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Handbook of Research
on Network-Enabled IoT
Applications for Smart
City Services

K. Hemant Kumar Reddy

VIT AP University, India

Diptendu Sinha Roy

National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya, India

Tapas Kumar Mishra

SRM University, India

Mir Wajahat Hussain

Alliance University, India

A volume in the Advances in Electronic

Government, Digital Divide, and Regional
Development (AEGDDRD) Book Series
Published in the United States of America by
IGI Global
Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue
Hershey PA, USA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: http://www.igi-global.com

Copyright © 2023 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.
Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or
companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Reddy, K. Hemant Kumar, 1977- editor.

Title: Handbook of research on network-enabled IoT applications for smart
city services / edited by K. Hemant Kumar Reddy, Diptendu Sinha Roy,
Tapas Kumar Mishra, and Mir Wajahat Hussain.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, [2023] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “The rapid growth of
IoT and its applications in smart cities pose significant challenges for
academic scholars. The increasing number of interconnected devices and
the massive amounts of data they generate strain traditional networks,
leading to inefficiencies and security vulnerabilities. Additionally,
the centralized control plane in Software Defined Networks (SDN)
presents a single point of failure, hindering network performance, while
IoT devices themselves are susceptible to attacks, compromising user
data and privacy. To address these pressing issues, Network-Enabled IoT
Applications for Smart City Services offers a compelling solution”--
Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023031163 (print) | LCCN 2023031164 (ebook) | ISBN
9798369307441 (h/c) | ISBN 9798369307458 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Smart cities--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Internet of
things--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Software-defined networking (Computer
network technology)--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TD159.4 .H3653 2023 (print) | LCC TD159.4 (ebook) |
DDC 307.1/416--dc23/eng/20230918
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023031163
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023031164

This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Electronic Government, Digital Divide, and Regional
Development (AEGDDRD) (ISSN: 2326-9103; eISSN: 2326-9111)

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

List of Contributors

Aashrit, S. / SRM University, India.................................................................................................... 135

Ahmed, Elmustafa Sayed Ali / Red Sea University, Sudan............................................................... 339
Badi, Manjulata / Alliance University, India............................................................................ 263, 307
Behera, Arati / SRM University, India.............................................................................................. 135
Chakraborty, Prasit / Brainware University, India.......................................................................... 174
Chiplunkar, Niranjan N. / Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India... 99
Dahab, Mona Bakri Hassan / Sudan University of Science and Technology, Sudan........................ 339
Das, Gobinda / Brainware University, India..................................................................................... 174
Das, Shiplu / Brainware University, India......................................................................................... 174
deMatos, Nelson / ESGHT and CinTurs, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal.................................. 323
G., Swetha Shekarappa / Alliance University, India................................................................. 263, 307
George, Abraham / Alliance University, India................................................................................. 250
Gupta, Vrinda / National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India............................................. 205
H., Manjula Gururaj Rao / Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India. 99
Hamzeh, Zeid Saad / Jinan University, Lebanon............................................................................... 230
Isravel, Deva Priya / Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India...................................... 151
Jain, Prateek / Amity University, Noida, India.................................................................................... 54
Jain, Rajashree / Symbiosis Institute of Computer Studies and Research, Symbiosis International
University (Deemed), India............................................................................................................. 19
Jana, Bishwanath / Brainware University, India.............................................................................. 174
Kalinaki, Kassim / Islamic University in Uganda, Uganda................................................................ 75
M., Mohamed Arshad / Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India......... 189
Mahapatra, Sheila / Alliance University, India........................................................................ 263, 307
Mahmood, Syed Yaser / SRM University, India................................................................................ 135
Mathew, F. / Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India........................... 189
Mishra, Tapas Kumar / SRM University, India................................................................................. 135
Mokhtar, Rania A. / Taif University, Saudi Arabia........................................................................... 339
Namratha, M. / B.M.S. College of Engineering, India........................................................................ 38
Nassreddine, Ghalia / Jinan University, Lebanon............................................................................ 230
Nayak, Jyothi S. / B.M.S. College of Engineering, India..................................................................... 38
Pawar, Sumathi / Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India................. 99
Pillai, Samaya Venkatesh / Symbiosis Institute of Digital and Telecom Management, India............. 19
Pradhan, Buddhadeb / Institute of Engineering and Management Kolkata, India & University
of Engineering and Management, Kolkata, India..................................................................... 1, 174
Punugoti, Vamsi Reddy / National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India............................... 205

Purandare, Pradnya / Symbiosis Centre for Information Technology, Symbiosis International

University (Deemed), India............................................................................................................. 19
Raj, Saurav / Institute of Chemical Technology, Marathwada, India....................................... 263, 307
Rajagopal, R. / Alliance University, India......................................................................................... 115
Rajeshwari, B. S. / B.M.S. College of Engineering, India.................................................................... 38
Rajsingh, Elijah Blessing / Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India............................ 151
Ramos, Célia M. Q. / ESGHT and CinTurs, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal.............................. 323
Reddy, B. Venkatesh / SRM University, India.................................................................................... 135
Saeed, Rashid A. / Taif University, Saudi Arabia............................................................................... 339
Sahana, Sudipta / Institute of Engineering and Management Kolkata, India & University of
Engineering and Management, Kolkata, India................................................................................. 1
Sahoo, Kshira Sagar / Department of Computing Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden &
Department of Computer Science, SRM University, Amaravati, India......................................... 135
Senbagavalli, M. / Alliance University, India............................................................................ 115, 263
Shafik, Wasswa / School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei & Dig Connectivity Research Laboratory, Kampala, Uganda................... 75, 282
Sharma, Archana / IIMT College of Engineering, Greater Noida, India........................................... 54
Sharma, Shivam / Brainware University, India................................................................................ 174
Silas, Salaja / Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India................................................. 151
Swetha, Shekarappa G. / Alliance University, India......................................................................... 115
V., Arun Raj / Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India......................... 189
Veereju, Sanath Kalyan / National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India.............................. 205
Younis, Joumana / CNAM, France.................................................................................................... 230
Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii

Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................xxviii

Chapter 1
Smart Cities Powered by IoT: Perspective and Change........................................................................... 1
Sudipta Sahana, Institute of Engineering and Management Kolkata, India & University of
Engineering and Management, Kolkata, India
Buddhadeb Pradhan, Institute of Engineering and Management Kolkata, India & University
of Engineering and Management, Kolkata, India

Chapter 2
Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications............................................................... 19
Samaya Venkatesh Pillai, Symbiosis Institute of Digital and Telecom Management, India
Pradnya Purandare, Symbiosis Centre for Information Technology, Symbiosis International
University (Deemed), India
Rajashree Jain, Symbiosis Institute of Computer Studies and Research, Symbiosis
International University (Deemed), India

Chapter 3
Issues, Current Challenges, and Research Directions in Designing a Smart, Explainable AI-Based
Healthcare Systems................................................................................................................................ 38
B. S. Rajeshwari, B.M.S. College of Engineering, India
M. Namratha, B.M.S. College of Engineering, India
Jyothi S. Nayak, B.M.S. College of Engineering, India

Chapter 4
Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City: Applications and Challenges.................. 54
Archana Sharma, IIMT College of Engineering, Greater Noida, India
Prateek Jain, Amity University, Noida, India

Chapter 5
Smart City Ecosystem: An Exploration of Requirements, Architecture, Applications, Security,
and Emerging Motivations..................................................................................................................... 75
Wasswa Shafik, School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei & Dig Connectivity Research Laboratory, Kampala, Uganda
Kassim Kalinaki, Islamic University in Uganda, Uganda

Chapter 6
Interaction Between IoT-Enabled Services in Smart Cities................................................................... 99
Sumathi Pawar, Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India
Manjula Gururaj Rao H., Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology,
India
Niranjan N. Chiplunkar, Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology,
India

Chapter 7
A Role of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Algorithms for Energy Efficiency
Applications......................................................................................................................................... 115
M. Senbagavalli, Alliance University, India
Shekarappa G. Swetha, Alliance University, India
R. Rajagopal, Alliance University, India

Chapter 8
5G-Enabled Secure IoT Applications in Smart Cities Using Software-Defined Networks................. 135
Syed Yaser Mahmood, SRM University, India
S. Aashrit, SRM University, India
B. Venkatesh Reddy, SRM University, India
Arati Behera, SRM University, India
Tapas Kumar Mishra, SRM University, India
Kshira Sagar Sahoo, Department of Computing Science, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden &
Department of Computer Science, SRM University, Amaravati, India

Chapter 9
Traffic Management of SDN/NFV-Based Smart 5G Networks Using Time Series Analysis............. 151
Deva Priya Isravel, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India
Salaja Silas, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India
Elijah Blessing Rajsingh, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India

Chapter 10
Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems in Smart Cities.... 174
Shiplu Das, Brainware University, India
Buddhadeb Pradhan, University of Engineering and Management, India
Shivam Sharma, Brainware University, India
Bishwanath Jana, Brainware University, India
Gobinda Das, Brainware University, India
Prasit Chakraborty, Brainware University, India

Chapter 11
An Alert and Detection System for Cyber-Attacks on IoT Devices..................................................... 189
Arun Raj V., Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India
Mohamed Arshad M., Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India
F. Mathew, Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India

Chapter 12
Blockchain-Enabled Secured Smart City Services.............................................................................. 205
Vrinda Gupta, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India
Vamsi Reddy Punugoti, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India
Sanath Kalyan Veereju, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India

Chapter 13
Blockchain in the Healthcare Sector.................................................................................................... 230
Zeid Saad Hamzeh, Jinan University, Lebanon
Ghalia Nassreddine, Jinan University, Lebanon
Joumana Younis, CNAM, France

Chapter 14
Co-Operation in Wireless Sensor Networks for Smart Cities.............................................................. 250
Abraham George, Alliance University, India

Chapter 15
A Review on the Impact of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems for Sustainability and Energy
Management......................................................................................................................................... 263
Swetha Shekarappa G., Alliance University, India
Manjulata Badi, Alliance University, India
Saurav Raj, Institute of Chemical Technology, Marathwada, India
Sheila Mahapatra, Alliance University, India
M. Senbagavalli, Alliance University, India

Chapter 16
IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends in Wireless Sensor Networks................. 282
Wasswa Shafik, School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei & Dig Connectivity Research Laboratory, Kampala, Uganda

Chapter 17
Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios.................................................................. 307
Manjulata Badi, Alliance University, India
Sheila Mahapatra, Alliance University, India
Saurav Raj, Institute of Chemical Technology, India
Swetha Shekarappa G., Alliance University, India

Chapter 18
Smart Cities: Operational Concepts for an Elusive Framework.......................................................... 323
Nelson deMatos, ESGHT and CinTurs, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal
Célia M. Q. Ramos, ESGHT and CinTurs, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal

Chapter 19
Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Approaches in Smart City Services............................. 339
Mona Bakri Hassan Dahab, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Sudan
Elmustafa Sayed Ali Ahmed, Red Sea University, Sudan
Rania A. Mokhtar, Taif University, Saudi Arabia
Rashid A. Saeed, Taif University, Saudi Arabia

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 353

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 400

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 407
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii

Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................xxviii

All over the world, smart city projects and related initiatives have reached new technological heights
thanks to the enormous organization of the internet of things (IoT). One of the newest methods for
integrating ICT solutions and sensors is the internet of things. Numerous smart city projects have been
implemented during this time—roughly as a proof-of-concept, nevertheless a rising number as everlasting,
production-level dispositions, enhancing the metropolis’s operations and citizens’ eminence of life cycle.
The IoT by means of the empowering expertise for the smart city is the motivation of this chapter. The
chapter scrutinizes the recent state of IoT- empowered smart cities by examining pertinent experiences
and metropolitan initiatives those have incorporated IoT hooked on their amenities and the ways in which
these initiatives have had an impact. The most important skills that have been industrialized besides how
they are serving the Smart City life have been represented in this chapter.

The current advent of new technological advancements like the internet of things, artificial intelligence,
and big data have not only ventured in applications management like regular transactional systems but
also large applications like managing cities. The main objective of a “smart city” is the improvement in
the living conditions of the people of all strata in the city. The city ideally should provide technological,
innovative, and sustainable solutions by utilizing the resources. The smart city concept is providing a
higher quality of life (QoL) for all its citizens. The areas which are mainly covered in the purview of

smart city are governance, efficient mobility and public transport facility, healthcare facility, affordable
housing for all citizens, digitization, and robust IT connectivity; along with focus on good sanitization,
sufficient water supply, solid waste management, and electricity supply. In this chapter, the authors
investigate the possibility and feasibility of the concept of digital twin in the applications of smart city.

Artificial intelligence has recently gained great importance in healthcare and has played an important
role in the making the lives of patients, doctors, radiologists, clinical laboratories, emergency medical
services, etc., better. Remote health monitoring is possible in less time and low cost for rural areas where
doctors are not available all the time. Assistance is provided to the medical professionals when required
in the time of emergency through deep learning algorithms which is beneficial. The anomalies in the
medical images can be easily detected and predicted with the help of AI, which were impossible to detect
by the human eye, thus adding extra value for the healthcare sector. The lack of specialized medical
professionals and increasing number of patients with lifestyle diseases necessitate the digitization for the
mundane tasks of healthcare. Explainable AI is important in healthcare sector, where the consequences
of incorrect AI predictions or decisions can be severe.

