×M The rule is stated as follows -
(4) _________ 1, 2, M. T. (p É q) º (~ p Ú q)
(5) A _________ This rule is based on the nature of
(6) _________ 3, DeM. conditional statement. A conditional statement
(7) _________ 6, D.N. is false only when its antecedent is true and
(8) M _________ consequet is false. But if antecedent is false then
(9) A× M _________ whatever may be the truth value of consequent
the conditional statement is true or if consequent
(15) Transposition (Trans.) is true then whatever may be the truth value of
antecedent the conditional statement is true.
The rule of Transposition is expresssed as Therefore the rule of implication states that, if
follows : ‘p É q’ is true then either ‘p’ is false or ‘q’ is
(p É q) º (~ q É ~ p) true.

Like commutative laws this rule allows us The following argument illustrates the rule :
to change the places of components. However, To say that, ‘If you litter on streets then
when we interchange the antecedent and you are irresponsible.’ is logically equivalent to
consequent, we have to negate both of them so the statement, ‘Either you do not litter on streets
that the truth value remains the same. or you are irresponsible.’
The following argument illustrates the rule :
To say that, ‘If people take efforts then
environmental pollution can be controlled’
is logically equivalent to saying that, ‘If
environmental pollution is not controlled then
people have not taken efforts.’

54
Application of the rule --- you pursue your passion and succeed or you do
not pursue your passion and you do not succeed.’
(1) (A É B) Ú S
(2) A Application of the rule ---
(3) ~ B / \S (I)
(4) (~ A Ú B) Ú S 1, Impl. (1) SºM
(5) ~ A Ú (B Ú S) 4, Assoc. (2) ~ S / \~M
(6) ~ ~ A 2, D.N. (3) (S É M) × (M É S) 1, Equiv.
(7) BÚS 5, 6, D.S. (4) (M É S) × (S É M) 3, Com.
(8) S 7, 3, D.S. (5) M É S 4, Simp.
(6) ~ M 5, 2, M.T.
TRY this :
(II)
(1) QÉT
(1) SºM
(2) (~ Q Ú T) É M
(2) ~ S / \~M
(3) TÉS / \ M × (~ Q Ú S)
(3) (S × M) Ú (~ S × ~ M) 1, Equiv.
(4) ~QÚT _________
(4) ~SÚ~M 2, Add.
(5) _________ 2,4 M.P.
(5) ~ (S × M) 4, DeM.
(6) QÉS _________
(6) ~S×~M 3, 5, D.S.
(7) _________ 6, Impl.
(7) ~M×~S 6, Com.
(8) M × (~ Q Ú S) _________
(8) ~ M 7, Simp.
(17) Material Equivalence - (Equiv. ) TRY this :
The two rules are as given below - (1) A º S
(p º q) º [(p É q) × (q É p)] (2) S
(p º q) º [(p × q) Ú (~ p × ~ q)] (3) (K × T) Ú (~ K × ~ T)
(4) (K º T) É ~ P
The first rule states the nature of bi-
conditional statement i.e. in a bi-conditional (5) P Ú M / \M×A
statement both the components imply each other. (6) (A É S) × (S É A) _________
The truth condition of a materially equivalent (7) _________ 6, Com.
statement is expressed in the second rule i.e. a (8) S É A _________
materially equivalent statement is true either
(9) _________ 8, 2, M.P.
when both the components are true or when both
are false. (10) _________ 3, Equiv.
(11) ~ P _________
The following argument illustrates this rule :
(12) _________ 5, 11 D.S.
According to the first rule, the statement, (13) M × A _________
‘If and only if you pursue your passion then
you will succeed,’ is logically equivalent to the (18) Exportation (Exp.)
statement, ‘If you pursue your passion then you The rule is as follows -
will succeed and if you succeed then you have
pursued your passion.’ [(p × q) É r] º [p É (q É r)]
As per the second rule, the same statement This rule is applied when we have a
is logically equivalent to the statement,’ Either conditional statement having three components.

55
In such a case it is the same as saying that, first The following argument illustrates the rule:
and second components both imply the third one.
According to the first rule, the statement,
First implying the second and second implying
‘The weather is pleasant’ is logically equivalent
the third.
to the statement,’ The weather is pleasant and
The following argument illustrates the rules: the weather is pleasant’ and as per the second
rule, the statement, ‘The weather is pleasant’
‘If you drink and drive then an accident is logically equivalent to the statement, ‘The
can take place’is logically equivalent to the weather is pleasant or the weather is pleasant.’
statement,’If you drink then if you drive then an
accident can take place.’ Application of the rule ---
Application of the rule --- (1) (S É R) × (B É R)
(2) (~ K × ~ K) É M
(1) B (3) ~M
(2) (B × S) É T (4) SÚB / \R×K
(3) T É R / \SÉR (5) RÚR 1, 4, C. D.
(4) B É (S É T) 2, Exp. (6) R 5, Taut.
(5) S É T 4, 1, M. P. (7) ~KÉM 2, Taut.
(6) S É R 5, 3, H.S. (8) ~ ~ K 7, 3, M. T.
TRY this : (9) K 8, D. N.
(10) R×K 6, 9, Conj.
(1) ~ P É (Q É ~ S)
(2) ~P×Q / \ SÉS TRY this :
(3) _________ 1, Exp. (1) (A É B) · (M É N)
(4) ~ S _________ (2) ~ B Ú ~ B
(5) _________ 4, Add. (3) A Ú M
(6) SÉS _________ (4) (~ N Ú S) Ú (~ N Ú S) / \~SÉ~R
(5) _________ 1, 3 C.D.
(19) Tautology (Taut.) (6) ~ B _________
(7) _________ 5, 6, D.S.
The rule is as follows- (8) _________ 4, Taut.
p º (p × p) (9) ~ ~ N _________
p º (p Ú p) (10) _________ 8, 9, D.S.
This rule states that any statement is (11) S Ú ~ R _________
equivalent to an expression where the statement (12) _________ 11, Impl.
is in conjunction with itself or the statement is in
disjunction with the statement itself.

56
Rules of Inference : Rule of Replacement :

(1) Modus Ponens (M.P.) (10) De Morgan’s Laws (De M.)

pÉq ~ (p × q) º (~ p Ú ~ q)
p ~ (p Ú q) º (~ p × ~ q)
\ q (11) Commutation (Com.)
(2) Modus Tollens (M. T.)
(p × q) º (q × p)
pÉq
(p Ú q) º (q Ú p)
~q
(12) Association (Assoc.)
\ ~p
(3) Hypothetical Syllogism (H. S.) [p × (q × r)] º [(p × q) × r]

pÉq [p Ú (q r)] º [(p Ú q) Ú r]

qÉr (13) Distribution Laws (Dist.)
\ pÉr [p × (q Ú r)] º [(p × q) Ú (p × r)]
(4) Disjunctive Syllogism (D. S.) [p Ú (q × r)] º [(p Ú q) × (p Ú r)]
pÚq
(14) Double Negation (D.N.)
~p
pº~~p
\ q
(15) Transposition (Trans.)
(5) Construtive Dilemma (C. D.)
(p É q) º (~ q É ~ p)
(p É q) × (r É s)
pÚr (16) Material Implication - (Impl.)

\ qÚs (p É q) º (~ p Ú q)
(6) Destrutive Dilemma (D.D.) (17) Material Equivalence - (Equiv.)
(p É q) × (r É s) (p º q) º [(p É q) × (q É p)]
~qÚ~s (p º q) º [(p × q) Ú (~ p × ~ q)]
\ ~pÚ~r
(18) Exportation (Exp.)
(7) Simplification (Simp.)
[(p × q) É r] º [p É (q É r)]
p×q
(19) Tautology (Taut.)
\ p
p º (p × p)
(8) Conjunction (Conj.)
p º (p Ú p)
p
q
\ p×q
(9) Addition (Add.)
p
\ pÚq

57
 Summary
• The method of deductive proof is used for proving the validity of arguments. It consists in
deducing the conclusion of an argument from its premises by a sequence of valid elementary
arguments.
• The method of deductive proof is not a decision procedure, as it is not mechanical.
• The method of direct proof consists in deducing the conclusion of an argument directly from
its premises by a sequence of (valid) elementary arguments.
• In the method of deductive proof, nineteen rules are used for constructing formal proof of
validity.
• The first nine rules of inference are elementary valid forms of arguments. Remaining ten
rules are logically equivalent statements, based on the rule of replacement.
• Rules of inference can be applied only to the whole statement. Rules based on the rule of
Replacement can be applied to the whole as well as part of the statement.

Exercises

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words 8. The rule of Modus Tollens is based on
from those given in the brackets : the nature of ................... statement.
[Conjunctive / Conditional]
1. According to De Morgan’s Law (DeM.),
~ (S × ~R) º ................... . 9. [(p × q) É r] º [p É (q É r)] is by the rule of
.................. . [Distribution / Exportation]
[(S Ú R) / (~ S Ú ~ ~ R)]
10. The rule of replacement can be applied
2. The rule involved in
to ................... of the statement. [Whole /
(A Ú M) º (M Ú A) is ................... .
Whole as well as part]
[Commutation / Transposition]
3. Thr rule of Simplification (Simp.) is based Q. 2. State whether the following statements
on the nature of ................... statement. are True or False :
[Disjunctive / Conjunctive] 1. Rules of inference can be applied to the
part of the statement.
4. (B É ~ R) º ................... is by the rule of
Material Implication (Impl.) [(~ B Ú ~ R) 2. The method of deductive proof is a
/ (B Ú R)] decision procedure.
5. The rule used in ~ T º (~ T Ú ~ T) is 3. The rule of Disjunctive Syllogism (D.S.)
................... . [Tautology / Commutation] can be applied to the part of the statement.
4. The method of direct proof consists in
6. [p × (q × r)] º [(p × q) × r] is by the rule of
deducing the conclusion directly from the
................... . [Association / Exportation]
premises.
7. (K É T) º ................... is by the rule of 5. p /\ p Ú q is the rule of simplification
Transposition (Transp.) (Simp.)
[(T É ~ K) / (~ T É ~ K)]

58
6. [(p É q) × p] É q is the rule of Modus Q. 6. Answer the following questions :
Ponens (M.P.) 1. Explain the method of Deductive proof.
7. In the rule of Transposition (Trans.), places 2. Explain the method of Direct Deductive
of antecedent and consequent are changed proof.
and both of them are negated.
3. Distinguish between rules of Inference
8. The method of deductive proof is a and Rule of Replacement.
mechanical method.
4. Distinguish between rule of Modus Ponens
9. The rule of Hypothetical syllogism (H.S.) and rule of Modus Tollens.
is based on the nature of disjunctive
statement. 5. Distinguish between rule of Hypothetical
Syllogism and rule of Disjunctive
10. p, q / \ p × q is the rule of Addition (Add.) Syllogism.
Q. 3. Match the columns : 6. Distinguish between rule of Simplification
(A) (B) and rule of Conjunction.

1. p 1. (~ p Ú q) 7. Distinguish between rule of Commutation

and rule of Transposition.
2. (p É q) 2. (~ p Ú ~ q)
Q. 7. State whether the following arguments
3. (p º q) 3. [(p Ú q) × (p Ú r)]
are valid or invalid :
4. ~ (p × q) 4. ~ ~ p (1) (A É B) É ~ C
5. [p Ú (q × r)] 5. [(p É q) × (q É p)] AÉB
Q. 4. Give reasons for the following : \C
1. The method of deductive proof is not a (2) (M · N) Ú (T º S)
decision procedure. M · N
2. The nine rules of inference can be applied \TºS
to the whole statement only.
(3) L É ( K Ú L)
3. The rules based on the rule of replacement ~L
can be applied to the whole as well as part
of the statement. \KÚL
(4) ~ R É (T · W)
Q. 5. Explain the following :
~ (T · W)
1. Rule of Association.
\R
2. Rule of Distribution.
(5) (S É ~ T) · (R É W)
3. Rule of Constructive Dilemma
SÚR
4. Rule of Destructive Dilemma.
\~TÚW
5. Rule of Addition.
(6) (H É L) · (K É J)
6. Rule on De Morgan’s Laws.
~LÚ~J
7. Rule of Double Negation.
8. Rule of Material Implication. \~HÚ~K

9. Rule of Material Equivalence. (7) (R º S) · (M É N)

10. Rule of Exportation. RÚM

11. Rule of Tautology. \SÚN

59
(8) (T É W) · L (3) 1 (X É ~ Y) × (Z É A)
\TÉW 2 ~ (~ X × ~ Z) / \YÉA
(9) SÚ~L 3~~XÚ~~Z
~TÉW 4XÚZ
\ (S Ú ~ L) · (~T É W) 5~YÚA
(10) J É L 6YÉA
~L É K (4) 1 (A Ú B) É ~ C
\JÉK 2 C / \~B
Q. 8. State whether the following equivalances 3~~C
are correct or incorrect : 4 ~ (A Ú B)
(1) ~ (p Ú ~ q) º (~ p · q) 5~A×~B
(2) ~~RºR 6~B×~A
(3) (~ K Ú ~ K) º K 7~B
(4) [ (R · ~ S) · ~ T ] º [R Ú (~ S Ú ~ T)] (5) 1~LÉK
(5) [ ~A · (B Ú C)] º [ (~ A · B) Ú (~ A · C)] 2 (L Ú M) É (U × W)
(6) (~ p É ~ q) º (q É p) 3 ~ K / \UÚU
(7) (~ S · ~ T) º (T · S)
4~~L
(8) (~ p É q) º (p Ú q)
5L
(9) [ (p · q) Ú (q · p) ] º (p º q)
6LÚM
(10) [ (p É q) É r ] º [p · (q É r)
7U×W
Q. 9. State the justification for each step of 8U
the following arguments :
9UÚU
(1) 1 (K Ú S) × (K Ú ~ T)
(6) 1WÚS
2 S É T / \ K
2~S
3 K Ú (S × ~ T)
3 (W × X) É Y / \~XÚY
4 ~ S Ú ~ ~T
4SÚW
5~SÚT
5W
6 ~ (S × ~ T)
6 W É (X É Y)
7 (S × ~T) Ú K
7XÉY
8K
8~XÚY
(2) 1 (W É L) × (W É K)
(7) 1 (A × B) × C
2 (L × K) É Z
2 A É (D Ú K)
3 ~ Z / \~W
3 ~ D / \K
4 ~ (L × K)
4 A × (B × C)
5~LÚ~K
5A
6~WÚ~W
6DÚK
7~W
7K

60
(8) 1KÚL (4) 1AÚB
2 (L × M) É (O × P) 2~A
3~K 3 M × D / \B×M
4 M / \ GÉO (5) 1MÚ~S
5L 2~M
6L×M 3 P É S / \~PÚR
7O×P (6) 1~A
8O 2~B
9OÚ~G 3 (~ A × ~ B) É R / \R
10 ~ G Ú O (7) 1A×S
11 G É O 2AÉ~B
(9) 1~DÚE 3 B Ú T / \ T Ú ~ M
2EÉG (8) 1WÚT
3 (~ G É ~ D) É H / \HÚK 2 (W Ú T) É (L × ~ S) / \ L
4DÉE (9) 1(P É Q) × R
5DÉG 2 (Q É R) × S /\PÉR
6~GÉ~D (10) 1 (A × B) É S
7H 2SÉR
8HÚK 3A
(10) 1 A É B 4 B / \ R
2CÉD (11) 1 (T Ú S) É P
3 ~ (B × D) /\~AÚ~C 2PÉQ
4 (A É B) × (C É D) 3 T / \Q
5~BÚ~D (12) 1 Q É S
6~AÚ~C 2PÉT
Q. 10. Construct formal proof of validity 3QÚP
for the following arguments using nine 4 ~ S / \T
rules of Inference : (13) 1 (M Ú O) É (A × M)
(1) 1PÉQ 2 (A × M) É (D × E)
2PÉR 3 M / \D
3 P / \Q×R (14) 1 P É T
(2) 1TÉP 2TÉ~D
2~P 3 ~ D É M / \PÉM
3 ~ T É ~ R / \~RÚS (15) 1 H É K
(3) 1MÉN 2TÚF
2NÉO 3H
3 (M É O) É (N × P) / \ N Ú R 4 ~ T / \F×K

61
(16) 1 A É (B Ú S) (25) 1 R É T
2 ~ (B Ú S) 2SÉB
3DÉL 3R×M
4 A Ú D / \L 4 ~ T / \BÚ~A
(17) 1 A Ú B (26) 1 R Ú S
2BÉM 2 [(R Ú S) Ú K] É ~ L
3AÉD 3 T / \ ~ L × T
4 ~ D / \ B × (A Ú B) (27) 1 ~ K × ~ S
(18) 1 A É B 2MÚT
2~AÉ~C 3 M É K / \ T Ú (S É R)
3 C Ú (D × E) (28) 1 ~ A É R
4 ~ B / \ D Ú (S º ~ R) 2SÉ~A
(19) 1 ~ S É (P É T) 3~R
2 ~ (P É T) 4 S Ú ~ P / \ ~P
3AÉM (29) 1 L Ú ~ S
4 ~ S Ú A / \ M Ú (R × Q) 2~A
(20) 1 ~ S × (A Ú B) 3 (~ A Ú ~ M) É ~ L
2 (M É S) × R 4 P × B / \ ~ S × (P × B)
3 M Ú ~ T / \ ~TÚ~K (30) 1 A É ~ B
(21) 1 A É M 2A×~R
2PÉT 3 B Ú (S Ú ~ M)
3 P Ú A 4 ~ S × ~ T / \A×~M
4 ~ T / \M Q.11. Construct formal proof of validity for
(22) 1 S É M the following arguments using the rule
of Inference and Replacement :
2PÉA
(1) 1 ~ (M × R)
3~AÚ~M
4 K × S / \ (~ P Ú ~ S) × K 2M

(23) 1 R É S 3 (~ R É B) × (A É K) / \ B Ú K

2AÉB (2) 1B×A

3~T 2~AÚS
4~SÚ~B / \ (~ R Ú ~ A) × ~ T 3SÉT / \ T Ú (~ R É M)
(24) 1 A É (~ B Ú ~ D) (3) 1 A Ú (B Ú M)
2DÉA 2 ~ B / \ AÚM
3D (4) 1MÉN
4AÉB 2A ÉN
5 M É D / \~AÚ~M 3 M Ú A / \ N

62
(5) 1 R Ú (S × T) (18) 1 (R É Q) × (Q É R)
2~T 2 (B Ú M) Ú S
3 ~ S / \R 3~B
(6) 1 ~ (S Ú T) 4 ~ S / \ (R º Q) × M
2~SÉ~P (19) 1 ~ (S Ú M)
3 P Ú R / \RÚ~M 2PÉM
(7) 1AÉ~B 3 M Ú ~ N / \ ~ (P Ú N)
2A×S (20) 1 S Ú T
3 B Ú R / \R×S 2 (S Ú M) É (Q × B)
(8) 1TÉ~S 3 ~ B / \T
2TÚT (21) 1 ~ (~ A Ú R)
3 S Ú ~ K / \ ~KÚ~K 2 R / \T×A
(9) 1~KÉ~T (22) 1 (R × M) É S
2~K×S 2 R / \~SÉ~M
3~TÉR (23) 1 (S × T) Ú (~ S × ~ T)
4 (R × S) É M / \MÚM 2~SÚ~R
(10) 1 S É T 3 ~ (~ S × ~ T) / \ ~ (R × B) × (S º T)
2 T É M / \MÚ~S (24) 1 ~ A Ú B
(11) 1 A É M 2SÉT
2 (~ A Ú M) É R 3 A Ú S / \~BÉT
3 ~ S Ú T / \ (S É T) × R (25) 1 ~ (A Ú M)
(12) 1 A É (B É M) 2SÉA
2A×B / \ M × [(A × B) É M]
3 M Ú ~ R / \ ~ (S Ú R)
(13) 1 P º S
(26) 1 R Ú (S × T)
2 ~ P / \~SÚ~M
2 (R Ú T) É ~ M / \MÉF
(14) 1 A Ú (R Ú ~ P)
(27) 1 S É A
2 P / \AÚR
2BÉS
(15) 1 W Ú B
3 ~ T × ~ A / \ ~B×~T
2WÉ~S
(28) 1 S É T
3BÉ~S
2 R Ú S / \ ~TÉR
4 T É S / \ ~T
(29) 1 (R É S) × (R É M)
(16) 1 ~ B Ú M
2 ~ S Ú ~ M / \ ~ ( T × R)
2 M É R / \ ~R É ~ B
(30) 1 B É K
(17) 1 (S × T) É P
2~BÉS / \ (K Ú S) Ú ~ A
2PÉF
3 ~ F / \~SÚ~T
v v v
63
 Chapter 5 Inductive Inference and its Types

When general observations are drawn from so many particulars as to become certain and indubita-
ble, these are jewels of knowledge - Samuel Johnson

DO YOU KNOW THAT ..............

Many scientific discoveries and inventions are the results of inductive reasoning.
When you are wearing the same brand you are using analogy.
Many a times women use inductive reasoning while cooking food.
Knowingly or unknowingly we all make use of inductive reasoning in our day to day life.