The ‘smart city’ notion places a lot of emphasis on using information and communication technologies
to boost connectedness and quality of life and effectiveness of various local authorities (ICT). Smart
city services stimulate the practice of cloud- and IoT-based services that have included actual web
applications that make use of sensors, smart phones, and RFIDs. Cloud platforms besides the IoT persist
the two ICT models that are currently dealing the greatest influence on the Industrial IoT as well. Both
concepts significantly influence the way it has developed and put into practice applications and smart
city solutions. The first phase of this study highlights key features of IoT and Cloud along with smart
city applications. Further in the second phase the research investigates the confluence of cloud platforms
with IoT to build up the smart city besides various challenges associated in smart city implementation.
Lastly, the research focuses on the smart cities’ requirement for cloud-based IoT applications and provides
the future direction in adaptability of smart city.

This chapter explores the growing use of technology in various aspects of people’s lives and focuses
on smart cities. First, it provides a comprehensive survey that examines the need for smart cities,
their architectural elements, and the characteristics and purposes of different architectural layers. The
chapter also offers an overview of notable smart cities such as London, New York, Singapore, Busan,
Amsterdam, and Sunshine Coast Regions, highlighting their unique features. Next, privacy and security
concerns associated with smart cities are addressed, emphasizing the importance of privacy issues and
suggesting potential solutions. The chapter discusses future research directions, including the integration
of blockchains, security considerations, collaborative filtering, and infrastructure upgrades in smart city
applications. The analysis of privacy and security concerns is organized into three subsections: smart city
security traits, leveraging issues, and privacy challenges and solutions. Finally, the chapter concludes by
presenting future research trends in this field.

Smart cities are IOT enabled applications which provide services from controlling streetlight according
to weather conditions, smart parking vehicles according to free parking slots, up to traffic management
according to train arrival time. They also concern access to education, health, cultural and sports services.
If all the applications are based on interaction between each other according to the requirement, then it
will be great success in achieving robust smart city services. Many services factors such as availability,
quality, affordability, and continuity can be increased by enabling communication between the services.
This research is focused on communication between different IOT enabled services. Two techniques used
here are centralized level interaction and peer level interaction. The task of centralized level interaction
is registering all IOT enabled services and sending required information to the respective services in
time. Peer level services speak to each other whenever required. This research also analyses advantages
and drawbacks of both of these techniques.

Recent years have seen a significant increase in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
(ML) concepts across a variety of academic domains. AI’s major objective is to build intelligent systems
and give machines human intelligence. Artificial intelligence is a tool for creating systems, making
judgements, solving problems, learning, and linguistic intelligence, as well as for imitating human
conduct. Electrical and computer engineers are at the forefront of intellectual creativity as they participate
in the planning, creation, evaluation, and production processes for newer generations of gadgets and
technology. Even if these professionals want to grow, their objectives might conflict with the consequences
of artificial intelligence, which are continually expanding. The practice of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
and Machine Learning (ML) applications in industrial industries that have a significant influence on
sustainability and the environment, such as renewable energy, smart grids, the catalyzed industry, and
power storage and distribution The main popular approaches are artificial neural networks and Machine
learning. Demand for energy is skyrocketing at a higher pace than production in the industry between
2004 and 2017, implying a decline in energy efficiency (EE). Under the premise of steady future output,
an explicit energy efficiency enhancement target of 26% from 2017 and 2050 is set.

With the idea of shifting towards a smart future there is a lot of research being done in the area of internet
of things (IoT) and wireless communication, especially 5G network technology. These technologies are
instrumenting society towards a world of high connectivity, through secure evolutionary telecommunication
methodologies. In this chapter we understand the role of 5G networks in enhancing IoT devices and
discuss their security aspects. Integration of IoT and software defined network termed as SDIoT enables
automatic traffic rerouting, device reconfiguration, and bandwidth allocation seamlessly. Smart cities
utilize the SDIoT integrated with 5G to gather real-time data, better understand how demand patterns
are changing, and respond with quicker and more affordable solutions. The authors try to understand the
existing research scenario in 5G networks and IoT, and what areas are being taken into consideration for
improvement in the coming future.

Traffic in the 5G network is growing exponentially and is predictable to grow in the future. Providing
a high quality of service with ever-increasing traffic volumes is challenging in 5G networks. Software
defined networking (SDN) along with emerging cloud technologies plays a significant responsibility in
enhancing the performance of 5G networks. The 5G SDN paradigm is designed to support real-time and
latency-sensitive applications. This chapter aims to summarize the existing technologies, benefits, and
challenges of the 5G network. Also, a novel multivariate traffic analysis framework using time series
analysis is proposed to enhance traffic management and its performance. Evaluation is performed on
open traffic flow datasets and the analysis results show that the proposed framework performs better
despite the inherent uncertainty in terms of classification and forecast accuracy.

With the increment in population, the problems of big cities regarding highly congested traffic are gaining
more and more attention, with a goal of making them efficient and environmentally friendly. Most contain
rich information and complex techniques that oppose ongoing optimization procedures. As security
threats continue to grow, Vehicles are subject to various service attacks that can compromise security.
To address these concerns, the US and European Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) standards
select elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) algorithms for safe vehicle interactions. They introduced a
two-layer taxonomy to Evolutionary computation for intelligent check transportation in smart cities is
studied. This chapter will analyze the security architecture of the ETSI ITS standard. The results show
that the existing security solution is better than the achieved level/quality of service (quality of service)
and vehicular application performance regarding rising inter-arrival packet delay, packet and crypto loss,
and reduced security awareness in security applications.

The internet of things (IoT) is still in its early stages, but it has sparked interest in a wide range of industries,
including healthcare, logistics tracking, smart cities, and transportation. However, it is also vulnerable to
a variety of serious network infiltration concerns. This chapter contributes to attack detection and alert
system for IoT networks. This system provides alert and detection of cyber-attacks at the router level

by configuring Rpi as a wireless router for IoT network. For the detection method, the authors used an
anomaly-based approach that learns the packets in the network using deep learning. IoTID20 dataset is
used for training the deep learning model. This model detects four kinds of attack: DoS, MITM, port
scan, and scan. When the attack is detected, the user is alerted via e-mail and SMS.

Smart city incorporates multiple living methods for the sustainability of resources. As the number of
interconnected devices is expanding day by day, we need to secure the transmission of data. Blockchain
is seen as a way to eliminate tampering and reduce the risks of malware threats with IoT devices and
data. In smart cities, blockchain-based IoT applications can be used for a wide variety of services in a
secure and decentralized way. This chapter introduces blockchain technology and how it secures the
data and then explores the integration of blockchain technology in smart city services like healthcare,
transportation, supply chain management, smart grid, and banking.

After the COVID-19 pandemic, the healthcare sector has faced many challenges as telehealth increased and
the need for a secure and efficient healthcare record system became essential. Nowadays, the healthcare
sector suffers from many problems, such as security, trust, availability of data, and drug traceability.
Blockchain technology is a recent technology that has proven its efficiency in many sectors, such as
finance, banking, bitcoin, and healthcare sectors. This chapter describes blockchain integration in the
healthcare sector to cover these problems. The authors will start by introducing blockchain technology.
After that, they will present the healthcare sector challenges. Then, they focus on advantages of blockchain
usage to resolve existing problems in the healthcare sector, especially in the electronic health record and
drug traceability.

Chapter 14
Co-Operation in Wireless Sensor Networks for Smart Cities.............................................................. 250
Abraham George, Alliance University, India

Sensor deployment in smart city scenarios introduce multiple challenges such as node capacity management,
node management, and communication latency. As the size of the sensor network increases, there must be
novel or multiple strategies to improve efficiency of the network. The goal of this chapter is to explore and
highlight research strategies in this area. There has been work in this area, but there are multiple emerging
challenges in this area due to explosion in number of sensor nodes and the functionalities embedded
in these nodes in smart city and healthcare applications. Node co-operation or node collaboration is a
method to localize large-scale sensor networks. This method has been explored in cellular networks to
improve spectrum utilization. There is much interest and scope in node co-operation/node collaboration

in sensor networks as collaboration can be exploited to control the topology, minimize communication
overhead, and conserve energy at the node.

On account of continuous increase in concerns about environmental deterioration and electrical usage,
sustainable energy sources are being commonly used to generate power and offer several benefits like
clean energy and reduced price. To meet the fast growth in power stipulation, major renewable sources
must be attained. Though renewables present a long-term solution as an alternative to fossil fuels, they
are associated with uncertainty in generating power. In this chapter, to overcome the above problem,
a combination of energy bases will be able to be implemented called as HRES. Due to the relatively
low environmental effects, HRES have become a major choice for rural electrification. In this work, an
endeavor has been made to present the outline of role of HRES. This chapter will also dispense about
the power control strategies, energy assessment of a hybrid system, and battery energy storage devices
in electrical networks.

The more technology advances, the extra benefits to the public and devices that connect to the internet
have increased as well, commonly known as internet of things (IoT). The battery lifespan of these devices
rises with technical concerns where an alternative to traditional energy attainment is needed. As the way
forward, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and IoT are tested to be used as novel energy alternatives
through energy harvesting (EH). This study identifies the availability of energy by location. Similarly,
it focuses on the sensor node’s architecture with EH capabilities expanding to the classification of five
EH techniques. It evaluates the EH developments in search of minimal resource utilization associated
with WSNs. Its extensive distribution of interconnected devices is connected via the internet and other
related high-tech innovations. Finally, it discusses the feasibility of energy storage and its potential for
WSNs, paving the way for future trends and motivations.

Due to the growing energy shortage and rising global temperatures, sustainable development has
become more of a necessity than ever before. While renewable energy, sustainable energy resources,
and a focus on low carbon emissions in the power system all contribute to sustainable development,
these concepts must be coordinated if they are to have a lasting impact. These complications present a
new set of challenges in the process of integrating renewables to the existing grid structure, including
intermittency, system utilization efficiency, and others. The rest of this chapter deals with the topic of
sustainable development and explores the various options for shifting power generation from traditional
fossil fuel-powered sources to renewable energy. As renewable energy is employed, additional clean
energy such as solar energy, wind energy, and photovoltaic systems will be added to the existing grid.
There is another benefit to the net metering program.

Human and technological development allowed cities to be built upon structures to increase the quality
of life of their citizens. But evolution also brought challenges like high consumption patterns and reduced
natural resources. The chapter aims to provide common ground among the main concepts of smart cities
and shed light on the often-elusive framework of the “smart city,” highlighting the need to incorporate
a more holistic approach and integrate sustainable quality of life. A conceptual model was proposed
and discussed, framing the dimensions: nature, infrastructure, technology, services, sustainability, and
social. The influence of technology to better manage was also taken into account, without neglecting the
importance of efficiency and innovation in a holistic system. The conclusions reinforce the composite
nature, the need for more consistency, measurement scales, and the interconnectivity between management
and its citizens, which is needed for better population well-being.

Recently, the concept of smart cities has been linked to artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, which
greatly help in improving the efficiency of various applications related to smart cities and the green
environment. Machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques play an important role in
upgrading the design of control and management systems at various levels in many smart city applications
such as transportation, public safety, smart energy, and building automation. This chapter introduces the
concept of artificial intelligence technologies and their uses in smart cities and their methods in many

related applications, in addition to challenges and future directions for using artificial intelligence to
provide smart city services.

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 353

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 400

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 407
xviii

Preface

AN OVERVIEW OF THE SUBJECT MATTER

The Internet of Things (IoT) has made it possible to provide cutting-edge services for the development
of various essential applications, including smart cities and smart homes. The Internet of Things (IoT)
enables the linking of disparate objects to create a network with processing, sensing, and communication
capabilities without the need for manual human interaction. It is projected that a big number of devices
will be connected to the Internet and produce a lot of data due to the IoT’s numerous applications. The
traditional networks may not be able to handle the amount of data created by these devices, thus they
need to be protected from security threats. Due to vendor lock-in, traditional networks are rigid, making
it difficult to handle the high frequency data streams coming from IoT devices. Due to the removal of
the control plane from the data plane, which makes the adoption of any more recent policy deployment
promising, Software Defined Networks (SDN) has been touted as the next generation networking para-
digm. By guaranteeing end-to-end bandwidth and lowering latency while using the centralization of
SDN controller, the enormous amount of data created by IoT devices can be handled effectively. SDN’s
centralized controller may be open to various attacks, which would reduce network performance. Addi-
tionally, IoT devices are susceptible to numerous assaults that could harm user data and privacy among
other things, necessitating the provision of a comprehensive solution. Due to its capability of preserving
privacy and being extremely secure, blockchain can be a viable solution for IoT applications. Blockchain
is a term used to describe a decentralized, tamper-proof, and transactional database that offers a safe
way to store and process data across a sizable number of network participants. Higher availability and
reliability are challenging because the controller in SDN is a single point of failure and a device failure
in IoT might hamper entire network performance. A potential method of managing the data effectively
and securely could be provided by the integration of Blockchain into SDN and IoT devices.