Need for induction : 1. Simple enumeration

In the previous chapters we have dealt with 2. Analogy
the formal aspect of logic i.e. deductive logic.
Deductive logic determines the relations between 3. Scientific induction
premise/s and conclusion without considering its 4. Hypothetico-deductive method
content matter. Deduction is concerned with the
form and not with the content of an argument. Out of these four, the first and the third
Conclusion of the deductive inference is certain type of inductive inference establish general
but it does not gives us any new information or propositions. The second one i.e. analogy
knowledge whereas the conclusion of inductive establishes a conclusion which is about a
inference is always probable but it does gives us particular proposition and the last one i.e.
new information or knowledge and hence there hypothetico-deductive method may be used to
is a need for induction. establish a general proposition or a particular
proposition.
INDUCTIVE INFERENCE
* Activity : state which of the following
The aim of inductive inference is to inferences are deductive inference and which
establish the material truth. In inductive are inductive inference.
inference the conclusion asserts something more
than what is given in the premises, for example : 1. All those who can afford medical insurance
when we say that - are employed.
All actors can afford medical insurance.
Gold expands on heating.
\ All actors are employed.
Silver expands on heating.
Iron expands on heating. 2. Sunita bought an apartment in the same
building as Latika’s. She paid the same
\ All metals expand on heating.
price, the carpet area of her apartment is
In the above example on the basis of the same as Latika’s apartment. Latika’s
our observation of some metals expanding on apartment has five bedrooms.
heating, we make a generalization about all \ Sunita’s apartment must also have five
metals expanding on heating. bedrooms.
Inductive Inference is not only used 3. Whoever exists is a human being.
for establishing general propositions but also Pen exists.
particular propositions. Inductive inferences are \ Pen is a human being.
of four main kinds. They are :
64
4. Everytime I organized a house party, my A Few more examples of simple
friend comes late. Today I have organized enumeration are :
a house party so I am sure that my friend (1) Some roses have thorns.
will come late. \ All roses have thorms.
Simple Enumeration (2) Some observed flowers have fragrance.
Simple Enumeration is a common \ All flowers have fragrance.
man’s method of arriving at a generalization. The form of simple enumeration is as follows :
Generalization is a statement of the type, ‘All
A is B’. It is the simplest kind of induction. The All observed P’s are Q.
generalization of a common man differs from No observed P is non Q.
that of a scientist. Common man uses simple \ All P’s are Q.
enumeration whereas scientist use scientific Generalizations established by simple
induction for establishing generalizations.
Simple enumeration is the process of establishing
a generalization on the basis of the observation of
• Uniform and Uncontradicted
some cases or instances of a kind. Generalization
Experience :
in simple enumeration is supported by direct
evidence. In induction by simple enumeration Generalization in simple enumeration
we generalize by going beyond what has been is based on uniform and uncontradicted
experienced. Induction by simple enumeration expeience.
can be defined as “what is true of several cases
of a kind is true of all the cases of that kind”. For example : Ice is cold, fire is hot etc. We
It establishes a generalization on the basis of have never come across any contrardictory
uniform and uncontradicted experience. For experience of ice being hot and fire being
example : cold. In these examples the scope of
generalizations are unlimited hence it is
larger than the scope of evidence.
• Absence / Lack of analysis of property:
Simple enumeration is the process of
simply counting the instances (cases) to
find that all these cases share a common
property, However it does not involve
analysis : for example - why crows are
black, or why roses have thorns. Here
one is not concerned in finding out why
blackness goes with crows or why thorns
are associated with roses.
• Unrestricted generality :
The generalization established by simple
First observed crow is black. enumeration is not about a class with
limited number of members, for example :
Second observed crow is black.
Some students in this class are smart
Third observed crow is black.
One lakh observed crows are black. \ All students in this class are smart.
\ All crows are black.
65
 In the given example a generalization black, is based on observation. When a
is established but it is of restricted generality. large numbers of instances are observed,
Therefore such kind of arguments are not it is possible to come across contradictory
induction by simple enumeration. In Simple instance if any.
Enumeration the conclusion i.e. generalization Example : we do not come across any non
is about unrestricted number of members. For - black crows
example : \ We conclude ‘All crows are black.’
Some polar bears are white 2. Variety of experience : Instead of
\ All polar bears are white observing maximum number of crows
from one part of the world, if we observe
In case of simple Enumeration there is an some crows from different parts of the
inductive leap or jump from observed cases to world then the generalization becomes
unobserved or known cases to unknown cases. more probable or reliable because we all
The scope of our generalization is unlimited and are aware that sometimes the colour of the
hence larger than the scope of evidence. animals depends upon the climate or other
• Low degree of Probability : As the conditions of that region.
generalization of Simple Enumeration E.g. Some bears are black.
are based on uniform experience of
some cases, we cannot be sure of the \ All bears are black.
unobserved cases/instances possessing
the same characteristics as the observed Here this argument is bad because in polar
ones. Generalization such as - ‘All crows region we find white bears due to climatic
are black’ is accepted as true on the basis condition.
of observation, ie. direct evidence. But 3. Resemblances : Value of simple
we cannot rule out the possibility of a enumeration is also affected by the nature
contrardictory instance. Therefore it is of resemblances. For example - crows
said to be probable. apart from being black, resemble each
• Value of Induction by Simple other in other physical characteristics also
Enumeration : The generalizations like pointed beak, clawed feet, etc. which
established by simple enumeration are are equally important characteristics of a
not equally good that is to say some crow.
generalizations are good and some are Analogy : Analogy is a type of inductive
bad. For example : “All crows are black” reasoning. Analogy is a common man’s inference
is a good one but “All swans are white” in which the conclusion is drawn on the basis of
is a bad one. Mill and Bacon considers observed resemblances (similarities). In analogy
the process of Simple Enumeration as we proceed form particular to particular instance.
childish and unreliable. According to them
the value of Simple Enumeration depends It may be defined as an argument from
upon the number of instances observed. known resemblance to further resemblance,
However they were wrong in saying that is to say, if two (or more) things resemble
because value of generalizations depends each other in certain characteristics and
upon some more conditions. They are as if one of them have further / additional
follows: characteristics, the other is also likely to have
that characteristics.
1. Wider Experience : The generalizations
of Simple Enumeration are based on wider
experience. For example : All crows are

66
The form of analogical argument is as follows • For example :
A - is observed to have the properties P1, P2, Man and monkey, both have two legs, two
P3, ....Pn eyes, two hands, one nose, two ears.
B - is observed to have the properties P1, P2, Man can read and write.
P3, ....Pn Therefore, monkeys can also read and
A possess additional property ‘q’ write.
\ B also has the property ‘q’. In this example, there are many similarities
Example : between both man and monkey but the
difference is very important, i.e. man is
On the basis of the observed similarities rational whereas monkey is not as rational
between Earth and Mars, Lowell put forward an as man and therefore it is a bad analogical
analogical argument. argument.
Both Earth and Mars are planets. It is important to note that the conclusion
established by analogical reasoning is
They revolve round the Sun. always probable and never certain.
Both have water, moderate temperature and are The Nature of Conclusion : on the basis of
surrounded by an atmosphere. the resemblances the conclusion of analogical
There is life on Earth argument should not assert more than what is
justified by the evidence. The example of Earth
Therefore there is life on Mars.
and Mars justify the inference that there is life
The logical basis of the analogical on Mars. But if one claims that there are human
argument is that the characteristics found beings on Mars then the argument becomes a bad
together are likely to be connected with one one, as too much is claimed than the evidence in
another and therefore from the presence of one the premises.
characterstic we infer the presence of another.
* Activity : Recognize whether the given
Value of Analogy : Some analogical arguments analogical arguments are good or bad and
are good whereas some are bad. The soundness give justification for the same -
of analogical argument depends upon the
following factors : Examples :

• Relevant and important resemblances 1. Daniyal and Anita reside in the same
: When the resemblance is in important building, they go to the same college and
and relevant characteristics, the analogial are in same class. They are of the same
argument is good. For example : Lowell’s height and weight. Daniyal is smart.
analogy about Life on Mars is good \ Anita is also smart.
example because they both resemble each
other in important characteristics and are 2. Last time I purchased a pair of jeans from
also relevant to the characteristic infered the store, it lasted for 2 years. Today also
i.e. existence of life, as we all know water, I purchased a pair of jeans from the same
temperature and atmosphere is necessary store and they are manufactured by the
for existence of life. same company. The material of these jeans
is also similar to the earlier one therefore
• Important differences : If the differences this pair of jeans will also last for 2 years.
are in important aspects, then the analogical
argument is bad.

67
Scientific Induction 2. The experimental method can provide only
direct evidence, but scientific induction is
The task of science is to understand and supported by indirect evidence too. For
explain facts. Scientific induction maybe defined eg - All observed metals expand when
as, “the process of establishing generalization heated. Here observation of metals is direct
on the basis of direct and indirect evidence.” evidence, but scientifc generalization does
According to Mill and Bacon, “Scientific not stand in isolation, it is supported by
induction is the process of establishing other generalizations or well established
generalization which expresses a causal laws that is ‘All gases expands on heating’.
relationship.” This process involves the Such support by other generalization /
following stages - laws forms indirect evidence for scientific
generalization.
1. Some instances are observed and it is
found that they possess certain common Simple Enumeration and Scientific Induction
properties. Both induction per simple enumeration
2. A generalization is made that all the and scientific induction are process of inductive
instances, of that kind have the same reasoning and they both establish generalization.
property. The logical form of Simple enumeration and
Scientifc induction is same ie. they both infer
3. The observed instance is analyzed to from some to all, observed to unobserved. But
discover if there is a causal relationship. they differ in certain important characteristics.
4. Experimental method is used to verify and The generalizations by simple enumeration
establish the suggested causal relationship. are based only on direct evidences whereas
the generalizations of scientific induction
are based on direct and indirect evidence. In
simple enumeration no attempt is made to
analyse the observed cases whereas in scientifc
induction the observed instances are analysed.
The generalizations by simple enumeration
possess low degree of probability whereas the
genralizations by scientific induction possess
high degree of probability.
Hypothetico - Deductive Method (Scientific
method) :
Scientific induction has limited application.
It can be used for establishing only scientific
generalization. It is not suitable for establishing
We cannot accept Mill and Bacon’s theories nor can it be used for establishing
views about scientific induction. There are two conclusions about a particular case. So to
reasons - overcome this problem we need a method
which can establish all kinds of propositions.
1. All scientific generalizations do not
The hypothetico-deductive method fulfills these
express causal relation. For eg. the
conditions. It is the scientific method.
generalization all bats are warm blooded is
not causal, because the property of being
warm blooded is not an effect of being a
bat.

68
 3. Collection of additional facts : After
forming the initial hypothesis the scientist
collects additional facts relevant to
the Hypothesis. In kon tiki expedition,
additional data regarding various routes
and means of travelling the distance
between South Amercia and south sea
island were collected.
4. Deductive development of the
hypothesis : This stage is not required
in some cases of scientific investigation
where hypothesis are directly verified i.e.
either by observation or experiment and
the hypothesis which cannot be verified
directly the scientist make use of deductive
This method uses both deductive and reasoning. In this the scientists construct a
inductive reasoning. Hypothetico-deductive deductive argument where they supposes
method consists of formulating a hypothesis, the hypothesis to be true and using it as a
deducing consequences from it and verifying premise, consequences are deduced from
those consequences by appeal to facts. This it. eg - As sociologist’s hypothesis is not
method involves five steps. These are as follows. possible to verify directly, so to verify
1. Observation and feeling of a problem : indirectly’ consequences were deduced
The aim of science is to understand and ie. if people of South America travelled
explain facts. When the scientist comes to south sea island then they must have
across an unfamiliar situation and when travelled only through sea route and that
a familiar solution cannot explain the too in a primitive kind of boat because in
observed facts then scientific investigation ancient days only such type of primitive
begins. For eg - In Kon Tiki expedition, boats were available.
sociologists observed that the ancient 5. Verification of hypothesis : Indirect
customs of people living on south sea verification consist of finding out whether
islands and the people of South America the deduced consequences take place. If
are similar. The problem felt was - why the predicted consequence take place then
there is a similarity in customs and the hypothesis is accepted and if not, then
tradition of people who live far away from it is rejected or modificed. eg - in Kon
each other? Tiki expedition sociologists made a small
2. Formation of an initial hypothesis primitive kind of boat and actually travelled
: When the observed facts cannot be from South America to south sea island
understood then the scientist puts forth a and they could travel this long distance.
temporary solution to explain the observed So they concluded that if we could travel
facts. This tentative (temporary) solution this long distance today it is quite possible
is called hypothesis. After the problem that in ancient days also people must have
was felt some sociologists suggested a travelled and this explains similarity of
hypothesis that - In ancient days people customs.
from South America must have come to
south sea island and must have settled
down on the island and therefore the
customs are similar.

69
PUZZLES the next shop and returns the girl her Rs.
70. After sometime the next shopkeeper
1. Dwayne Johnson was running away with comes with Rs 100 note and told the
the loot from a heist (robbery) in his bookkeeper that the note is fraud. So he
car along with Vin Diesel. One tyre was takes the money back. How much loss did
punctured and he dropped down to replace the shopkeeper face?
it. While changing the wheel he dropped
the four nuts that were holding the wheel 3. Famous Elevator puzzle : A man who lives
and they fell into a drain. Vin Diesel on the tenth floor takes the elevator down
gave him an idea due to which they were to the first floor every morning and goes
able to drive till their rendezvous point to work. In the evening when he comes
(destination). What was the idea? back, on a rainy day or if there are people
in the elevator he goes to the 10th floor
2. A sweet girl purchased a book from a book directly. Otherwise he goes to the 7th floor
keeper and gave him Rs 100. The cost of and walks up three flights of stairs to his
the book is Rs. 30 but the shopkeeper had apartment. Can you explain why?
got no change so he gets the change from

Summary :

Inferences are classified into Deductive and Inductive.

Non deductive inferences are classified as :
• Simple enumeration.
• Analogy.
• Scientific induction.
• Hypothetic Deductive method.

Exercises
Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words 4. ............... possess highest degree of
from those given in the brackets : probability. (Scientific Induction / Simple
1. In ............... inference the conclusion enumeration)
asserts something more than what is given 5. The process of arriving at generalization
in premises. (Deductive / Inductive) in science is known as ............... . ( Simple
2. ............... is called as a common man’s Enumeration/ Scientific Induction )
method of arriving at a generalization. 6. Generalizations in science are supported
(Analogy / Simple enumeration) by ............... evidence. (Direct / Both
direct and indirect)
3. ............... is known as an argument
from known resemblances to further 7. ............... is an inference from particular to
resemblances. (Analogy / Simple particular. (Analogy / Simple Enumeration)
Enumeration) 8. ............... method uses both deductive and
inductive reasoning. (Simple Enumeration
/ Hypothetico-deductive method)

70
9. ............... verification consists of finding Q. 4. Give logical terms for the following
out whether the deduced consequences 1. The inference in which we proceed from
have taken place. (Indirect / Direct) particular to particular instance.
10. ............... is a tentative solution. 2. A jump from known to unknown cases.
(Hypothesis / Verification)
3. The method in which the generalization
Q. 2. State whether the following statements is established on the basis of uniform or
are True or False : uncontradictory experience.
1. Induction is concerned with the form and 4. The method in which the observed
not the content of an argument. instances are analysed.
2. The generalization established in Simple 5. The scientific method in which both
Enumeration is based on uniform deduction and induction is involved.
experience.
6. The method in which the conclusion is
3. In Simple Enumeration we establish a
based on the resemblances between two
proposition of restricted generality.
instances in certain qualities.
4. An Analogy is a deductive inference.
Q. 5. Give reason for the following :
5. The generalizations established by
Scientific Induction are certain. 1. There is a need for induction.
6. Analogy involves an inductive leap. 2. The method of Simple Enumeration has
low degree of probability.
7. The important difference between two
objects does not affect the value of analogy. 3. Conclusion of scientific induction has high
degree of probability.
8. Analogy is a deductive inference.
9. In Simple enumeration attempt is made to Q. 6. Explain the following :
analyse the observed cases. 1. Induction by Simple Enumeration.
10. Hypothetico-deductive method consists 2. Difference between Simple Enumeration
of formulating a hypothesis, deducing and Scientific Induction.
consequences from it and verifying those 3. The nature of analogy.
consequences by appeal to facts.
4. Value of sound analogy.
Q. 3. Match the columns :
Q. 7. Answer the following questions :
(A) (B)
1. Explain the characteristics Simple
1. Scientific Induction a. Formal validity Enumeration.
2. Simple b. Temporary 2. What is Hypothetico-deductive method?
Enumeration (tentative) and explain it’s stages.
solution 3. Explain with illustration vlaue of Simple
3. Analogy c. High degree of Enumeration.
probability 4. Explain the method of Scientific Induction.
4. Deductive d. Based on
Argument resemblances
5. Inductive e. Material v v v
Argument Validity
6. Hypothesis f. Uniform
experience

71
 Chapter 6 Fallacies

Logical fallacy is a flaw in reasoning. Logical fallacies are like tricks and illusion of thoughts.

Let us understand.
Argument - I
Aunt says : “Tony, do not smoke because parents don’t like their children smoking. Don’t You
care for their emotions?”
Argument - II
Uncle says : “Tony, do not smoke because cigarette contains tobacco which is injurious to health.

Whose argument, do you think is correct? why?

..........................................................................................................................................................

6.1 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF 6.2 PURPOSE OF STUDYING

FALLACY : FALLACIES :
We all strive to reason correctly, but Study of fallacy helps us :
we do make errors in our reasoning or reason 1. To realize that there are errors in our
incorrectly. argument, to spot poor reasoning and most
We reason incorrectly when the premises importantly to understand them.
of an argument fail to support its conclusion, 2. Awareness of the fallacy brings closer to
then the arguments of this type are called as the truth or the situation.
fallacious arguments. So in general any error in
reasoning is called fallacy. 3. Recognizing fallacies in arguments will
help, to avoid committing errors in our
In I. M. Copi’s words ‘Fallacious own argument.
arguments are those which appear to be
correct but that are proved upon examination, 4. Lastly one can detect fallacies in others
not to be so.’ Notion of fallacy is therefore argument. So that, the person is not
psychological in logic. mislead by others.

The term ‘Fallacy’, can be used for 6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FALLACIES :

both deductive invalidity as well as inductive Complete classification of fallacies is
weakness. not possible, as innumerable fallacies can be
committed.

72
 In Logic Fallacies are classified into two (2) Non-formal fallacy :
broad groups :
Non-formal fallacy is related to the content
(1) Formal (2) Non-Formal of an argument. Validity of Inductive argument
(1) Formal fallacy : depends on the content or subject matter of an
argument and it is called material validity. Non-
The formal fallacy is related to the structure formal fallacies are committed due to misleading
of an argument. Logic deals with various forms use of language.
of arguments. Validity of a deductive argument
depends on the form/structure of an argument, (1) Irrelevant conclusion.
i.e.
it is governed by certain rules. Formal fallacy is (2) Ambiguous use of words.
committed, when a rule of logic is violated. (3) Wrong use of collective and
distributive terms.
Activity : 1 (4) Wrong use of rules in exceptions.
e.g. (1) pÉq e.g. (2) G É K 6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF NON-
p K FORMAL FALLACIES :

________ ______________ Non-formal fallacies may be further

classified as :
\ q \G (1) Fallacy of Division
In the above examples which argument do (2) Fallacy of Composition
you think is fallacious? why? (3) Fallacy of Accident
(4) Converse fallacy of Accident
....................................................................... (5) Fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi [Irrelevant
Conclusion]
(6) Fallacy of Petitio Principii [Begging the
Question]
Chart of Fallacies :
Fallacies

Formal Non-formal

(1) Division (2) Composition (3) Accident (4) Converse fallacy of Accident (5) Ignoratio Elenchi (6) Petitio Principii

(i) argumentum ad Baculum (i) Hysteron Proteron

(ii) argumentum ad Hominem (ii) Arguing in Circles
(iii) argumentum ad Populum
(iv) argumentum ad Verecundiam
(v) argumentum ad Misericordiam
(vi) argumentum ad Ignoration

(1) Fallacy of Division : E.g. The weight of mangoes in the basket is

In fallacy of Division one wrongly 5 kgs. Here all mangoes in the basket taken
proceeds from collective use of the term to together are 5 kgs. Here the term ‘weight’ is used
distributive use. collectively.