A DESCRIPTION OF WHERE THE TOPIC FITS IN THE WORLD TODAY

The idea of “Network-Enabled IoT Applications for Smart City Services” has grown significantly relevant
and well-known in today’s world of quick advancement. Cities have the difficulty of effectively managing
resources and raising the standard of living for their citizens as urban populations continue to increase.
A possible approach to overcoming these difficulties and transforming cities into smart, interconnected
urban settings is provided by network-enabled Internet of Things (IoT) applications. IoT refers to a wide
network of interconnected devices that are equipped with connection, software, and sensors. These

Preface

gadgets have the ability to gather and exchange data, allowing them to interact with their environment
and offer insightful information. IoT technology serves as the basis for a number of applications that
improve urban living in a variety of fields when used with smart city services.
IoT solutions that are network-enabled allow for easy integration and communication between vari-
ous urban systems and services. Smart transportation systems, for instance, can use IoT sensors built
into cars, roads, and other infrastructure to track traffic patterns, plan better routes, and ease conges-
tion. IoT-enabled waste management systems can optimize collection routes, monitor garbage levels in
bins, and encourage effective waste disposal. IoT applications can dramatically increase public safety
by monitoring key infrastructure, detecting and responding to criminal activity, and enhancing emer-
gency response systems. IoT technology can be used by smart energy management systems to track
energy usage, improve distribution, and encourage sustainability. It can also improve residents’ quality
of life in a number of ways. Real-time information about available parking spaces can be provided via
smart parking systems, which will ease traffic and frustration. Smart lighting systems can change the
amount of light output based on the surrounding environment, conserving energy and improving safety.
To maintain a better living environment, environmental monitoring devices can evaluate elements like
noise levels and air quality.
The seamless integration of devices, networks, and data platforms is essential for the success of
network-enabled IoT applications. The huge volume of IoT devices and quick, reliable data transmis-
sion are made possible by advanced connectivity infrastructure, such 5G networks and SDN. However,
while implementing network-enabled IoT applications in smart cities, it is crucial to address issues with
data security, privacy, and ethical considerations. To protect citizen data and ensure openness in data
collection and use, safeguards and regulations must be in place.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE TARGET AUDIENCE

The target audience is represented by industry experts, UG and PG students, researchers and academi-
cians and entrepreneurs.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF EACH CHAPTER

1. Smart Cities Powered by IoT: Perspective and Change

In the wave of changes being made in the lifestyle of the generation and the fastest growing requirements
have invented the many equipment. Thus, the human being needs all the facilities should be available
in its fingerprint. One such example is services rendered in the advance cities which is called as smart
cities because of the ease of fulfilment of demands. The technological developments made this pos-
sible specially services by the internet connectivity among the daily used devices which is called as
internet of things (IOT). As change is the only constant in the nature, human beings interest changes
in every couple of years and it will continue. Thus, it is very much important to identify and monitor
the advanced services provided in the smart cities by the help of IoT devices. Further, it is important to
identify the changes may be required in the upcoming years so that the current generation can focus on
those perspectives. Thus, the current chapter will be useful to the audience to note the power of IoT and
possible changes required to develop the next generation smart city.
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Preface

2. Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

The recent technology introduced in the smart city model is quite interesting. But it is alarming when
we think about its vulnerability and maintenance. Let us take an example of intelligent water supply
of a city that monitors the use of water in a particular region and its necessity. The job of the authority
is to supply water to each region of the city according to its requirements. It can be possible by having
the previous experience which is available in the form of information stored in a database. Machine
learning algorithms can be used to predict the requirement of water. Several sensors are supposed to
be deployed in the path of the water pipes which will monitor the supply of the water and can identify
if any leakage is there. In this case, the system has to depend on the input provided by the sensors and
the proper prediction of the machine learning algorithm backed system. The system may collapse if
some sensors behave abnormally, and the total water supply may be disrupted. Thus, there is a need of
monitoring system of the infrastructure and the technology used in the system which will work as an
interface between the physical system and service model. The digital twin is a solution model which
can monitor the system and can generate alarm in case of any failure in the system. This chapter deals
makes aware about the digital twin system and its various applications which will be beneficial to the
readers to develop a sustainable system which can provide the technology enabled service to the smart
city management.

3. Issues, Current Challenges, and Research Directions in

Designing a Smart, Explainable AI-Based Healthcare System

The important component of a smart city management system is advanced transportation system and
health care system apart from its fundamental services available like sanitation, water supply, power
supply. Currently, many IoT based healthcare systems have been designed which helps to predict the
abnormality or any kind of happenings. But, it is very important to decide what actions can be taken to
avoid the bad happenings. Normally, the decisions are taken manually by the officers deployed in the
service. Sometimes, lack of intellectual experience may lead to failure of the system. Thus, there is a
need of the technological adviser which can provide a suggestion that would be logical justification.
Thus, the chapter highlights the current challenges of the smart city services. The chapter has a descrip-
tive analysis about the current challenges of healthcare systems and how explainable AI can be used
to improve the service. The chapter will provide sufficient information about the current trend, issues,
challenges in solving problems and the stand of explainable artificial intelligence.

4. Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the

Smart City: Applications and Challenges

Now a days, almost every individual in urban areas access internet through its gadget. Considering the
density of the of internet connections in a highly populated city, we can imagine the amount of data
transmission occurs in every second. Although, there are high performance devices are established,
still the amount of data is quite high. Further, to retrieve data from the large database is an emerging
issue. Furthermore, to get the query result for a particular problem raised by any individual, it is highly
essential to get the query be resolved at the earliest. Thus, it is very important to understand the use of
IoT devices and their magnitude have forced us to think about the storage and maintenance of the data

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Preface

efficiently. The data should be stored in such a way that the query result should come fast and only the
important and relevant information should participate in resolving any query. The cloud makes this pos-
sible by providing the important service and data as per the requirement of the individuals. Hence, it is
very important to study the pros and cons of the IoT and cloud in the services rendered in smart cities.
The current chapter describes the various aspects of the IoT and cloud which will be really helpful to
design the next generation infrastructure.

5. Smart City Ecosystem: An Exploration of Requirements,

Architecture, Applications, Security, and Emerging Motivations

The current generation is looking for the fastest and quality service form all the domains including health-
care, transportation, daily life services and many more. Even, sometimes the people want the services
before they ask for. As the demand and choice of the generation is highly dynamic, the system has to
be designed in such a way that it will meet the needs of time. The current chapter provides a systematic
review of the smart city ecosystem. The chapter explores requirements, architecture being used with
their pros and cons along with future scope. They have discussed the available technologies in some
developed nations’ notable smart cities such as London, New York, Singapore, Busan, Amsterdam, and
Sunshine Coast Regions, highlighting their unique features as a case studies. Thus, the chapter will pro-
vide a significant amount of information to deal with the technologies deployed for smart city services.
Further, it highlights some important drawbacks of the existing systems that will motivate the current
generation service providers to redesign the models and innovate some new technologies which will be
a gift for the next generation that includes the integration of blockchains, security considerations, col-
laborative filtering, and infrastructure upgrades in smart city applications.

6. Interaction Between IoT-Enabled Services in Smart Cities

Smart cities are becoming a reality with the help of IoT enabled services. These services allow for com-
munication between different devices and systems in order to provide better services to citizens. The
interaction between these services can be either peer-to-peer or centralized, depending on the type of
service being used. The use of IoT enabled services in smart cities is growing rapidly, providing citizens
with improved safety, convenience, and efficiency. With the communication between these services be-
coming more efficient, it is possible to create a more connected environment that will benefit everyone
living in the city. The connectivity between various IOT enabled services is the main topic of this study.
Here, peer level interaction and the utilization of a centralized server are two strategies utilized. The duty
of a central server is to register all IoT-enabled services and promptly provide any necessary data to the
appropriate services. When necessary, peer level services communicate with one another. The merits
and disadvantages of each of these strategies are also examined in this study.

7. A Role of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Algorithms for Energy Efficiency Applications

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) algorithms are playing an increasingly important
role in energy efficiency. AI and ML can be used to develop smart energy systems that can reduce global
emissions while improving energy efficiency. These algorithms can be used to analyze data from various

xxi
Preface

sources, such as weather forecasts, electricity demand, and other factors that affect the use of energy.
They can then provide insights into how best to optimize energy consumption for maximum efficiency.
AI and ML also enable the development of predictive models that allow us to anticipate future needs in
order to better manage our resources. In addition, these technologies are being used to create smarter
grids that allow us to better monitor and control our electricity usage. The catalyzed industry, and power
storage and distribution Artificial neural networks and machine learning are the two most widely used
techniques. Between 2004 and 2017, the industry’s demand for energy increased faster than production,
which suggests a drop in energy efficiency (EE). An explicit energy efficiency enhancement target of
26% between 2017 and 2050 is set under the assumption of constant future output.

8. 5G-Enabled Secure IoT Applications in Smart

Cities Using Software-Defined Networks

With the advent of 5G networks, the Internet of Things (IoT) is set to revolutionize smart cities. 5G
networks enable faster and secure communication between IoT devices, making them more efficient and
reliable. This will help in improving security and safety in smart cities by providing real-time monitor-
ing of activities. Furthermore, Software Defined Networks (SDN) can be used to manage and control
these IoT devices effectively. This will help in creating secure applications that are tailored to meet the
specific needs of a city or region. In conclusion, 5G enabled secure IoT applications through SDN can
provide an effective means for managing smart cities. This chapter explains how 5G networks improve
IoT devices and covers some of their security concerns. The Software Defined Internet of Things, or
SDIoT, allows for smooth bandwidth allocation, automatic traffic rerouting, and device reconfiguration.
To collect real-time data, analyse how demand patterns are evolving, and provide speedier and more
inexpensive solutions, smart cities use the SDIoT combined with 5G. We make an effort to comprehend
the current research environment for 5G networks and IoT, as well as the sectors that are being taken
into account for advancement in the near future.

9. Traffic Management of SDN/NFV-Based Smart 5G

Networks Using Time Series Analysis

The advent of 5G networks requires a new approach to network management and traffic control. Soft-
ware Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV) are two technologies that
enable the dynamic control of network resources. However, managing traffic in these networks is still a
challenge due to their complexity. Time Series Analysis and Multivariate Analysis can be used to analyze
the flows in SDN/NFV based 5G networks, providing insights into the performance of the network and
allowing for more efficient traffic management. By leveraging Flow Analyzer tools, operators can gain
visibility into their 5G networks and make informed decisions about how best to manage traffic. The
goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the 5G network’s current technologies, advantages, and
difficulties. To improve traffic management and its effectiveness, a unique multivariate traffic analysis
paradigm based on time series analysis is also suggested. The suggested framework performs better
despite the inherent uncertainty in terms of categorization and forecast accuracy, according to study of
open traffic flow statistics.

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Preface

10. Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for

Smart Transportation System in Smart Cities

With the rise of smart cities, intelligent transportation systems have become an important factor in urban
planning. Intelligent infrastructure of route scheduling for smart transportation system in smart cities is a
key component of this system. This includes the use of Elliptic Curve Cryptography to ensure secure data
transmission between vehicles and the server, as well as quality-of-service measures to ensure smooth
operation of the system. Smart vehicles are also used to optimize routes and reduce traffic congestion in
cities. All these components are essential for ensuring a reliable and efficient transportation system in
smart cities. The security architecture of the European Telecommunication Standards Institute-Intelligent
Transportation System (ETSI-ITS) standard will be examined in this chapter. The results demonstrate
that, in terms of increasing inter-arrival packet latency, packet and crypto loss, and decreased security
awareness in security applications, the current security solution performs better than the level/quality
of service (QoS) attained and vehicular application performance.

11. An Alert and Detection System for Cyber-Attacks on IoT Devices

As more and more devices become connected to the Internet of Things, it is becoming increasingly
important to ensure that they are secure from cyber-attacks. With the advancement of deep learning
algorithms, an alert and detection system for cyber-attacks on IoT devices can be developed. This sys-
tem can help protect smart cities from malicious actors who may try to exploit vulnerable networks or
devices. The system would use deep learning algorithms to detect suspicious activity in real-time and
alert administrators so that they can take action quickly. The attack detection and alert system for IoT
networks is improved by this article. By setting up the Raspberry Pi as a wireless router for an Internet
of Things network, this method enables alarm and detection of cyber attacks at the router level. We em-
ployed an anomaly-based methodology for the detection method, which applies deep learning to learn
the network packets. The deep learning model is trained using the IoTID20 dataset, and it can recognise
four different types of attacks, including DoS, MITM, port scans, and scans, among others. Email and
SMS notifications are sent to the user when the attack is discovered.

12. Blockchain-Enabled Secured Smart City Services

Smart cities are the future of urban living. With the help of IoT and Blockchain technology, smart cities
can offer citizens a secure and private way to access services. Blockchain technology enables citizens
to have full control over their data while providing them with a secure platform for transactions and
communication. This will help in creating an efficient and transparent system for city services like
healthcare, education, energy management, transportation, etc. Blockchain-enabled smart city services
are also more secure than traditional methods as they provide enhanced security features such as encryp-
tion and digital signatures. This chapter explains blockchain technology and how it protects data before
examining how it might be used to improve services provided by smart cities like banking, healthcare,
transportation, and supply chain management.