When all the members of a class taken Distributive term means, each member of
together, possess certain quality then the term is a class individually has certain quality.
to be used collectively.
73
E.g. When we say all mangoes in this basket are
Activity : 2
sweet. Here we mean each Mango is individually
sweet. Thus the term sweet is used distributively. Anita lives in a large building. So her
apartment must be large.
The term fallacy of Division arises in two
ways : Why do you think that the fallacy
of Division is committed in the above
(1) From class to member
example? Explain.
For instance, It would be fallacious to
........................................................................
argue that because the ‘College cricket team is
good. Hiten being the member of the college .........................................................................
cricket team, Hiten is good player.
(2) Fallacy of Composition :
(2) From whole to part.
In the fallacy of Composition, one wrongly
For instance, It would be fallacious to
proceeds from distributive use of a term to its
argue that because an object i.e. ‘Machine’ as a
collective use. The fallacy of Composition is
whole is heavy. Therefore each and every part of
opposite to the fallacy of Division. The term
the machine is heavy.
fallacy of Composition, also arises in two ways :
Definition : The fallacy of Division is committed,
(1) From member to class.
when it is wrongly argued that what is true of
a class is also true of its member separately, or For instance : It would be fallacious to argue
what is true of the whole is also true of its part that because a child from the class is physically
singly. weak, therefore the class (group) of children is
also physically weak.
Examples :
(2) From part to whole.
(i) A bag full of rupee coins, is heavy.
Therefore each and every rupee coin in it For instance : It would be fallacious to argue that
is heavy. because each brick as the part of the building, is
light in weight therefore the building as a whole
In this example it is wrongly argued that
is also light in weight.
what is true of ‘all rupee coins collectively in
a bag’, i.e. it is heavy, is also said to be true of Definition : Fallacy of Composition is
each rupee coin, in that bag. committed, when it is wrongly argued that what
is true of each member separately, is also true
(ii) Water is a liquid. Therefore its constituents
of the class or what is true of each part singly is
Hydrogen and Oxygen are also liquids.
also true of the whole.
In this example it is wrongly argued that
Examples :
what is true of ‘water’ as a whole i.e. it a liquid,
is also said to be true of its parts i.e. constituents (i) Orange juice is tasty, Ice-cream is tasty and
Hydrogen and Oxygen separately. fish curry is tasty. Therefore the mixture
of all the three ingredients is bound to be
tasty.
In this example it is wrongly argued that
what is true of each ingredient separately i.e. it
is tasty, is also said to be true of the mixture,
collectively prepared with it.

74
(ii) Each chapter of this book is small. (ii) One should always speak the truth.
Therefore this book is small. Therefore the doctor is wrong, when he
tells the terminally ill patient that there is
In this example it is wrongly argued that improvement in his health and he will be
what is true of each chapter as the part of the fine very soon.
book i.e. singly it is small, is also said to be true
of the whole book. In this example, the general rule i.e. ‘One
should speak the truth’cannot be applied to a
Activity : 3 special case of a terminally ill patient. Hence the
Seeta, Geeta and Neeta of class XI fallacy of accident is committed.
A are intelligent. Therefore class XI A is an Activity : 4
intelligent class.
It is wrong to shed blood. Therefore a
Why do you think that in the surgeon should not perform an operation on a
above example, fallacy of Composition is patient.
committed? Explain.
Why do you think that in the
......................................................................... above example, the fallacy of Accident is
......................................................................... committed? Explain.
.........................................................................
(3) Fallacy of Accident :
This fallacy arises due to wrong use of .........................................................................
rules in exceptions.
(4) Converse fallacy of Accident :
There are certain moral, legal, educational
or social rules or principles. Such rules are in This fallacy arises due to wrong use of
normal circumstances desirable. But from this it rules in exceptions.
does not logically follow that they should be This fallacy is the converse of the fallacy
applied even in special cases. In other words of Accident. According to Cohen and Nagal there
practically every rule has exceptions. It is not are certain truths which are “accidental truths.”
applicable in special, accidental or exceptional It is irrelevant to arrive at general principles out
circumstance. of accidental truths, In other words, what is true
Definition : When it is argued that what is true in accidental or exceptional case need not be
as a general rule, is also true in a special case, the true in general. In this fallacy an attempt is made
fallacy of Accident is committed. to arrive at a general rule on the basis of a special
Examples or an exceptional case.

(i) Regular walk is good for keeping oneself Definition : when it is argued that what is true
physically fit. in a special or exceptional case, is true as a
general rule, we commit the Converse fallacy of
Therefore, a patient with fractured leg Accident.
must also walk regularly.’
In this example the general rule i.e. Regular Examples.
walk is good…., is applied to a special case of a (i) An ambulance is allowed to overtake other
patient with fractured leg. Hence the fallacy of vehicles and break traffic rules. Therefore
accident is committed. every vehicle must be allowed to break
traffic rules.

75
 In this example, it is argued that what opponent, that forces the opponent to accept it.
is true in a special case of ambulance i.e. it is In logic our conclusion is correctly drawn only
allowed to break traffic rules is accepted as a when we give good reasons for it.
general rule for all vehicles.
Definition : The fallacy of argumentum ad
(ii) A visually challenged student is given a Baculum is committed, when the person does not
writer for the exam. So every student must have rational argument and instead he appeals to
be given writers for exams. threat, fear and force to establish his conclusion.
In this example it is argued that what is true This fallacy is based on the principle of ‘Might
in a special case of a visually challenged student is right’.
i.e the student is given a writer for the exam is
accepted as a general rule for all students. Examples

Activity : 5 (i) Teacher to the student “If you do not attend

the lectures, I will fail you.”
Mr. X died while performing an
operation on him. So Surgeons must not be In this example the teacher threatens the
allowed to perform operations on patients student that she will fall him. This creates fear in
the mind of the student, so he is forced to attend
Why do you think that in the above the lectures.
example the Converse fallacy of Accident is
committed? Explain. (ii) An industrialist to his employees : “If you
join the union, I may seriously think of
......................................................................... terminating you from the job,”
......................................................................... In this example an Industrialist threatens
his employee that he will terminate the employee
(5) Fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi from the job, which creates fear in the mind of
[Irrelevant Conclusion] the employee and he is forced not to join the
union.
Ignoratio Elenchi is the latin expression. It
is called the fallacy of “irrelevant conclusion”. Activity : 6
In this fallacy, the conclusion is irrelevant, The soldier to his enemy at war:
i.e. the premises are besides the point. So they “Surrender or Die”.
do not yield the conclusion. The argument is put
across in such a way that the listeners may be Why do you think that in the above
misguided to accept it as good. Ignoratio Elenchi example the fallacy of Argumentum ad
is a group of fallacies. Let us study each fallacy Baculum is committed? Explain.
in detail. .........................................................................
1. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to .........................................................................
threat, fear and force)
In this fallacy, there is an appeal to force 2. Argumentum ad Hominem [Appeal
or fear in order to get an argument accepted by direted against the man]
the opponent. The appeal need not be always to It is a very ancient but very prevalent
physical force, but it may be in a non-physical fallacy even in recent times.
manner, in a more minute way, in the form of
mental torture, i.e. social boycott, or even threat Definition : The fallacy of argumentum ad
of war. Anything which arouses fear in an Hominem is committed when a person, instead
of giving correct reasons to prove ones own

76
argument, makes an attempt to refute an to people’s emotions rather than to reason, in
opponent’s argument by a personal attack on order to establish one’s own point of view.
the opponent’s character, conduct, reputation
[beliefs or opinions], background, or past views Definition : When the premises of an argument
which are irrelevant to the situation. make an appeal to people’s emotions, and
feelings in order to support the truth of some
The term ‘Argumentum ad Hominem’ literally unrelated conclusion, the fallacy of argumentum
means ‘Against the man’. Modern logicians ad Populum is committed.
called it, the fallacy of ‘tu quoque’ which means
‘you also’. Propagandists use this type of arguments
as easiest way of arousing people’s emotions.
Mostly this fallacy is committed in a courtroom, For this purpose they may sometimes use
in the field of politics and debates.. emotional language which is irrelevant to the
content or information. e.g. Political parties
Examples using emotional language to win the votes.
(i) “How can you talk in favour of co- Examples
education, when you send your daughter
to girls college.” (i) A particular model of mobile is the best in
the market Don’t you know that it has the
In this example the person attacks the highest sale in the market?
opponent’s conduct i.e. sending his own daughter
to girls college, instead of proving his argument In this example, there is an emotional
with proper reasons. appeal to people for a particular model of mobile.
(ii) “What right do you have, to tell me, to (ii) “How can you criticize Dowry system?
wear a helmet while riding a bicycle, when Are you wiser than your ancestors?”
I have never seen you wearing it?”
In this example there is an emotional
In this example the person attacks the appeal to people, to follow Dowry system.
opponent’s conduct i.e. not wearing a helmet
while riding a bicycle, instead of proving his Activity : 8
own argument with proper reasons. “Married Girl must wear sari. Don’t you
Activity : 7 know that the great grand-mothers always did
that for years?”
“How can you accuse me for copying in
the exam, I had seen you copying in the exam Why do you think that in the above
last time.” example the fallacy of Argumentum ad
Populum is committed? Explain.
Why do you think that fallacy of
Argumentum ad Hominem is committed in .........................................................................
the above example? Explain. .........................................................................
.........................................................................
4. Argumentum ad Verecundiam. [Appeal
......................................................................... to improper authority]

3. Argumentum ad Populum. [Emotional We cannot always prove everything by

appeal to people] our-self. So we have to accept the views of an
authority. But very often, the authority we quote
Irving Copi calls it “an emotional appeal is not a proper one.
to people”. In this type of fallacy appeal is made

77
Definition : The fallacy of argumentum ad accepted. However an appeal to pity is not always
Verecundiam is committed when an appeal is logically relevant to the truth of a conclusion.
made to improper authority. Definition : The fallacy of Argumentum ad
The person sometimes does not have Misericordiam is committed when someone
special knowledge in the area of discussion, yet tries to win support for an argument by making
to prove one’s own point of view, an improper an appeal to feeling of pity or sympathy.
authority is quoted. It is very common in court room. When the
Advertisers takes advantages of the defence attorney is unable to offer good reasons
popularity of some famous personalities for the for his client’s defence, he may appeal to pity
sale of their products. When common people as a last attempt to save the client from being
are made to believe and accept that a particular punished
product is good just because famous people Examples
recommended it, this fallacy is committed.
(i) “Gentlemen of Jury, I earnestly make
Examples an appeal to you to sympathize with my
client - who is a pretty young widow, with
(i) A famous film star claims, a particular hair
tear-stained face, mourning and holding a
oil is the best. So it must be good.
new born baby in her arms.”
In this example, the argument appeals to In this example the lawyer tries to win
the authority of an actor. But actor is an improper support for his client by an appeal to the feeling
authority for deciding whether the hair oil is of pity. So that the Jury will forgive his client.
good.
(ii) “Sir, I request you to pardon me. No doubt
(ii) I am sure that, this cold drink is a very I am guilty of copying in the examination,
good drink, as I heard the famous cricketer but you know that my father is no more
talk about it, in one advertisement. and my mother has been suffering from
In this example, the argument appeals to cancer since last two years. I being the
the authority of a cricketer. But cricketer is an eldest in the family, had to look after my
improper authority for deciding whether the cold sick mother and younger siblings. So I
drink is good. could not prepare for the examination.”
In this example the student tries to gain
Activity : 9
support, by an appeal to the feeling of pity for
How can you doubt it ? My friend said, himself, so that the teacher will forgive him.
the film is good.
Activity : 10
Why do you think that in the above
“Please do not dismiss me from job, I
example the fallacy of Argumentum ad
really need it. My Father is now bed-ridden. I
Verecundiam is committed? Explain.
am the only son and have to look after my old
......................................................................... parents.”