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Preface

13. Blockchain in the Healthcare Sector

Blockchain technology is revolutionizing the healthcare sector by providing a secure and transparent
platform for storing and sharing data. With the help of blockchain, healthcare organizations can ensure
that patient data is secure, traceable and readily available. It also helps in establishing trust between
different stakeholders in the healthcare industry. Blockchain can be used to improve drug traceability,
enhance data security, streamline Electronic Health Record (EHR) systems and improve data transpar-
ency. Additionally, it can be used to make sure that all relevant stakeholders have access to real-time
data which helps them make informed decisions quickly. In short, blockchain technology has immense
potential to revolutionize the healthcare sector by making it more secure, efficient and transparent.
To address these issues, this chapter explores blockchain integration in the healthcare industry. First,
blockchain technology is discussed. The problems facing the healthcare industry will then be discussed.
The benefits of using blockchain to address current issues in the healthcare sector, particularly with the
electronic health record and drug traceability, are then the main focus.

14. Co-operation in Wireless Sensor Networks for Smart Cities

The concept of Smart Cities is becoming increasingly popular in the modern world. In order to make this
concept a reality, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are being
used to connect different devices and enable them to communicate with each other. To ensure that these
networks are reliable and efficient, node collaboration and cooperation plays an important role. Node
collaboration involves nodes working together to share resources and information for a common goal.
Node cooperation, on the other hand, requires nodes to cooperate with each other by exchanging data or
messages in order to achieve their goals. With the help of these two techniques, WSNs can be used for
various applications such as monitoring traffic conditions in smart cities or providing real-time health
monitoring services. This chapter clarifies and emphasizes the idea of WSN node cooperation in this
chapter. The intention is to appropriately emphasise node cooperation and its importance, particularly
in IoT installations for smart cities. This should make technology implementers aware of how to make
their deployments more effective and open up new research vistas, particularly for smart city situations.

15. A Review on the Impact of Hybrid Renewable Energy

Systems for Sustainability and Energy Management

Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) are becoming increasingly popular as a sustainable and cost-
effective way to generate electricity. These systems combine photovoltaic (PV) systems, wind energy
systems, and energy storage devices to maximize the efficiency of the system. They also use power
converters and control strategies to ensure that the system operates at peak efficiency. This review will
cover the impact of hybrid renewable energy systems on sustainability and energy management, with a
focus on their potential for reducing emissions, improving reliability, and providing cost savings. HRES
have emerged as a top option for rural electrification due to their very minimal environmental effects. An
effort has been made to outline the role of HRES in this study and solve numerous problem. Additionally,
this chapter will discuss power control tactics, a hybrid system’s energy evaluation, and battery energy
storage systems in electrical networks.

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Preface

16. IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research

Trends in Wireless Sensor Networks

Energy Harvesting (EH) is a key technology for powering Internet of Things (IoT) devices and Wireless
Sensor Networks (WSN). It involves the collection of energy from ambient sources such as light, heat,
and vibration, which can then be used to power IoT devices. As more IoT devices are deployed in vari-
ous environments, it is becoming increasingly important to understand the energy supply chain. This
requires research into new technologies and trends in energy harvesting as well as the development of
innovative solutions for energy storage. This study categorises the locations where energy is available.
Like this, it emphasises the architecture of the sensor node while expanding EH capabilities to the clas-
sification of five EH approaches and evaluates the EH advances in pursuit of the least amount of resource
use related to WSNs. The internet and other related high-tech advances connect its wide dispersion of
interconnected gadgets. To set the stage for upcoming trends and reasons, it concludes by discussing the
viability of energy storage and its potential for WSNs.

17. Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

India is one of the most rapidly developing countries in the world. With the government’s initiatives
to create smart cities, India is now looking to make its cities more sustainable and efficient by using
renewable energy sources. This will not only reduce carbon emissions but also ensure that development
is done in a responsible way. The future of India’s smart cities lies in renewable energy sources such
as solar, wind, and hydroelectricity. These distributed energy sources can be used to power homes and
businesses as well as provide electricity for public services like transportation systems. Government
initiatives such as tax incentives for installing solar panels are helping to promote the use of renewable
energy in urban areas. With these measures, India is well on its way towards creating a greener future
for its citizens and setting an example for other countries when it comes to sustainable development. The
remainder of this chapter discusses the many choices for switching power generation from conventional
fossil fuel-powered sources to renewable energy and deals with the issue of sustainable development. As
more renewable energy is used, the existing grid will receive more clean energy like solar energy, wind
energy, and photovoltaic systems. The net metering programme has additional advantage.

18. Smart Cities: Operational Concepts for an Elusive Framework

Smart Cities are becoming a reality as Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) continue
to proliferate. With the Internet of Things (IoT) connecting physical objects to the digital world, cities
are now able to leverage data generated from connected devices to create more efficient and sustain-
able operations. Without ignoring the significance of efficiency and innovation in a holistic system, the
influence of ITC to improve SC management was also taken into consideration. The findings support
the composite nature of SC, the requirement for increased SC uniformity, measuring scales, and con-
nectedness between SC management and its residents, all of which are necessary for a higher sustainable
quality of life.

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Preface

19. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Approaches in Smart City Services

In today’s world, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) are playing an increasingly
important role in the development of Smart City services. AI and ML have the potential to help cities
become more efficient, safe, and sustainable by providing automated solutions to various problems. Deep
learning (DL) algorithms can be used to analyse large amounts of data from different sources such as
sensors, cameras, and other Information and Communication Technology (ICT) devices. This data can
then be used to create intelligent systems that can help cities improve their services. AI and ML are also
being used to develop predictive models that can help cities anticipate future needs or events based on
past trends. With the help of AI and ML technologies, Smart City services will become smarter than ever
before. Along with the DL strategy, this chapter describes the roles that AI and ML play in smart cities.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has made it possible to provide cutting-edge services for the development
of various essential applications, including smart cities and smart homes. The Internet of Things (IoT)
enables the linking of disparate objects to create a network with processing, sensing, and communication
capabilities without the need for manual human interaction. It is projected that a big number of devices
will be connected to the Internet and produce a lot of data due to the IoT’s numerous applications. The
traditional networks may not be able to handle the amount of data created by these devices, thus they
need to be protected from security threats.
Due to vendor lock-in, traditional networks are rigid, making it difficult to handle the high frequency
data streams coming from IoT devices. Due to the removal of the control plane from the data plane, which
makes the adoption of any more recent policy deployment promising, Software Defined Networks (SDN)
has been touted as the next generation networking paradigm. By guaranteeing end-to-end bandwidth and
lowering latency while using the centralization of SDN controller, the enormous amount of data created
by IoT devices can be handled effectively.
SDN’s centralized controller may be open to various attacks, which would reduce network perfor-
mance. Additionally, IoT devices are susceptible to numerous assaults that could harm user data and
privacy among other things, necessitating the provision of a comprehensive solution. Due to its capability
of preserving privacy and being extremely secure, blockchain can be a viable solution for IoT applica-
tions. Blockchain is a term used to describe a decentralised, tamper-proof, and transactional database
that offers a safe way to store and process data across a sizable number of network participants. Higher
availability and reliability are challenging because the controller in SDN is a single point of failure and a
device failure in IoT might hamper entire network performance. A potential method of managing the data
effectively and securely could be provided by the integration of Blockchain into SDN and IoT devices.

CONCLUSION

This edited book is a unique collection of emerging technologies and its integration, which depicts the
major challenges of smart cities with respect to network IoT, SDN, and Blockchain. It also addresses the
integration of these emerging technologies to address the issues of smart cities. It highlights the adapt-
ability of IoT and cloud computing for enabling the smart city applications, role of artificial intelligence
and machine learning in reducing the energy consumption of cloud and IoT resources in provisioning
the customer service requests in real time basis, traffic management issues of SDN/NFS in 5G enabled

xxvi
Preface

smart city particularly in health care systems and it also deals with infrastructure routing for scheduling
of smart transportation system in smart city with the help of artificial intelligent. At the end, it depicts
the future renewable energy scenarios of Indian smart cities with proposing smart and intelligent solu-
tions. In conclusion, the idea of IoT applications for smart city services that are network-enabled is very
significant in the modern world. IoT technology offers a potent tool to establish a linked urban ecosystem
that enhances several elements of urban life, including transportation, energy, waste management, public
safety, and overall citizen well-being, as cities try to become more sustainable, effective, and livable.

Hemant Kumar Reddy

VIT-AP University, India

Diptendu Sinha Roy

National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya, India

Tapas Mishra
SRM University, India

Mir Wajahat Hussain

Alliance University, India

xxvii
xxviii

Acknowledgment

Writing a book is a journey that involves the contributions and support of numerous individuals and
organizations. We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to all those who have been instrumental
in making this book a reality. We are indebted to the team at IGI Global. The expertise of the IGI team,
attention to detail, and constructive criticism has been instrumental in refining this book and bringing
out its best.

We would like to extend our gratitude to the researchers, scholars, and experts in the field whose ground-
breaking work and insights have laid the foundation for this book. Your contributions have been a constant
source of inspiration, and we are honoured to build upon your achievements.

We are grateful to the reviewers who have generously shared their time and knowledge for improving
this book. Your expertise and willingness to contribute have added depth and authenticity to the content.
Lastly, we would like to express our appreciation to the readers of this book. Your curiosity, engagement,
and interest in the subject matter motivated us to continue exploring and sharing knowledge. Thank you
all for being a part of this journey and for helping us bring this book to life.

With deep appreciation,

Hemant Kumar Reddy

VIT-AP University, India

Diptendu Sinha Roy

National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya, India

Tapas Mishra
SRM University, India

Mir Wajahat Hussain

Alliance University, India

Chapter 1
Smart Cities Powered by IoT:
Perspective and Change

Sudipta Sahana
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9694-6399
Institute of Engineering and Management Kolkata, India & University of Engineering and
Management, Kolkata, India

Buddhadeb Pradhan
Institute of Engineering and Management Kolkata, India & University of Engineering and
Management, Kolkata, India

ABSTRACT
All over the world, smart city projects and related initiatives have reached new technological heights
thanks to the enormous organization of the internet of things (IoT). One of the newest methods for in-
tegrating ICT solutions and sensors is the internet of things. Numerous smart city projects have been
implemented during this time—roughly as a proof-of-concept, nevertheless a rising number as everlast-
ing, production-level dispositions, enhancing the metropolis’s operations and citizens’ eminence of life
cycle. The IoT by means of the empowering expertise for the smart city is the motivation of this chapter.
The chapter scrutinizes the recent state of IoT- empowered smart cities by examining pertinent experi-
ences and metropolitan initiatives those have incorporated IoT hooked on their amenities and the ways
in which these initiatives have had an impact. The most important skills that have been industrialized
besides how they are serving the Smart City life have been represented in this chapter.

INTRODUCTION

The rising turn of events and spread of Internet of things (IoT) and Internet of everything (IoE) advances
address a significant empowering agent in the ongoing savvy urban areas scene, driving the shrewd city
worldview to the huge information scale. In fact, a specialized Ericson report projected that 29 billion
nodes would be associated by 2022, as shown in Ejaz and Anpalagan (2019). According to a report that
Statista Exploration released in 2019, and as per the estimation, by 2025 the overall quantity of linked IoT
gadgets will reach approximately 75 billion by Fizza et al. (2021), resulting in a prospective IoT financial

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch001

effect that could extent 11 trillion USD annually by 2025 Bauer et al. (2021). Therefore, these statistics
are enlightening that IoT would be on the top of the greatest worth troublesome advancements, opening
new wildernesses, conceivable outcomes, and difficulties in the creation of brilliant administrations and
applications. The significance of IoT is increasingly more firmly associated with the advancement of
shrewd urban communities, for which IoT addresses one of the vital drivers for more astute advancement
and maintainable turn of events. Savvy urban communities are mind-boggling socio-specialized founda-
tions, made out of human entertainers (various partners and clients, like residents, city administrators,
managerial organizations, public and privately owned businesses, and so on) and computerized gadgets
(e.g.: city sensors and actuators took advantage of in numerous spaces, for example, portability and
transportation, climate, energy, medical care, administration, industry 4.0 and so on; brilliant home and
shrewd structures gadgets; and individual gadgets, for example, cell phones). This intricacy is replicated
in the huge assortment of diverse methodologies, settings, application spaces & mechanical arrange-
ments that have been proposed in the writing for the acknowledgment and the executives of brilliant
urban areas. The principal objective of executing and coordinating IoT arrangements is to permit shrewd
urban communities to progress further, giving new capacities and highlights while altogether lessening
human intercession by Janani et al. (2021). Moreover, it is likewise essential to zero in on the social
difficulties tended to and the cultural advantages accomplished by the reception of these advancements,
for example evaluating how they can add to the Feasible Improvement Objectives (SDGs) created by
Joined Countries inside the setting of the 2030 Plan according to UN-GGMI Report (2017). A portion
of the super-specialized difficulties for present-day IoT-empowered savvy urban communities are ad-
dressed by the prerequisites of supporting a large number of various information suppliers, managing
a wide range of conventions and information designs, as well as supporting the sharing of parts and
ensuring versatility and interoperability. For information ingestion, it is essential to avoid performing
additional responses, stockpiling and investigation, subsequently bringing down employable expenses
and upgrading the city’s maintainability. In the accompanying, a refreshed and far reaching (albeit not
thorough) outline is given about research writing on shrewd city areas, arrangements, and systems, as
well as information on significant IoT advancements and applications coordinated in smart metropolis
components. The rest of the chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 deep dives into the architecture
of the IoT. Applications of IoT in the context of smart city is discussed is section 3. The vulnerability of
the smart city is further elaborated in section 4. The chapter is concluded in the section 5 which presents
the future work.

ARCHITECTURE OF IOT

There are various stages in the engineering of IoT yet they can change as per the circumstances, however,
for the most part, there are these four stages in the design of IoT −

Networked Devices

These are the actual gadgets that incorporate sensors, actuators, and transducers. These are the genuine
gadgets that gather and send the information for handling. They are fit for getting continuous informa-
tion and they can change over the actual amounts into electrical signs which can be sent through an
organization.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

Data Aggregation

It is a vital stage as it incorporates changing over the crude information gathered by sensors into significant
information which can be utilized to make moves. It additionally incorporates Information Procurement
Frameworks and Web Passages. It changes over the Simple signs given by sensors into advanced signals.

Final Analysis

This is a phase that incorporates edge IT investigation and the handling of information to make it more
effective and completely equipped for execution. It likewise incorporates overseeing and finding every
one of the gadgets accurately

Cloud Analysis

The last information is gotten here and dissected intently and definitively in Data Centres. They interact
and clean the information to make it liberated from any sort of mistakes and missing qualities. After this
stage, information is fit to be sent back and executed to perform tasks.
Now let us see the basic architecture of IoT which is shown in Figure 1 and it comprises of four phases
as displayed in the graph given underneath –

Figure 1. IoT architecture

Sensing Layer − The principal phase of IoT incorporates sensors, gadgets, actuators and so on which
gather information from the actual climate, process it and afterward send it over to the organization.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

Network Layer − The second phase of the IoT comprises of Organization Entryways and Informa-
tion Obtaining Frameworks. DAS changes over the simple information (gathered from Sensors) into
Advanced Information. It likewise performs malware discovery and information on the board.
Data Processing Layer − The third phase of IoT is the main stage. Here, information is pre-handled
on its assortment and isolated as needs be. After this, it is shipped off Server farms. Here Edge IT comes
into utilization.
Application Layer − The fourth phase of IoT comprises Cloud/Server farms where information is
overseen and utilized by applications like horticulture, safeguard, medical care, and so forth.

SMART CITY APPLICATION

For the vast majority of individuals perusing this article, odds are good that you live in a city. In point
of fact, cities and urban areas are home to more than 55% of the world’s population, and this proportion
may rise to 70% in the not-too-distant future as more people move to cities in search of employment.
But this means that cities need better infrastructure and planning if they want to be energy efficient and
good for the environment and offer a good quality of life (Hussain et al., 2020). To put it another way,
cities need to become smarter! The Internet of Things, sensors that collect data, and machine learning
that applies the insights gleaned from the data make this possible (Hussain et al, 2023), (Pradhan et al,
2022). The Internet of Things (IoT) can be used in a variety of ways to improve city efficiency, includ-
ing traffic management, pollution control, waste management, smart buildings, disaster planning, and
more. Therefore, let’s investigate how civic planning and cutting-edge technology can produce smarter,
more cost-effective cities.

Smart Administration

The incorporation of ICT into city administration is managed by Smart Administration, which demon-
strates how to further develop the dynamic interaction and accelerate regulatory and managerial systems
through a more intelligent cooperation among various partners and social entertainers, including public
organizations, city officials, privately owned businesses and residents. This can be effectively achieved
by giving creative city administrations, devoted channels and organization incorporation for residents.
For example, residents can be participated in taking part with city administration exercises &policy
making procedures by means of ICT-based gadgets & virtual entertainment as evidence of the adaptable,
broadly supported worldview, as per which residents can go about as “clients as sensors” with their cell
phones and cell phones, taking part as people and in bunches in the procurement cycle of information
of interest for savvy networks.
Things about Smart Administration: The most crucial aspect of smart governance is e-governance
and public participation in decision-making. The following are the instruments used to achieve them:
The practice of Information and Communication Technology: This means that data is collected, pro-
cessed, shared, and retrieved using digital equipment like computers, the Internet, and telecommunications.
Improved information transmission through telecommunication channels like cable, radio, telephones,
and satellite systems. Utilization of Geographical Information System (GIS) for movement and transport,
video conferencing, and texting in banking, medical care, energy, and security administrations.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

E-Consultation: The primary characteristic of smart governance is people participation. Between the
government and the people, there needs to be a good way to talk to each other. They must be given the
authority to express their ideas and opinions about government programs, schemes, and other topics.
Their feedback ought to be sent directly to leaders, counsellors, city managers, or the head of the locality.
E-Data: Public information and data on government expenditures, investments, and funds must be
easily accessible online. Data must be freely and openly shared, with the exception of vital information
regarding citizens’ safety and security. As a result, the government will be more accountable and citizens
will be more involved in its operation.

Models of Smart Governance

Government to Citizen (G2C) Model: This refers to a system of software (classically web& mobile
based) that facilitates connections within open organizations and residents, for example, policy manage-
ment online interfaces and additionally portable applications and virtual entertainment channels utilized
for correspondence and collaboration between neighbouring states and residents. In addition, according
to various legislative guidelines, IoT advancements i.e. RFID & biometric sensors are progressively be-
ing incorporated into electronic identity cards & movable electronic gadgets for identification, signature
&electronic verification. These highlights are ordinarily expected to get to administrations that are given
by open organizations and counsel residents’ very own information connected with public administra-
tions, and so forth, subsequently improving on a ton of the correspondence and communication between
legislative specialists and residents;
Government to Business (G2B) Model: This model respects the communications between open
organizations and organizations. In this model, e-obtainment arrangements are taken on, i.e., computer-
ized devices, through which neighborhood states distribute tenders, contests, projects, offices aimed at
the buy/offer of products, and supplementary overall administrations for and from privately owned busi-
nesses. IoT advances are generally taken on in G2B exercises, working with and improving the connection
between neighboring states and organizations that offer public and confidential types of assistance to
residents. For example, transportation organizations use area-based sensors (normally taking advantage
of GPS innovation) and administrations, imparting them to nearby organizations and permitting the
simpler and more productive metropolitan making arrangements for portability and transportation by
Badii et al. (2018). Furthermore, it incorporates comparative viewpoints engaged with numerous different
spaces that offer public and principal types of assistance, like waste administration, water, energy, and so
forth. To this end, the utilization of distributed computing is by and large embraced to store and divide
information and results between the various partners (city administrators, organizations, and residents).

Government to Government (G2G) Model

The direct interactions between government organizations, departments, and agencies are the focus of
the model. In order to create a system that is more user-friendly and all-encompassing, the objective
is to integrate all governance channels. More openness, accountability, and streamlined administration
will result from this.
A paperless, digital service model will emerge through the use of ICT. Corruption in public offices
and unnecessary clutter will be reduced as a result. Officials and citizens will establish proper two-way

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

communication, particularly at the municipal and regional levels, enhancing accountability and efficiency
in government operations.
Product arrangements that aim to further develop interchanges between the various policy implemen-
tation elements and gatherings are connected to G2G (Government-to-government), thereby accelerating
all cycles that require the association of these entertainers. This implies that distributed computing and
web/variable-based administrations are utilized in conjunction with IoT advancements for the collec-
tion, storage, and sharing of information. A report from the European Joint Research Center (JRC) also
found that legislatures could benefit from combining various information sources (such as IoT and the
web) with reasonable analytical methods (such as simulated intelligence-based methods) to recognize
and plan specific managerial strategies more easily Barcevicius et al. (2019).

Government to Employee (G2E) Model

The objective of this model is to provide online software and tools for employees, the government, and
businesses to communicate with one another. Each worker’s social security number, bank account num-
ber, and other personal information should be stored in a separate account. Numerous worker-related
undertakings, for example, finance, clinical remuneration, opportune assets, annuity plans, bank credits
can be completed on the web.

Infrastructures and Smart Living

The smart residing space incorporates all parts connected with creating more brilliant city frameworks
(e.g., savvy homes, savvy structures, and so forth) also the administration and improvement of public
administrations, for example, social exercises, the travel industry and schooling, which are engaged with
upgrading the overall personal satisfaction of residents:
Smart Structures: IoT permits the quickly developing execution of numerous sorts of offices for brilliant
structures, for example, cooling the executives, water waste, security frameworks for overseeing verified
admittance to structures, video reconnaissance and human action checking Shi et al. (2020), alarms for
occasions, for example, fires and gas spills, instruments for observing the underlying uprightness of
structures Lombardi et al. (2021), and so on. A wide range of IoT advances are engaged with the living
and frameworks space, contingent upon the particular use case or situation. Concerning smart structures,
A high-constancy portrayal of structures and spatial properties as a collection of virtual resources, i.e.,
a computerized twin of the structure, is produced when IoT and Building Data Demonstrating (BIM)
devices are combined Tang et al. (2019);
Smart Homes: A smart home framework can be something that makes our life very simple. Begin-
ning from energy the executives where the power controls framework in the air conditioner machines
where we utilize the indoor regulator, this is figured out how to chop down the power utilization that is
occurring. An entryway the board framework, security the executives framework, water the executives
framework are the piece of this too. In any case, these are fundamental things that hang out in the smart
home framework. The constraint of IoT in smart home application stops where our creative mind stops.
Anything that we wish to computerize or need to make our life more straightforward can be a piece of
smart home, a smartphone framework too.
Presently, a smart home normally will be a base of a smart city. The smart city is a development of
a smart home. Here, it isn’t simply the sensors of a solitary home that is associated, here its relationship

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

or an organization or an association between different associations, different spaces as well as various

fragments of that city overall. In the smart city, the existence of each and every ward turns out to be more
agreeable and in order truly help to foster that city to more noteworthy reaches out accordingly. Presently,
the vital variable for a smart city is government support too, and in the event that the states will make
this stride, we truly want to believe that we would see a smart city totally expand on the Web of Things.
Smart homes urban communities coordinate with the whole urban areas by making and controlling
an organization.
Smart indoor regulators: Smart homes incorporate indoor regulators that are fit for detecting and
controlling the temperature. This controls the stream.
Area-based smart gadgets: Smart gadgets can follow your area and quickly send messages to different
gadgets to work. For instance, your smart indoor regulators can follow your area from a smart vehicle
and switch on the ACs before you show up
Voice-empowered gadgets: These gadgets can decipher human voices and convert these into text
that is deciphered by the machines. Machines then play out the fundamental errand. Models incorporate
alexa and siri.
Smart security frameworks: Security frameworks that are made utilizing IOT use highlights like
facial acknowledgment, iris scanners and other security modes.
Facial acknowledgment: This is one of the most moving purposes of the IoT. facial acknowledgment
models track the highlights of the face, for example, the indeed, noses, jawline and lips to anticipate
the result of the individual. In light of the exactness the machine is additionally prepared or sent for
advancement.
Movement location: Like facial detainment yet here the sensors record the developments or changes
on the environmental elements. These conduct changes are then shipped off the model for additional
investigation.
Biometric access control: Biometrics have turned into the foundation of any association’s security
frameworks. They are not difficult to oversee and bother free. The representatives and the staff individuals
basically record their thumb or iris impacts on appearance and the machine denotes their attendances.
This model saves time and cost.
Smart Living Administrations: IoT devices are widely used in a variety of fields and activities that
help educated residents improve their overall level of personal satisfaction. Social activities like savvy the
travel industry are using mobile applications, GIS-empowered and area-based administrations, multimedia
system, virtual reality &augmented reality, and web-based entertainment to manage and provide partners
in the travel industry with a better experience. By following the behaviors and streams of customers,
these applications can improve supportability, objective seriousness, and the traveler experience. With
the inclusion of ICT and IoT components, education is experiencing a growing decentralization process.
This makes it possible to develop new educational administrations that can improve collaboration in
real-world and remote learning activities.