......................................................................... Why do you think, the fallacy

of Argumentum ad Misericordiam is
5. Argumentum ad Misericordiam. committed in the above example? Explain.
[Appeal to pity]
........................................................................
In this fallacy there is an appeal to pity
.........................................................................
or feeling of sympathy for getting a conclusion

78
6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam [Appeal (6) Fallacy of Petitio Principii [Begging the
to ignorance] Question]
Definition : The fallacy of argumentum ad Petitio Principii is a fallacy of proof
Ignorantiam occurs, when lack of knowledge or rather than inference. Here it should be noted
ignorance of the opponent is taken as evidence that the premise is not logically irrelevant to
to prove one’s own point of view. the truth of the conclusion but the premise is
In other words it is an error that is logically irrelevant to the purpose of proving or
committed, when it is argued that one’s establishing the conclusion.
proposition is true, simply on the basis that it has Petitio principii is popularly known
not been proved as false by the opponent or the as ‘Begging the Question’. The expression
opponent’s proposition is false simply because ‘begging the question’ makes it clear that which
the opponent has no evidence to prove it as true. is to be proved, is taken for granted.
Here ignorance of how to prove or E.g. To give charity to beggars is right because
disprove a proposition, clearly does not establish it is the duty to be charitable. Here premise
the truth or falsity of the proposition. This kind contains the conclusion. So the fallacy of Petitio
of argument is not a fallacious in the court of principii is committed.
Law because as per the guiding principle, court
assumes that person is innocent till he is proved It takes two sub-forms :
to be guilty.
1. Hysteron Proteron :
Examples
In Hysteron Proteron, there is direct
(i) Mr. Peter said, he is courageous because assumption. This fallacy is committed in a single
nobody ever told him, he is not. step of inference by use of synonym. That means
In this example there is an appeal to the reason given [i.e. the premise] merely repeats
ignorance. i.e. Just because the opponents the statement to be proved [i.e. conclusion] but
have no evidence to prove that ‘Peter is not in different words, having the same meaning.
courageous’, therefore Peter’s statement that ‘he Examples
is courageous’ is considered as true.
(i) This cloth is transparent
(ii) Nobody has so far proved that ghost exists. Because we can see through it.
Therefore ghosts do not exist.
In this example, the premise i.e. we can
In this example there is an appeal to see through the cloth repeats the conclusion i.e.
ignorance, i.e. Just because there is no evidence the cloth is transparent, in different words having
to prove that ‘ghost exists, therefore ghosts do the same meaning.
not exist is considered to be true.
(ii) The wind is invisible
Activity : 11 Because we can never see it.
Nobody has so far proved that the soul In this example, the premise i.e. we can
is mortal. Therefore the soul is immortal. never see wind repeats the conclusion i.e. the
Why do you think that in the above wind is invisible, in different words having the
fallacy of Argumentum ad Ignorantiam is same meaning.
committed? Explain.
.........................................................................
.........................................................................

79
 Examples
Activity : 12
(i) Monica is famous, therefore she is in film
Mr. Raju is insane, for his behaviour is
industry.
that of a mad man.
Monica is in film industry, therefore she is
Why do you think that, in the above
famous.
example the fallacy of Hysteron Proteron is
committed? Explain. In this example, the premise i.e. Monica is
famous, therefore she is in film industry repeats
.........................................................................
itself as a conclusion i.e. Monica is in film
......................................................................... industry, therefore she is famous, but in a round
about manner.
2. Arguing in Circles.
(ii) Healthy mind implies healthy body, and
In fallacy of Arguing in Circles, or Vicious Healthy body implies healthy mind.
Circle, the premise that is assumed is not the
In this example, the premise i.e. Healthy
conclusion itself. But it is something whose
mind implies healthy body repeats itself as the
proof’s depends upon the conclusion.
conclusion i.e. Healthy body implies healthy
Here the subject of the premise becomes mind, But in a round about manner.
the predicate of the conclusion and vice versa.
Activity : 13
The logical form of this fallacy is : P is
Complete the vicious Circle.
true, because Q is true.
And Q is true, because P is true. Poverty illiteracy unemployment

Illiteracy

Summary
• Fallacy means an error in an argument.
• Fallacies are classified into two types formal and non-formal.
• Formal fallacy is committed, when a rule of Logic is violated
• Non-formal fallacy in committed due to misleading use of language.
• I. M. copi has classified non-formal fallacies as follows :
(1) Fallacy of Division
(2) Fallacy of Composition
(3) Fallacy of Accident
(4) Converse Fallacy of Accident
(5) Fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi
(i) Argumentum ad Baculum
(ii) Argumentum ad Hominem

80
 (iii) Argumentum ad Populum
(iv) Argumentum ad Verecundiam
(v) Argumentum ad Misericordiam
(vi) Argumentum ad Ignoratiam
(6) Fallacy of Potitio principii
(i) Hysteron Proteron
(ii) Arguing in Circles

Activity : 14
Give few examples of the experiences you had, where you came across some fallacies
committed in the arguments.

Exercises
Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words (7) When there is an appeal to ……………,
from those given in the brackets : the fallacy of argumentum ad Verecundiam
(1) Fallacy of …………… is committed, is committed.
when it is argued that what is true as a [A] Improper authority
general rule, is also true in a special case. [B] Emotional feeling of people
[A] Accident (8) When an argument wrongly proceeds
[B] Converse of accident from …………… of term, the fallacy of
(2) …………… fallacy is committed, when Composition is committed.
the rule of Logic is violated. [A] Collective use of term to distributive
[A] Non-formal [B] Formal use

(3) Fallacy of argumentum ad ……………, is [B] Distributive use of term to collective

committed when we appeal to pity. use

[A] Verecundiam [B] Misericordiam (9) The fallacy of argumentum ad ……………

is committed when it is argued that a
(4) Fallacy of argumentum ad ……………, is proposition is true simply on the basis that
based on the principle of ‘Might is Right’. it has not been proved false or that it is
[A] Baculum [B] Populum false because it has not been proved to be
true.
(5) Fallacy of …………… is committed when
it is wrongly argued that, what is true of [A] lgnoratiam [B] Hominem
the whole class is also true of its member. (10) In the fallacy of …………… there is direct
[A] Division [B] Composition assumption.
(6) Fallacy of …………… is committed when [A] Hysteron Proteron
the premise repeats itself as the conclusion, [B] Accident
in a round about manner.
[A] Hysteron Proteron
[B] Arguing in Circles

81
Q. 2. State whether the following statements (3) Error done due to violation of any rule of
are true or false: logic.
(1) Argumentum ad Hominem occurs (4) Error done in the argument, where one
when one attempts to attack on personal wrongly proceeds from part to whole.
drawbacks and short comings of man. (5) Error done in an argument, where one
(2) In the fallacy of Petitio principii, what is to arrives at a general principles on the basis
be proved is taken for granted. of accidental cases.
(3) Converse fallacy of Accident is committed (6) Latin expression for the fallacy of
when it is argued that what is true of a ‘irrelevant conclusion’.
member of a group is also the of the whole (7) The error done in an argument, where one
group. threatens his opponent and forces him to
(4) The modern name for the fallacy of accept his statement as true.
argumentum ad Populum is ‘tu quoque’. (8) The fallacy of an argument against the
(5) Fallacy of argumentum ad Misericordiam man.
is committed when we appeal to threat. (9) Fallacy that is used as a last resort in the
(6) Formal fallacy is committed, when the court-room to save the client from being
conclusion is not relevant to the premise. punished by mercy petition.
(7) Fallacy means an error in an argument. (10) The error committed in an argument for
(8) In the fallacy of Petitio principii the the sale of products by the celebrities.
premise is logically irrelevant to the Q. 5. Explain the following :
purpose of proving or establishing the
conclusion. (1) Fallacy of Division
(9) Fallacy of Division is generally committed (2) Fallacy of Composition
in the court-room, as a last attempt to save (3) Fallacy of Accident
the client from being punished.
(4) Converse fallacy of Accident
(10) Argumentum ad Ignoratiam is not
fallacious in the court of Law. (5) Fallacy of argumentum ad Baculum

Q. 3. Match the columns: (6) Argumentum ad Hominem

(A) (B) (7) Argumentum all Verecundiam

(8) Argumentum ad Ignoratiam
(1) Ignoratio Elenchi (a) Emotional
appeal to People (9) Argumentum ad populum
(2) Petitio Principi (b) Appeal directed (10) Petitio Principii
against the man
Q. 6. Recognize with reasons, the fallacies
(3) Argument Ad (c) Irrelevant committed in each of the following
Hominem Conclusion arguments :
(4) Argument Ad (d) Begging the (1) “If you do not vote for my candidate, then
Populum Question you will find it difficult to stay in this
locality
Q. 4. Give logical terms for the following :
(2) The ball is blue. Therefore the atom that
(1) Any error in reasoning.
make it up are also blue.
(2) Error due to misleading use of language.
(3) How can Ravi be truthful? Because his
own brother was caught for lying.