Transportation and Smart Mobility

Smart transportation and smart city traffic executives are altering the way that urban communities ap-
proach versatility and crisis reaction while lessening clog on city roads. How? With sensors, high-level
correspondence advancements, computerization, and fast organization.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

The workmanship and study of moving starting with one spot then onto the next is an intrinsic piece
of our lives — today as well as over the entire course of time. From chariots and ponies to carriages,
vehicles, steam trains and shuttle — being moving is a piece of being human.
Civilization has made considerable progress from riding ponies and camels to get from one spot to
another. With the rise of astute transportation frameworks and the Internet of Things (IoT), the world
is entering the following phase of development — smart transportation. Assuming the term sounds
ambiguous or triggers mental pictures of independent cars with the capability to fly and hamster-like,
high-velocity tubes, sit back and relax.
This article will spread out what precisely smart transportation is, the way it works, and a consider-
able lot of the advantages it carries alongside a few genuine models being used today. What’s more, we’ll
likewise cover the various sorts of keen transportation frameworks being sent today.
Transportation demand management (TDM) is a critical part of the development of smart city tech-
niques and smart portability all over the planet. The job of innovation is supposed to increment as ICTs
keep on being coordinated in urban communities in clever ways. With the ascent of the sharing economy,
new modes, and an assortment of application-based portability administrations, individuals have more
options for getting around than at any other time. The test for organizers and enormous businesses is to
advance productivity and assist workers with getting a handle on and utilizing these new decisions in
protected, maintainable ways.
While smart mobility frequently depends on innovation, it is basic to create and execute insightful
projects and strategies to help it.
In view of those factors, we should investigate a couple of arising ideas around smart mobility&
smart transportation.
The advantages of smart innovation & the benefits they bring to transportation inside a smart city
are various. Smart Transportation is
More Secure: By consolidating AI with IoT and 5G, independent transportation frameworks (both
in vehicles and in fixed foundation like convergences) have demonstrated to decrease the “human vari-
able” in mishaps. PCs don’t get occupied or exhausted or close to home.
Well Managed: Information assortment is a significant key to mindful public administration of
foundation. Smart transportation not just gives nitty gritty information focuses to each part of the trans-
portation framework, yet permits chairmen to more readily screen activities, track upkeep needs, and
recognize key causes of issues that should be fixed.
More Effective: With better administration comes more proficient use. Quality information can as-
sist with pinpointing regions where productivity can be gotten to the next level. Perhaps a slight change
in train timetables would accommodate better fill rates, or, maybe transport courses would better serve
the local area in the event that stops were designated in an unexpected way.
Cost-Effective: In light of the fact that smart transportation utilizes the assets accessible, it can
reduce down expenses thanks to precaution upkeep, lower energy utilization, and less assets utilized
towards mishaps. Cost reserve funds can likewise be acquired by riders when economical public travel
is adequately effective to rival private vehicle proprietorship.
Provides Rapid Insights: City traffic the executives’ communities (TMCs) can get quick perme-
ability and notices for pain points or extensive issues influencing clog on city roads, public well-being
and crisis reaction frameworks, to make a move or impart all the more successfully with different or-
ganizations and crisis responders.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

Smart Budget

Smart Budget is built on the advanced use of ICT to connect native and universal marketplaces, providing
e-commerce & e-business amenities to improve delivery and throughput Kezai et al. (2020). This area
also encompasses the idea of a distributing budget, wherein individuals’ otherwise private businesses
offer facilities by utilizing their individual belongings and trusty marketplaces. Peer-to-peer labour facili-
ties, wherein citizens &shareholders offer their assistance and work for precise jobs, are another option
Kumar (2017). Predictive models & recommendation systems intended for e-commerce & trade shopping
have both been improved using AI and machine learning techniques Bellini et al. (2021). The payment
& transaction procedures have been prepared stress-free by the use of wireless sensor technologies&
NFC. Cash and bank cards are being replaced by smartphones and mobile phones in daily transactions
and information access in Shenzen.

Smart Industry and Production

Smart industry & industry 4.0 characterize one change cycle wherein IoT advances, digital actual frame-
works (CPS), M2M correspondence frameworks and cloud-based assembling Liu et al. (2018) permit a
creative and less human-subordinate useful climate. As to mechanization of products supply chains, they
can be handily followed from the assembling system to definite dispersion utilizing sensor advances,
like RFID and NFC. Ongoing data can be gathered and dissected for shipment following, as well with
respect to the evaluation of the quality and ease of use of items Sethi and Sarangi (2017). The shrewd
business and creation space remembers every fields where ICT prompts the computerization of the use-
ful work process, accordingly likewise incorporates brilliant horticulture and cultivating, which tends to
the test of supportable food creation. Shrewd horticulture frameworks frequently utilize IoT gadgets to
further develop water system effectiveness Lopes et al. (2020) and artificial intelligence arrangements
are frequently sent in IoT devices towards farming that is towards crop observing, infection detection &
facts driven harvest supply chain managing. For example, smart industry 4.0 has been utilized by Dub-
lin Air terminal to substitute the baggage-handling methods in 2nd Terminal as per the Six Real World
Examples of Digital Transformation report (2022).

Smart Power

Smart Power systems aim to reduce energy consumption by intelligently integrating and efficiently dis-
seminating decentralized renewable and sustainable energy sources. For improved controlling of energy
production & distribution, smart grids make use of ICT and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, for
instance prediction models made as of composed consumption data & frequently guaranteeing the self-
restoration of the power grid supply by Shirazi, and Jadid (2019). Power distribution is made easier by
smart grids that adjust for usage and availability. Now a days it is feasible to automatically change to
unconventional energy sources, forecast future power demand, & estimate power availability and price
in this manner.
For alternative energy harvesting, new direction of smart energy Internet of Things gadgets, such as
electrostatic energy harvesters (EEH) &triboelectric nanogenerators(TENG), have been developed by Liu
et al. (2021). In the context of smart energy, a variety of Internet of Things (IoT) sensors are involved,

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

including LDRs(light dependent resistors), sensors for determining light beam luminosity, as well as the
amount of sun radiation & energy used.
The advancement of smart energy administration has been done through scheduling the consump-
tion of electricity in both residential and commercial locations by the country like Nice, France etc. By
supplying and storing distributed electricity, a smart solar community in urban areas of Nice created the
smart grid Silva et al. (2018). An intelligent lights system wherein each smart light device is geolocated
within the town and driven by photometer sensors that observe the intensity of the beam emitted by the
lamps and verify whether the bulbs are operating correctly is one of several intelligent energy manage-
ment initiatives implemented by Padova city Zanella et al. (2014). A smart neighborhood project has
been implemented in Atlanta to lower the Home Energy Rating System (HERS) score. Home appliances
are managed by energy optimization platforms, which, when available, switch to solar energy and batter-
ies. In Helsinki, smart grids aid in a 15% reduction in energy consumption Okai et al. (2018). Utilizing
renewable energy technologies, the Masdar City development targeted to be one of the UAE’s supreme
eco-friendly & efficient systems. A solar powered array& rooftop solar panels capable of producing over
10 MW have been planned by the city. Together with technologies for harvesting wind energy, this can
provide energy for approximately 40,000 people and this is mentioned by Sankaran, and Chopra (2020).

Smart Environment

Natural information gathering, observing and examination aimed at contamination decrease, water
quality & supply observing, & climate & environmental events for executives are all part of the smart
environment. As a result, monitoring air quality is an essential component for the subsequent stages of
air poisons (for example CO2, NOx, N2O, PM2.5, O3, PM10, & so on), which address a challenging
problem for human health affected by transport, climate change, & modern outflows. Smart waste the
board is furthermore known for this zone because it takes different effects on the weather. Brilliant
waste canisters equipped with sensors and equipped to provide ongoing investigation of the limit that is
currently available are used to control waste production methods.
When evaluating the quantity and quality of smart water, detecting devices typically quantity param-
eters that is pH, turbidity, conductivity, total broken down solids, and so on. For the purpose of examining
the water utilization rate, electromagnetic and ultrasonic sensors are used to calculate the strain. The
utilization of WSNs for water sum and quality checking systems has opened up one more period of in-
sightful water noticing structures, giving a further evolved setting care and near consistent participation.
Tech Savvy climate apps & services characteristically rely on outside & synthetic sensing devices
to measure actual amounts that communicate ecological boundaries and conditions like temperature,
stickiness, pressure, and a variety of poisons. Ozone depleting substance (GHG) discharges and land use
are applications of brilliant detecting and representation advancements (satellites, LiDAR). Additionally,
GIS data and area-based administrations are utilized.
The Coordinated Waste Administration Office (IWMF) in Singapore is in charge of managing solid
waste. It uses innovative IoT technology to take into account increased process efficiency and decreased
emissions of greenhouse gases. The Green City Watch is a geospatial man-made intelligence stage in
Amsterdam that uses computer-based intelligence calculations and satellite images to screen urban green
structures on an ongoing basis. Sunlight-based controlled waste containers have been introduced in
Stockholm. These containers perform waste bundling and report after they are completely charged. The

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

smart city of Busan in South Korea uses smart water the board structures throughout the metropolitan
water cycle.

Smart Healthcare

In this current period of the Coronavirus pandemic, IoT advancements and omnipresent figuring have been
extensively executed to flexible medical care for out-of-the-way observation, telemedicine & telenursing,
opposing medication responses, local medical services, and so on. Wearable or embedded devices (such
as cardiovascular devices, airflow observation, blood glucometers, and so on) which are connected to the
cloud using WSN advancements can be applied for monitoring remotely. wireless body area networks
(WBANs) or Body sensor networks have developed as a result. These organizations coordinate a variety
of heterogeneous information sources to safeguard patients’ biometric & physiological facts towards IoT
medical care submissions. The recognizable proof and checking of patients in emergency clinics and
the savvy the board of clinical instruments supporting dynamic cycles in clinics are two examples of
the kinds of assistance that brilliant clinics rely on IoT advancements to provide for patients & clinical
staff .High Level Seven (HL7), PACS-DICOM in biomedical picture handling, and others are examples
of obvious guidelines that are mandated by these application fields and the requirements that are as-
sociated with them. Artificial intelligence (AI) predictions and the estimation of biometric boundaries
or side effects from sight and sound (using portable recordings or voice messages, through profound
learning-and discourse acknowledgment based techniques) have recently been proposed as examples of
creative applications.
The Health Hub stage, which includes executive health records and clinical information about pa-
tients and residents, has been supported by Singapore. The New Karolinska Solna Clinic in Stockholm
utilized client-centered services for patients, guests, and clinical staff by coordinating savvy energy and
BIM advancements. The emergency clinic in Hefei, China, is one of the earliest smart clinics in China.
It provides tech savvy structure administrations and practical energy to the board in addition to monitor-
ing all of the patients through IoT and the associated medical care. During the Coronavirus pandemic,
the Helsinki College Medical Clinic used a constant finding framework (RTLS) to collect &distribute
anonymized area information about on-location developments for area monitoring. Additionally, cloud
administrations are made available to enable medical professionals and caregivers to communicate re-
motely with Coronavirus patients.

VULNERABLE COMPLICATIONS FOR IOT-EMPOWERED SMART CITIES

As populace expansion and metropolitan focus speed up, different issues, for example, traffic jamming,
energy and asset depletion, and so on are showing up everywhere, and nations are attempting to take
care of these issues by utilizing IoT-empowered brilliant city. In light of our experience and examination
in the past areas, obviously brilliant city advancements can be a promising arrangement. In any case,
obviously brilliant city advancements are unfinished nevertheless have numerous issues that should be
survived. For instance, interoperability issues because of the shortfall of worldwide guidelines, various
understandings of savvy urban communities, and openness of individual data are central point that block
the supportability of brilliant urban communities. Previously, the creators of this paper have amassed
many encounters on brilliant urban areas through the improvement of savvy city administrations and

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

stages in light of worldwide IoT norms. In view of these encounters and the examination led in this paper,
different difficulties to be overwhelmed by brilliant urban communities are inferred.
As a prerequisite towards the success of IoT-enabled Smart Cities, we offer a point of view on the
challenges which is presently being addressed in the following paragraphs.

Sort Out of Application Silos

Most current smart city projects was industrialized in silos, frequently with robust combination between
applications &fundamental data resources, especially sensing devices. Because of this, it is difficult
to share and reuse information because each application must be overtly unified with each available
information source & every transformation in technology, such as the underlying sensing equipment or
inter-communication network, necessitates a technology adaptation.
However, a true value of Internet of Things will only be comprehended when additional info turns
out to be accessible & can be pooled between applications &implementation domains. Deploying a
real Internet of Things infrastructure for an application is often difficult enough, although the same is
unrealistic to set up the similar or a comparable setup for each subsequent application. Collaborations
can be created when infrastructure is shared, and sometimes infrastructure deployment is only possible
when infrastructure is shared. It is necessary to decouple applications and information sources in order
to accomplish this.
This can be accomplished technically by utilizing an Internet of Things podium& the contract on
least interactiveness mechanisms, such as the OASC (Open Agile Smart Cities) city network’s definition.
Administrative and organizational aspects are at least as crucial as the technical aspects in overcoming
application silos. Applications are frequently considered to be “possessed” by metropolitan subdivisions or
administrations, who have paid for the infrastructure and wish to maintain control. Additionally, financial
plan is frequently allocated in a rigid manner, creating distribution challenging. As a result, attaining a
global understanding, establishing high-level goals, such as those for the entire city, & working to achieve
these goals crossways administrative units—recurrently disabling individual rivalries—are crucial.

Go Forward in the Direction of Flexible IoT Frameworks

At the moment, every smart city looks different in terms of the infrastructure that is in place, the applica-
tions that are available, and frequently also the IoT platforms that are used. This hinders the expansion of
a smart city market &makes it challenging to re-claim whatever thing established for one city in another.
Furthermore, developing individualized platforms for each city is not financially feasible.
Many merchants have begun offering Inter of Things infrastructures for smart cities, characteristically
based on whatever has been established for a pilot city, as described above. As a result, these platforms
are frequently unsuitable for other metropolises, and metropolises are also concerned about merchant
lockin, or being tied to a single vendor for all future infrastructure and application enhancements because
everything must be tailored to the vendor’s platform. Modular infrastructures based on standards, such
as oneM2M, and OMA Lightweight M2M, NGSI-LD should be the direction of travel.
The interfaces and information modeling that OASC defines as the minimum interoperability mecha-
nisms must be agreed upon. Furthermore, common open-source components, such as those offered by
FIWARE, can be used as a foundation to cut costs. Complementing these are proprietary vendor com-
ponents. However, vendor lock-in is prevented by using standards at the interface level.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

Conception of Business Opportunities

Digital revolution is introducing novel openings in addition to the escalation of the metropolitan amenities
which have usually been presented to its inhabitants (movement, lights, water supply, waste supervision,
etc.), whereas the smart city notion is characteristically supervised by city administrators to implement
sustainability and efficiency. The smart city must be endorsed like a state in which fresh commercial
models are developed based on sharing of information& services. Cities, for instance, are evolving into
the sharing economy’s playground. The speedy, geographical position-based interchange of facilities&
products between citizens, between businesses, and between B2C is made easier by the attentiveness of
financial movements & the widespread availability of expertise in cities.
Applying information as the new key upright for dealing in the afresh generated digital markets, in-
novative commercial notions like the Commons Collaborative Economy will be able to:

(1) Favor shared relations - rather than the customarily various leveled order and legally binding
connections.
(2) Settle new worth appropriation and administration among the local area of friends where benefit
isn’t its primary/extraordinary main thrust.
(3) Utilize a public infrastructure that is sensitive to privacy, resulting in the (usually) exposed supply
of corporate capitals that favor right of entry, reproducibility, &imitativeness.