82
(4) We should never treat any human being as (16) “To defend oneself from injury is perfectly
a means. Therefore we should not hire a justified. Therefore a patient is justified in
coolie for lifting our heavy luggage. kicking a surgeon who is about to perform
(5) The novel is interesting because many an operation on him.
people read it and the novel is read by (17) A Girl to a friend says “If you do not come
many people because it is interesting. with me for the movie, I will not talk to
(6) It is meaningless to argue in favour of you.”
democracy, since even a famous cricketer (18) Soul is eternal as it never dies.
was against it. (19) I am sure our party will win this election
(7) Employee to his Boss says “Sir I appeal as the famous actor said so in his recent
you, not to dismiss me from my job. I meeting.
have to support my old parents and young (20) Soldiers are right in killing the enemy at
children. If I lose my job, my family will war. Therefore, we should not object to
have to starve to death. So please have pity soldier killing people.
on me.”
(21) Each student of this class is attentive.
(8) Mr. X is humiliating because he is Therefore this class on the whole is
degrading. attentive.
(9) A student is allowed to appear for (22) There is no evidence to prove that there is
supplementary examination, as she was life after death. Therefore there is no life
sick during terminal examination. So all after death.
the students must be allowed to appear for
supplementary examination. (23) ‘Accident caused by youngster’s driving’,
is commonly read in Newspapers. Hence
(10) These documents are authentic because no youngster should be allowed to drive.
they are factual.
(24) Sodium Chloride [table salt] may be safely
(11) The Union has voted for strike. As a eaten. Therefore its constituent elements,
member of the Union, you too must have Sodium and Chloride can also be eaten
voted for strike. safely.
(12) He cannot be successful home minister. (25) How can you believe the charge made
Since he could not even manage his own against the CEO of the company, when
family affairs. the person making the charges himself is
(13) This Airline service is the best in the a culprit?
world. Don’t you know that they have been (26) “Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, look
serving people, since last one decade? at this miserable man, in a wheelchair,
(14) We had this law for last forty years, but unable to use his legs. Could such a man
nobody talked against it. So this Law is really be guilty of embezzlement?”
correct. (27) “If you do not promote the sales, then you
(15) “Mam please assess my answer sheet will be dismissed from the job.”
again, there may be some error. I studied (28) “Artists are moody. Hemant is an artist.
very hard for weeks and my career Hence Hemant is moody.”
demands on getting a good grade. If you
give me a failing grade I’m ruined! Please
have pity on me.” v v v

83
 Chapter 7 Application of Logic
The better you are at logic, the more likely you are to be the
master of your own life than its victim.

DO YOU KNOW THAT ..............

Skills of logic can never be out – dated.
Knowledge of principles of logic is the key to successful life.
Logic has applications in all fields of life.
Logical thinking is wider than scientific thinking.
Computer science is based on principles of logic.

Logic is essentially the study of reasoning For example a student, who has passed S. S. C
or argumentation. We all use reason all the time with good marks, has to decide about his career
to draw inferences that are useful to us. Study before taking admission for science, commerce
of logic grooms us to construct good arguments or arts. His decision may get influenced by many
and to spot bad ones. This is a skill that is useful factors like – popular trend in society to become
in every field as well as in everyday life. Let say an engineer, parents desire of their child
us learn application of logic in some important becoming a doctor, pressure from friends, where
fields like – Law, Science, Computer science all friends are taking admission for commerce,
and everyday life. relatives saying no for taking arts, and his own
wish to become a singer. In such a situation
7. 1. APPLICATION OF LOGIC IN
one needs to think logically, by analysing the
EVERYDAY LIFE
situation, finding out various options available,
To comprehend is essentially to draw deciding the priorities, understanding one's
conclusions from an already accepted own interests, talents, abilities, and aptitude
logical system – Albert Einstein for a certain field. For this one can even seek
vocational guidance. And finally one arrives at a
Logic is useful in our everyday life in right decision. Logical thinking thus helps us
many ways. In our daily affairs we have to to take right decisions at right time, which in
make many decisions and decision making is turn can make us successful in all spheres of
not possible without logic. Every day we come life. And success in life gives us confidence in
across many situations, problems, or challenges our innate powers to think rationally.
that may be trivial or serious. For instance, simple
situations where a housewife has to choose a Logical thinking is analytical or inferential
grocery shop to buy quality products, or choose thinking. It has to be developed with proper
a juicer of a certain company from various guidance and training. Logic cultivates the
available brands in market, or an important and power to understand abstract concepts. With
challenging situation before a youngster, of maturity one improves and with practice one can
choosing a career or a life partner. strengthen these powers. This is the reason why
all competitive exams like – C. A, Law, UPSC,
Good or valid reasoning is necessary to take MPSC etc. have one paper of reasoning to test
correct decisions in such situations. Irrational students reasoning ability.
decisions, influenced by advertisements,
This does not, however, imply that without
emotions, biased opinions etc. are not useful.

84
formal training in logic one cannot reason
7.2 APPLICATION OF LOGIC IN LAW
logically. Logical reasoning in fact is an inbuilt
feature of human mind. Study of logic only Every legal analysis should begin at
makes one better or well – equipped to reason the point of reason, continue along a path
correctly than the person who has not studied of logic and arrive at a fundamentally
logic. fair result." (Sunrise Lumber V. Johnson,
Logic is useful in communication and Appeal No. 165)
conveying. One of the important purpose of Knowledge of principle of logic empowers
language is to communicate our thoughts, us to reason correctly by training us to differentiate
ideas, opinions, and feelings with other people. between good and bad reasoning. This is very
Knowledge of logic can make our communication important and more clearly demonstrated in
more precise and perfect, by enhancing our legal trials, than in any other field.
ability to express ideas clearly and concisely.
To make people understand what we wish to Evaluating and creating arguments is
convey. It is necessary that the subject matter is essential to the crafts of lawyering and judging.
expressed in logical order, there are no inherent It is important for practitioners as well as
inconsistencies and the important points are students of the law to understand the basic
highlighted with logical justification. This will principles of logic that are used regularly in
help us not only to convey our ideas, thoughts or legal reasoning and judicial decision making.
feelings precisely but also to convince people. This understanding includes. (1) Expertise in
using inductive reasoning e.g. the methods of
Knowledge of principles of logic enables analogy and simple enumeration – by which
us to evaluate and critically analyse others inferences are drawn on the basis of past
arguments. It also develops our ability to experience and empirical observation. "The
formulate argument rigorously. In our day to Rule of Law" – that like cases be decided alike
day life many arguments by people from various – is grounded logically in inductive reasoning.
fields attract our attention like – a salesman (2) Elementary understanding of deductive logic,
persuading us to buy product of a certain especially of argument forms called 'syllogism',
company, an advertisement telling us how a gives lawyers, judges, and students of the law a
particular product is good and should be preferred valuable tool for deciding whether an argument
over other similar products, friends / parents / in a legal opinion is valid or fallacious.
relatives advising us regarding an important
decision in life, a politician convincing us for To criticize, reserve, or overrule an
giving vote for him and his party. Knowledge administrative or judicial decision as
of rules of logic and fallacies empowers us to "arbitrary," "capricious," "unsupported
evaluate such arguments and decide if they by law "or" contrary to precedent" is to
are good or fallacious. Logic also helps us to say nothing more, but nothing less, than
formulate correct arguments and avoid fallacies that the decision is deficient in logic and
when we think, form opinions, reason, debate or reason.
argue with others. Thus logic helps us to refute The role of logic is significant in all the
others arguments and prove one's own argument three important aspects of legal system – making
easily. of laws, execution of laws and interpretation of
Logic is also useful in discussions, when laws.
the aim is to understand the topic of discussion The language used is very important while
and arrive at some common agreement. making legal laws. The laws should not be vague
knowledge of fallacies, definitions can help in or ambiguous. They ought to be very clear and
gaining better insight into the topic and arrive at precise. The precision of details is also necessary
mutual agreement. in the drafting of contracts, wills, trusts and other

85
legal documents. This is possible when the words (1) The first important step in scientific
used in laws are properly defined. Knowledge of method is – Formulation of hypothesis.
principles of logic is important and necessary for Though the role of creative imagination is
making laws and legal documents. significant in suggesting a hypothesis, it is
Execution of laws is the essential aspect not a result of wild, but a logical guess.
of legal system. The main function of judicial Deductive and inductive inferences like
system is to resolve disputes. It is necessary that simple enumeration, analogy may suggest
the judgement arrived at is definite and fair. The hypothesis to scientist.
entire process of legal trial is based on application (2) The suggested hypothesis should be a
of principles of logic. Knowledge of different good hypothesis. To decide whether it is
types of fallacies is very useful in legal trials. relevant, self – consistent, compatible
Knowledge of fallacies not only enables lawyers with other laws, knowledge of rules and
to detect errors in opponent's arguments, but it principles of logic is necessary.
also helps them to argue correctly and justify
one's own stand. Finally by applying principles (3) In order to verify the hypothesis, what
of logic, argumentation of lawyers is evaluated, are the relevant facts to be observed and
evidence before the court is weighed and a fair data to be collected, whether the evidence
judgement is arrived. collected is relevant and sufficient, what
experiment to be conducted, all these
For resolving disputes, sometimes, a legal decisions have basis in logical thinking.
system has to apply some law or a rule or a
principle to a set of facts so that some judgement (4) Most of the hypothesis are verified
is possible. One lawyer for instance, to defend indirectly in science by deducing
his client may claim that a specific rule applies consequences form the hypothesis.
to the facts whereas the opponent lawyer may Deductive reasoning is necessary for such
claim that the rule does not apply. In such deductive development of the hypothesis.
cases knowledge of logic is useful in correct
Our knowledge of logic further makes it
interpretation of the law or rule.
evident that, indirect verification commits the
7. 3 APPLICATION OF LOGIC IN fallacy of affirming the consequent. So the next
SCIENCE step is to prove the hypothesis by showing that
Science is defined as, 'A systematized no other hypothesis can explain the facts except
body of factual knowledge collected by the proposed hypothesis. As one connot possibly
means of scientific method.' Science is born know all alternate hypotheses, it is not possible
out of man's inherent curiosity to explore and to prove the hypothesis. Thus we logically come
understand the world around him. Man's thirst to the conclusion that scientific laws and theories
for knowledge is to know 'true' nature of facts. cannot be conclusively proved and scientific
Our understanding of facts, however, need not knowledge is probable.
be always correct. So there is a need to have a When any law or a theory is proved in
test to distinguish between correct and incorrect science, only the evidence in its support is not
explanations of facts. The explanations which are enough, the proof / the argument should be valid.
rational, logical and based on factual evidence Knowledge of logic helps in deciding validity of
are accepted as correct explanations in science. argument.
The scientific method (Hypothetico (5) Scientific laws explain facts by introducing
deductive method) clearly illustrates how different types of orders into facts like
scientific thinking follows logical thinking. – classificatory, causal, mathematical
Every stage in scientific method has its basis in and order introduced by theories. All
logic.