In any case, distribution of data isn’t trifling, particularly on the off chance that it isn’t anticipated in
existing agreements. Subsequently, it is vital to make mindfulness and consider this angle while setting
up agreements, particularly while rethinking exercises. The adaptation of data ought to become conceiv-
able, nonetheless, there is in many cases a disparity between the assumption and genuine worth of data.
Adaptation must be connected with genuine worth, e.g., likewise as it is the situation for publicizing on
the web, where the utilization is estimated and financial worth is straightforwardly connected with it.

Work Towards IoT Platforms and Applications for

Multiple Players and Organizations

Cities are not solitary islets; rather, they frequently border other cities and are a part of districts, counties,
regions, and nations. It is essential for many applications to continue working within city limits. Because
citizens may live in one city, work in another, and spend their leisure time in a third, it is unacceptable
for them to require different applications or to rework their applications when they cross a city boundary.
For instance, there ought to be a single application that, regardless of where they are at the moment, can
assist them in finding a parking spot by taking into account traffic.
This necessitates the interoperability of IoT platforms, which can be accomplished by federating IoT
platforms, making information available to this federation in part. For instance, united IoT stage structures
are expressly upheld in the NGSI-LD determination. Since there are multiple players involved and the
federated system needs to function across organizations, it is necessary to clarify responsibilities and
allocate budgets, so technically, such a setup is possible. However, administrative and organizational
issues still need to be resolved.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

Information and application marketplaces can be established using federated IoT platform infrastruc-
tures that make information sharing possible. Applications can be offered for sale by businesses, and
while basic data may be available for free, premium data may be available for a fee.

Attain Transparency and Recognition

While the smart metropolitan networks perspective has been, for quite a while, shaped by bargains pitches
of greater development merchants and system integrators, for this vision of self-practicality and occupant’s
very own fulfilment improvement to transform into a reality, it is essential to leave early “smart city 1.0”
models like Masdar or Songdo (with development or advancing driven approach as opposed to keeping
an eye on useful and occupant prerequisites) as well as to grow the pool of organizations maintained by
not simply taking the perspective of the city subject matter experts, yet what’s more license watching
out for the specific necessities of the inhabitants.
In this sense, whether or not there are basic social differentiations all over the planet, it means quite
a bit to set up parts to voice the occupant’s viewpoint in the continuous conversation about IoT instru-
mentation. For splendid city organizations to have the choice to truly affect occupants, and be a lot of
seen by all of the accomplices and performers drew in with metropolitan networks’ confounding natural
frameworks, inhabitants ought to be empowered with the assets to have a central impact in the creation
and plan of such organizations.
The co-creation thought addresses the participatory progression of usages and organizations help-
fully between a couple of accomplices. For this present circumstance to be engaged, stages supporting
splendid metropolitan networks need to give a combination of normal instruments and enabling impacts
that grant the specific and improvement of creative applications. Additionally, it means quite a bit to
counter the perspective on loss of safety to develop the stage to be dealt with by anyway numerous city
assets as could be anticipated in light of the current situation, and the information that they make.
Another vital piece of the co-creation thought is its capacity to attract heterogeneous accomplices in
aiding clever city potential. Subsequently, shrewd city stages need to give engaging specialists connected
with the rousing powers and remunerations of participating eventually practicality of the whole stage
and sharp city organic framework. In this sense, it is at this point critical to encourage a security-by-
plan approach extending the straightforwardness of all the IoT asset organization stream moving from
the progressing perspective of discrete bound together trusted in experts to a perspective of liquid and
decentralized trust of the association overall. This moving responses the providers’ prerequisites and to
the buyers’ solicitations. The first since they are reluctant to share a datasets due to weakness of how
and for what purposes the data is used. The last since they require comfort of the data’s quality.

Reconciliation on Future Organizations and Novel Figuring Ideal Models

By means of additional Smart metropolitan organizations are completed, the amount of contraptions
related with & chipped away at the association is rising emphatically. Likewise, through the presentation
of 5th Generation organization innovation, different administrations like brilliant urban communities,
savvy industrial facilities, and shrewd vehicles are being created. Such different IoT administrations
should uphold necessities, for example, high data transfer capacity and super low dormancy.
Distributed computing strategies offered by customary support suppliers, however, must go through
a focal IoT stage to handle different information produced by the gadgets. This has prompted a fast

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

expansion in the backhaul information traffic, unavoidably dialing back administration speeds. To deal
with this issue, expansive investigation is actuality driven converging in on usage of verge enrolling
development to decrease networking load achieved by traffic flow upsurge & to help the organizations
which is IoT driven from a to some degree tiny distance, consequently, empowering the provisioning of
really low inactivity organizations.
Aimed at instance, correspondence normalization associations, for example, 3GPP and ETSI, as well
as IoT normalization associations, for example, oneM2M recognize the significance of edge registering
normalization, helping out different foundations to foster guidelines what’s more, improve similarity.
The versatile-access Edge Processing Industry Particular Bunch (MEC-ISG), a gathering in ETSI, is
chipping away at using multi-access in edge processing & empowering similarity through guidelines
for networking segmentation given by the 3GPP center organization. Notwithstanding the virtualization
of the organization, virtualization &edge registering of IoT stage highlights are being directed: Single
edge hub would be capable to have a 3GPP organization, ETSI MEC edge registering, and super low
inertness IoT administration stage includes powerfully to help different administrations.

Protection Guidelines on Data in Various Nations

Since a smart city accumulates &employs monstrous proportions of statistics, that undeniably harbours
the possible meant for individual data breach. For instance, sensing equipment on internet of things-based
devices may be used to accumulate facts as of inside the home. Sensing devices in within a smart vehicle
may similarly be cast-off to see the driving penchants for the driver. Doing data mining methodology
on which evidence can provoke the ID of explicit folks. Accordingly, state run administrations are areas
of strength for sanctioning on the security of individual data to efficiently safeguard individual data and
keep data collecting specialist co-ops from mishandling it.
For instance, Europe established GDPR to control individual data assurance and use. GDPR con-
scientiously characterizes the privileges and commitments of individual data holders and processors,
accordingly reinforcing the obligations of organizations that gather and oversee information. As this
regulation applies to all frameworks taking care of information, information based shrewd urban areas
should normally consent to it.
Stipulations of the GDPR underwrite consent Badii et al. (2020), precise to be dismissed, pseudony-
mization, amid others. These assertions ought to be reproduced as system essentials &embedded into
stage features, consequently such circumstances can be used inside a splendid urban city stage. Doing
so can enable different smart town organizations to deal with individual material in a method predict-
able through GDPR. For instance, assent the board as characterized by GDPR expects that individual
data should be handled in view of the assent of the information proprietor. Nonetheless, existing savvy
city information stages don’t give an element that processes information proprietor assent. For this, the
entrance approval element of the current stages ought to be extended to carry out the capability of delib-
erately getting client assent and arranging such information inside tech savvy metropolitan framework.

CONCLUSION

By means of should be visible starting the models portrayed, plenty of canny metropolitan services &
administrations seemed created. A considerable lot of them are at a proof-of-idea level, yet all the same

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

more also, additional have proactively accepted the pilot stage & have formed interested in creation level
arrangements. This indicates that the base arrangement of innovation empowering agents being now
accessible also, is being conveyed in urban areas & coordinated with certifiable public administrations.
Nonetheless, frequently this type of administrations is being created & conveyed in implementation
silos, restricting a worth of data that remain gathered as re-use and it is challenging to portion of this
data. The utilization of IoT stages empowers such information openness and trade, yet the utilization
of exclusive stages that have been grown separately and in a confined way by enormous organizations
brings about additional limitations as arrangements can’t be imitated across urban communities depend-
ing on an alternate restrictive stage. As applications can’t be re-utilized, they must be worked without
any preparation or be adjusted to an alternate stage, making improvements costly.
As we have depicted, there are critical advances on the specialized side that make savvy urban com-
munities possible. In any case, there are a few mechanical difficulties to survive, chiefly connected with
ensuring the vital versatility on information and organizations to help mission critical administrations
(e.g., crisis reaction, basic foundations continuous checking and the board, and so on.). Reconciliation
of novel registering standards like mist processing furthermore, 5G and past organizations in IoT situ-
ations divulges a promising way to address such application situation. Be that as it may, the greatest
difficulties might be on managerial & hierarchical verges. A tech savvy city arrangements frequently
call for participation amid various offices or even various associations. This might expect spending plans
to be corrected, as there is the requirement for introductory ventures. These might be fundamentally
counterbalanced by investment funds at a future point, however not really somewhere the underlying
ventures was made.
In addition, mechanical as well as public organizations impulsion can’t, all alone, untap the complete
worth of tech-savvy metropolitan worldview. Doubtlessly, it can start the progress &resolve the origins
for every one of the partners & entertainers engaged with metropolitan conditions (e.g., residents, or-
ganizations, associations, guests, and so on) to turn out to be effectively taken part in the brilliant city,
not just as shoppers of administrations or information that others give, yet in addition as makers of
significant data that would present new administrations, in this way adding to an idealistic series with
unpredictable advantages. In any case, intended for this visualization to transform into a authenticity,
its essential to manage hardships of data safety & self-power thus data creators are sure that the data
produced by them is applied for those, & simply the explanations behind that it was distributed, & they
are furthermore reasonably and modestly made up for the value where their information has delivered.
At long last, there is much of the time protection from change, particularly in the event that it doesn’t
carry prompt advantages to the people who need to adjust. Constructing the metropolitan smart will
prompt alters in the manner the metropolitan works. In the event that new bits of knowledge are acquired,
moves might need to be made subsequently. These must be ready and it requires purchase in from every
one of the gatherings in question. In any case, shrewd urban areas over the long haul will give huge
advantages as their activity turns out to be more effective and the personal satisfaction of their residents
gets to the next level. Consequently, it is advantageous to deal with conquering the impediments, on the
specialized as well as the managerial and hierarchical side.

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Smart Cities Powered by IoT

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19

Chapter 2
Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions
for Smart City Applications
Samaya Venkatesh Pillai
Symbiosis Institute of Digital and Telecom Management, India

Pradnya Purandare
Symbiosis Centre for Information Technology, Symbiosis International University (Deemed), India

Rajashree Jain
Symbiosis Institute of Computer Studies and Research, Symbiosis International University (Deemed),
India

ABSTRACT
The current advent of new technological advancements like the internet of things, artificial intelligence,
and big data have not only ventured in applications management like regular transactional systems but
also large applications like managing cities. The main objective of a “smart city” is the improvement
in the living conditions of the people of all strata in the city. The city ideally should provide technologi-
cal, innovative, and sustainable solutions by utilizing the resources. The smart city concept is providing
a higher quality of life (QoL) for all its citizens. The areas which are mainly covered in the purview of
smart city are governance, efficient mobility and public transport facility, healthcare facility, affordable
housing for all citizens, digitization, and robust IT connectivity; along with focus on good sanitization,
sufficient water supply, solid waste management, and electricity supply. In this chapter, the authors
investigate the possibility and feasibility of the concept of digital twin in the applications of smart city.

INTRODUCTION

An urban place is an experimental, application ground for emerging technologies Internet of Things,
Artificial Intelligence, Big Data expanded beyond traditional transactional systems management to find
uses in urban management applications. A smart city provides innovative and sustainable technological
solutions by using available resources.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch002

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

Smart city focusses on governance, efficient mobility, public transport facility, healthcare facility,
affordable housing for all citizens, digitization and robust IT connectivity with focus on good sanitiza-
tion, sufficient water supply, solid waste management, electricity supply etc.
A Digital Twin is an interface of the virtual and physical system. It can help to manage the complex
system of smart city. It can simulate, predict and provide numerous insights for short term and long-term
management of a smart city. In this article, the authors investigate the use of digital twin in smart city.
The chapter defines “digital twins”, smart city and the need of digital twin. In the flow of the chapter, the
authors discuss the implementation of digital twin in the applications of Smart city, the tools used during
this implementation. And finally, there is an attempt to point out some open issues for future research.
More than 65 percent of the population these days reside in urban spaces and it is expected that every
7 out of 10 would live in cities by 2050. Considering the increase in the exodus of people coming to
cities, city resources need to be managed efficiently and effectively. Catering to these ever-exploding
needs of cities, cities are becoming smart cities. The term “smart city” originates back in the 1990s (Van
Bastelaer, B. 1998). It is an urban place, which makes the best use of current upcoming-technology,
information and raw data to improve upon a number of factors. The factors can be access to resources,
efficient management of resources like water, electricity, shelter, education, healthcare etc. It is therefore
of interest to all stakeholders like Citizens communities, industries and governments.
The success of implementation of technology solutions in a smart city development relies on under-
standing of city dynamics, spatially as well as temporally. The ability to understand this dynamism is
very essential to understand the interdependence considering the smart city as a connected place and a
system of systems. Considering the dynamism in the systems, smart digital twin concept can be used
for observing cities’ infrastructure, technology and human interface. A digital twin, enabled with virtu-
alization and connectivity, for a city becomes smarter to propose preventive, prescriptive and predictive
insights into the city’s development and growth. (Papyshev, Gleb & Yarime, Masaru. (2021))
As more and more cities are featuring in the list of smart cities, Gartner Top Strategic Technology
Trends 2023 suggests digital twins in combination with web3 and spatial computing under metaverse
may become responsible for increasing the revenue of a number of organizations. (2023 Gartner Top
Strategic Technology Trends: Detailed Guide (eBook), n.d.-b)
The present chapter explores the concept of digital twin in a networked world connected with sen-
sors and intelligent hardware and software. The study area chosen is a smart city. The application areas
within the smart city are water management, asset and civil infrastructure management.
The chapter is organized in five sections. Section II brings details about a Digital Twin and various
parameters that involve defining the term. Section III lists down applications of Digital Twin in a smart
City. Section IV describes the two case studies in the smart city as mentioned above. Section V provides
concluding remarks along with open research areas for future.