86
 these orders are arrangement of facts as There are only two digits 0 and 1. One of the
per some plan which is based on logical reasons for this is human logic tends to be binary
thinking. Theories introduce order among – true or false, yes or no statements. Information
laws which fall within its scope. This is the which is in language is coded in binary digits
highest kind of order in science. It is also to feed it to the computer. After processing the
known as vertical organization in science. output given by computer is also in binary digits,
From theories laws can be deduced which which is displayed on the screen by converting it
in turn explain facts. This shows that into language.
science as a system is based on principles
of logic. A computer thus receives stores, understand
and manipulates information composed of only 0
Relation between scientific thinking and and 1. The manipulation of binary information is
logical thinking is one sided. Logic helps science done by logic circuits known as logic gates. The
but science cannot be useful in logic. Logical important logic operation which are frequently
thinking is wider than scientific thinking;rather performed in the design of digital system are –
scientific thinking is based on logical thinking. AND, OR, NOT, NAND, (NOT – AND), NOR
Technology which is application of scientific and EXCLUSIVE – OR. These logic gates
laws and theories is also based on logical are the basic building blocks of computer. A
consequences and predictions which are derived logic gate manipulates binary data in a logical
from scientific theories. way. The knowledge of logic gates is essential
to understand the important digital circuits
7. 4 APPLICATION OF LOGIC IN used in computers like – addition, subtraction,
COMPUTER SCIENCE multiplication. The input output relationship
Computer is the most significant invention of the binary variables for each gate can be
of the 20th century. Computers have influenced represented in a tabular form by a truth table
our life to great extent. They are used at almost which is essentially same as truth tables used in
every workplace and home. Computers have logic.
becomes almost indispensable in modern man's To solve any problem, programmer
life. Though computer appears to be superior to provides a method to the computer. It is in form of
man, it cannot think and reason like man. It can a procedure which is a series of steps in a logical
only perform as per the instructions given to it. sequence. This is called an algorithm. Algorithm
However what makes it a brilliant invention is is expressed in form of flow chart, which is
the fact that it is considerably faster, accurate, essentially a diagram that defines the procedure.
and consistent than man. It can do multiple A flow chart shows the order of operations and
tasks at one time and unlike man it can function the relationship between the sections of the
continuously for hours. programs. Flow charts are independent of a
Computers can perform certain tasks and particular computer or computer language.
solve problems by carrying out instructions There are some standard symbols which
given to it. A sequence of instructions describing are usually used in drawing flow chart like –
how to perform a certain task is called a program.
Such a program is in a language which computer Start / End
can understand. The language which computer
understands is called. 'machine language' Input / output
Knowledge of principles of logic is
necessary for making computer programs. Processing
Computer uses binary system for its operation.
Decision logic

87
 The flow chart to calculate sum of two numbers, for instance, is as follows –
Step 1 : Input two numbers a & b Step 2 : Calculate sum = a + b
Step 3 : Print sum Step 4 : Stop
Flow chart –
Start

Input a, b

Sum = a + b

Print sum

Stop

Summary
• Logic trains us in valid reasoning. This ability to reason correctly is useful in every sphere of
life.
• In everyday life, logic empowers us to take correct decisions, which in turn leads to success
in life and develops confidence in rational thinking.
• Logic is useful in communication.
• Principles of logic enable us to critically evaluate others as well as one's own arguments.
• Role of logic is important in legal trial. Logic is useful in making of laws, execution of laws
and interpretation of laws.
• Scientific, method follows logical thinking. Every stage in scientific thinking has basis in
logic.
• Logical thinking is wider than scientific thinking.

88
 Exercises

Q. 1. Fill in the blanks with suitable words in (3) Logic is not an inbuilt feature of human
the brackets. mind.
(1) Knowledge of …...…… can make our (4) Logic is not useful in communication and
communication more precise and perfect. conveying.
(Psychology / Logic) (5) Inductive inferences like simple
(2) Formal training is …...…… to reason enumeration, analogy may suggest
logically. (Necessary / Not necessary) hypothesis to scientist.
(3) Knowledge of principles of logic enables (6) Relation between scientific thinking and
us to evaluate and critically analyse others logical thinking is one sided.
…...…… (Arguments/ Emotions) (7) The language which computer understand
(4) Knowledge of …...…… develops our is called. 'artificial language'
ability to formulate valid arguments. (8) Logic gates are the basic building blocks
(Fallacies / Law) of computer.
(5) Hypothesis is a …...…… guess. (Wild /
Logical) Q. 3. Explain the following.

(6) Logical thinking is …...…… than scientific (1) Application of logic in law.
thinking. (Narrower / Wider) (2) Application of logic in computer science.
(7) A sequence of instruction describing (3) Role of logic in communication.
how to perform a certain task is called a (4) Importance of logic in everyday life.
…...…… (Program / Process)
(8) Computer uses …...…… system for its Q. 4. Answer the following questions.
operation. (Monadic / B inary) (1) Explain with illustration how logic is
useful in decision making.
Q. 2. State whether following statements are
true or false. (2) Explain with illustration application of
logic in science.
(1) Logical thinking helps us to take right
decision. (3) Explain role of logic in making and
execution of laws.
(2) Logic gives us confidence in our innate
powers to think rationally. (4) Explain how logic helps us to critically
evaluate arguments.

v v v

89
 Glossary

Analogy : a form of induction involving Contradiction : a truth-functional propositional

inference from known resemblances to further form which is false under all truth possibilities
resemblances. of its components.
Argument : a group of propositions in which Contradictory function : another name for
one proposition is accepted on the evidence of negation, its truth-value being the opposite of
the remaining ones. the truth value of the component proposition.
Argumentum ad baculum : the non-formal Converse fallacy of accident : the non-formal
fallacy in which there is appeal to force. fallacy in which we point to a special case to
assert a general statement.
Argumentum ad hominem : the non-formal
fallacy which involves personal attack. Decision procedure : a method for deciding
whether an object belongs to a certain class.
Argumentum ad ignoratiam : the non-formal
fallacy in which a statement is taken to be proved, Deductive proof : a proof of the validity of an
because its opposite cannot be disproved. argument in which the conclusion is deducted
from the premises by a sequence of (valid)
Argumentum ad misericordiam : the non-
elementary arguments.
formal fallacy in which there is appeal to pity.
Deductive argument : an argument in which the
Argumentum ad populum : the non-formal premises claim to provide sufficient evidence for
fallacy in which there is appeal to emotions. the conclusion.
Argumentum ad verecundiam : the non-formal Direct deductive proof : the deductive proof
fallacy which involves appeal to improper in which the conclusion is deduced from the
authority. premises, by a sequence of (valid) elementary
Binary connective (operator) : a propositional arguments.
connective which connects two propositions. Disjunctive proposition : a compound
Complement of a class : the class of all objects proposition in which the word "or" combines
that do not belong to it, two propositions.
Compound proposition : a proposition which Disjunctive function : the truth function which
contains another proposition (or propositions) as is false only if both the components are false.
a component. Dyadic connective (Operator) : a propositional
Conclusion : in an argument,the statement connective which connects two propositions.
which is derived from the premises. Equivalence : the propositional connective
Conjunctive proposition : a compound which is true when both its components have the
proposition formed by combining any two same truth value.
propositions with the truth-functional connective Equivalent proposition : a compound
"and". proposition in which two component propositions
Conjunctive truth function : truth-function materially imply each other.
which is true only when both the components Fallacy : an error in reasoning in which the
are true. argument appears to establish a conclusion, but
Contingency : a truth-functional form which does not really do so.
is true under some truth possibilities of its Fallacy of Accident : a non-formal fallacy in
components, and false under other truth which what is true in general is considered to
possibilities. be true in a special case,or what is true under

90
normal circumstances is taken to be true under Non-formal fallacy : a fallacy which arises
special (or exceptional) circumstances. either when words are used ambiguously or
Fallacy of Composition : a non-formal fallacy when some relevant feature of the argument is
in which it is argued that a quality which is ignored.
possessed by a member (or members) is also Premise : in an argument, the proposition from
possessed by the group, or that quality which is which the conclusion is drawn.
possessed by a part (or parts) is also possessed Proposition : a statement which is either true
by the whole. or false
Fallacy of Division : a non-formal fallacy in Propositional connective : an expression which
which it is argued that what is true of a group connects propositions. The symbols for the five
is true of its members or that what is true of a propositional connectives are "~", ".", "v", ""
whole is true of its parts. and "º".
Fallacy of ignoratio elenchi : a group of Propositional constant : a symbol which stands
non-formal fallacies in which the argument is for a specific proposition.
irrelevant.
Propositional variable : a symbol which stands
Formal fallacy : a fallacy which arises due to for any proposition whatsoever.
the violation of a rule of logic.
Scientific induction : the process of establishing
Implicative function : the truth function which a general statement which is supported by both
is false if and only if the antecedent is true and direct and indirect evidence.
the consequent is false.
Simple proposition : a proposition which does
Implicative proposition : a compound not contain any other proposition as a component.
propositions which is formed by combining
any two propositions with the truth-functional Sound argument : a valid argument whose
connective "if.. then..." conclusion is a true proposition.
Inference : the process of reasoning in which Tautology : a truth-functional propositional
the conclusion is drawn from the evidence. form which is true under all truth possibilities of
its components.
Inductive arguments : an argument in which
the premises provide "some" evidence for the Truth-functional connective (operator) :
conclusion, but the evidence is not sufficient. another name for propositional connective.
Induction per simple enumeration : a Truth-functionally compound proposition :
generalization in which it is argued that what a compound proposition whose truth value is
is true of several instances of a kind is true determined by the truth value of its component
universally of that kind. proposition (or propositions).
Monadic connective (operator) : a proposition Truth-table : a tabular way of expressing
connective which operates on one proposition. the truth values of expressions containing
propositional connective.
Negation : the propositional connective "~".
Negative proposition : a compound proposition
obtained by denying a proposition.

91
 Bibliography

• KT Basantani, Elementary Logic, First Edition September 1995

• Irving M.Copi. Carl Cohen, Priyadarshi Jetli and Monica Prabhakar. Thirteenth Edition 2009.
• KT Basantani, Introduction to Logic.
• Irving M.Copi. and Carl Cohen, Introduction of Logic, Eleventh Edition, Third Indian Reprint,
2004.
• Irving M.Copi, Symbolic Logic, Fifth Edition, 1973
• Rebert Baum, Logic, First Edition.
• Max Black, Critical Thinking, Second Edition.
• Susanne Langer, Introduction of Symbolic Logic, Second Edition.
• G.E. Hughes and D.G. Londey, Elements of Formal Logic, First Indian Reprint, 1967.
• Dawon and O'Connor, Introduction to Symbolic Logic, Third Edition.
• Stephen Dorker, Elements of Logic, 1965.
• Salman V.C., Logic, Princeton-Hall, Inc. 1963.
• Cohen Morris & Earnest Magel, in Introduction to Logic and Scientific Method, - 1961.
• Suppes P, Introduction to Logic, Princeton, 1957.
• Hospers J, An Introdcution to philosophical analysis, Englewood Cliffs, 1953.
• Hemple C.G. Philosophy of Normal Science, Printice-Hall Inc. 1963.
• Wikipedia
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

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