DIGITAL TWINS

This section aims at one of the study objectives of “Network enabled Internet of Things(IOT) based ap-
plications facilitated by a Digital Twin (DT)”. Hence the aim of this section is to explore how and where
Digital Twin and its applications are facilitated by network based IOT. It also discusses IoT, data analyt-
ics, and digital twin applications, problems, links, and supporting technologies. (Fuller, A., et. al. 2020).

20

Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

A number of definitions for the term DT are available in the literature. Some of them are given in the
following section. The differences in defining the term DT shows diverse perspectives about its usage
in the industry. Basically DT is an integration of data amongst physical and virtual machines. Figure
1 describes a digital twin mirroring a physical object through tis life cycle. The virtual model alias the
digital twin can provide capabilities of learning for future while providing simulations at run time.

Figure 1. Digital twin components

IBM defines Digital Twin as a virtual model of a physical object. The design is an accurate model of
the physical object. The model spans over the entire life cycle of the physical object. It mirrors its life-
cycle. The real time data helps it to get updates. Simulation, machine learning and reasoning helps a DT
in managing the physical object and execute decision making related to the physical object.” (IBM, 2023)
According to Gartner, DT is a digital representation of system, which exists in the real world. In other
words, a digital object or a model that is a replica of a particular physical thing, process, organization,
person, or other abstraction is identified and termed as its DT. Garner report also mentions that data from
various digital twins can be used for a combined representation. For example, processes of power plant or
a city and its associated processes can be combined in viewed in composition. (Gartner, January 2023.)
According to Amazon, it’s a digital replica created to faithfully represent the real thing. (Amazon,
January 2023)
In another definition by digital twin consortium, a DT is considered as a virtual representation of
people, places, and things. A DT needs to be mapped and configured for a certain level of accuracy and
range of frequencies of their respective physical objects. DTs support improve business by a holistic
understanding of the real system. Therefore ideal for decision-making and efficient execution. Digital
twins portray the past, present, and simulate predicted futures using historical and current data. They are
deployed in a number of systems. DTs are driven by the outcome, guided based on domain knowledge,
based on data, have found number of use cases. (Digitaltwinconsortium, January 2023)
The research study’s authors present the results of a study that looked at the most recent definitions of
DT, considered the essential qualities a DT should possess, studied the fields where DT applications are
currently being developed, and studied the key qualities a DT should have. The study’s design implica-
tions are then discussed, concentrating on DT lifespan and socio-technical design elements. (Barricelli
et al., 2019)
A digital twin consists of three elements:

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

• The actual- real physical system – in real time environment,

• The virtual system – in digital or virtual environment, and
• The data that connects or bridges these two systems.

Examples include a digital twin of an airplane that can be used to monitor its performance and identify
potential issues. Another example can be a digital twin of a bridge, power plant or historical buildings
that can be used to monitor their performance and identify potential issues related to wear and tear of the
structure. A digital twin of a vehicle-car can be used to monitor its performance and identify potential
issues and a digital twin of an individual-person can be used to monitor their health and identify potential
issues are a few more examples.

History of Digital Twin

David Gelernter’s 1991 novel Mirror Worlds, which introduced the concept of digital twin technology,
was the first to do so. Dr. Michael Grieves, University of Michigan Professor pioneered digital twin
concept in software and using it to apply the concept of digital twins to manufacturing for the first time
in 2002 (IBM 2023), (Wikipedia 2023), (Global 2023).
Professor Grieves spoke about the concept of DT during his one the session at University of Michigan
in the year 2003. It was in the eyar 2010, John Vickers from NASA coined the term DT. He addressed
the problems like sustaining the health of spacecraft- utilizing the idea of digital twins. (Rathore, M.
M. U. et al., 2021)
In fact, it is more precise to mention that it was NASA, which the first most organizations to use
digital twin as technique in space investigation tasks. Spacecraft was specifically imitated, simulated
for the earthbound version during nineteen sixty, the NASA personnel serving on flight crews used for
these digital replicas or digital twins for study and simulation purposes (Cantena, 2023).

Application Areas for Digital Twins

Over the past 20 years, DT has been propelled forward by ongoing advancements in technologies includ-
ing artificial intelligence (AI), big data, machine learning (ML), cloud computing, high dimensional
data coding, sensor technologies, and the internet of things (IoT) (Pradhan et al, 2022); (Hussain, et al,
2021). As a result, various DTs have been developed and are currently in use across a variety of sec-
tors, including manufacturing, systems engineering, the aerospace industry, robotics, healthcare, and
medicine. (Barricelli et al., 2019).
There have been a number of applications of Digital Twins with IOT. Application of Digital Twin
with IOT has been found in a research paper based on thorough review especially in the domains of
manufacturing, healthcare and smart cities (Fuller, A., et. al. 2020).
Industry 4.0 can be enabled with IOT and other technologies. Digital Twin is a forerunner of Industry
4.0. IOT allows an increase in the data usage in manufacturing, healthcare, and smart city environment
applications supported by Digital Twin. IOT based data can support predictive maintenance and fault
detection, business process health monitoring, in manufacturing and smart city applications (Bilberg
A., et. al. 2019).
One of the issues of smooth data integration among IoT devices in a network can be managed well
by Digital Twin via creating network enabled connected physical and virtual twins.

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

IoT devices are cheaper in cost as well as easy to implement which allows better connectivity and
usage of IoT devices that can be used in Digital Twin (Joordens, M., et. al 2018), (Liu, Y., et al 2019).
This increase in connectivity of network enabled IoT devices will increase the Usage of Digital Twin
in healthcare applications too (Gahlot, S., et. al. 2019).
Harvesting of IoT based data through role based user interface to yield data insights o users with data
analytics by developing a smooth environment for Digital Twin.This is an example of a Digital Twin
with AI technology IoT enabled platform called “ThinkWrox” (Chen, X., et. al. 2018).
IBM’s Watson IoT platform features are real time data collections, cloud-based services, edge computing,
analytics, blockchain usage etc. from unlimited IoT devices. These all IoT features help in Digital Twin.
Digital twin technology creates new opportunities for the economical and successful development of
sustainable electric vehicle technologies, from conception to operation. But in order to make these vehicles
popular, it is essential to have the supporting architecture. This supporting-architecture optimizes the
vehicle’s sustainability. Digital Twin technique is a virtual mapping technique that stems from this new
architecture and is capable of investigating the lifespan of multisystem bodies in a digital environment
inquiry. The research of digital twin technologies has recently become important worldwide. Thus, fresh
individual studies on the use of digital twins to various smart vehicle features have surfaced in academic
and industry studies, leading to the advancement of digital twin technology over time. (Bhatti et al., 2021)
The use of DIGITAL TWIN applications is becoming more prevalent across a variety of industries,
and when it is combined with enabling emergent technologies it becomes lethal. Technologies like big
data, ML, advanced modeling, advanced simulation, AR,VR, XR and few of the innovative progressive
communication mediums, to help give better understandings about the operation of its real identical
kind which the designer or operator can use to take appropriate action. The main benefit of DIGITAL
TWINs in several fields is the insight that results in data-driven decision making.
Core services in a Smart City will have increased data collected from IoT sensors and emergent tech-
nologies like AI algorithms too. More Smart Cities developments will have well connected communities.
Hence this requires usage of Digital Twin drastically (Mohammadi, N.,et.a. 2017), (Sivalingam, K., et.
al 2018), (Pargmann, H., et. al. 2018)
All Smart city services and IT Infrastructure will have sensors, and these sensors as well as data
requires to be monitored by IoT devices continuously for security as well as performing core processes.
IoT devices will do future proofing of infrastructure and services based on Digital Twins. IOT enables
networking and Digital twins for a smart city will be covered in more details in Section III.

Challenges With Digital Twins

Digital Twin challenges include infrastructure, usefulness and insights of data, privacy, security, trust,
standardized modeling, domain modeling etc.

1) IT infrastructure
2) Quality of Data
3) Privacy and Security
4) Trust (Fuller et al., 2020)

Data, privacy, security, trust issues with respect to Digital twin and IoT are always discussed upon
for various reasons such as quality of data, data privacy and security, compliance related parameters.

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

Digital Twin and network enabled IoT shares some common challenges such as huge amounts of data
collection, data flow control, effective usage of this data, to be able to create meaningful data insights.
More issues arise when the data is defined as Big data and unstructured data also pose challenges (Ashu
et al., 2021). Cyber risk of attacks on IoT devices and data is a concern for Digital Twin.
Infrastructure requirements considering the short shelf life of both hardware and software products
and services always poses a challenge to keep it up to date. One more challenge is to upgrade old sys-
tems in the network as per latest IoT devices by ensuring no damage to the data.(Botín-Sanabria,2022)
Other challenges with network enabled IoT devices are connectivity, expectations of performance.
SinceDT technology is still in its infancy, overcoming significant obstacles that face a contemporary
DT application, like charges, data intricacy, upkeep, unavailability of compliances templates checklists
governance rules, complications with cyber security and networking communications, will be necessary
for it to realize its full potential.

Functioning of Digital Twins

Products’ behavior in the actual world and the development process can be predicted, observed, diag-
nosed, and regulated using a DT. Objective of the product digital twin is its ability to trigger, configure
and record, observe, analyze, predict, and coordinate the behavior of physical processes or objects in the
real world. World. The tasks performed by the digital twin can be classified as follows:

a) Simulation
b) Monitoring and diagnosis
c) Prediction
d) Control

Characteristics of Digital Twin

Any physical entity such as process, object or an individual can have one or more “digital twins” that
are (physical and/or virtual) machines. These are computer-based models used to mimic the real world
counterpart. Through a special key, each DT is connected to its physical twin, identifying the physical
twin and enabling the establishment of an objective relationship between the DT and its twin.
A Cyber-Physical System, often known as a set of physical elements (such as machines, products,
equipment, or people), can include a DT. This system interacts with a virtual Mirror image in cyberspace
over a communication network. Thus, every physical object /thing having a cyber-counterpart, functions
as its digital twin also reflected as DT.
The major characteristics of digital twins are as discussed below.
DT enables seamless communication between the physical and its virtual counterpart. This has be-
come possible with the help of developments in the areas of IOT and ICT. It also enables connectivity
between organizations, products and customers. (Jiang, Zongmin.et. al, 2021).
To ensure a seamless connection, networking communication devices must be used to connect both
the physical and digital twins. This connection is the medium through which the continuous data ex-
change occurs. Either the connectivity enables the digital twin to directly communicate to it physical
counterpart or indirectly through the cloud-based systems.(Hu, W.,2021)

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

The DT continuously collects dynamic environment data—which describes the status of the sur-
rounding environment and varies over time as it moves through its lifecycle—and dynamic physical
twin data thanks to the seamless connection. Additionally, it continuously transmits predictions and
recommendations for system upkeep and function optimization to its physical counterpart, the pertinent
experts, and other nearby DTs. Three primary categories of communication processes exist. Designing
communication procedures primarily involves three categories: 1) between the actual twin and its digital
counterpart. 2) Between the DT and other DTS in its local vicinity or area.3) through usable and acces-
sible interfaces, between the DT and subject specialists who engage with and use the DT.
With the help of a DT any type of information can now be stored in digital format making it homo-
geneity.
A virtual system in the digital format enables de coupling of its physical source. (Tilson et. al., 2010).
Modularization, Reprogrammable and digital trace are also major characteristics of a DT.

Types of Digital Twin

Component Twin: For certain parts of a system, like a sensor or actuator, component twins are made. They
can be viewed as digital reproductions of particular parts or systems within of a bigger system. Digital
twins come in several forms, but component twins are the most basic. They can be applied to model
the component’s behavior and test how changes to the component would impact the rest of the system.
Asset twins or Product twins: Asset twins are virtual copies of real-world objects, such machines
or vehicles. Asset twins can be used to keep track of an asset’s location and state, as well as to forecast
when maintenance will be necessary. Component twins are used to create asset twins, which are then
utilized to observe component twin behavior.
System Twins or Unit Twins: Complex systems, including power grids or transportation networks,
are observed by system twins. Asset twins make up the majority of system twins, which are utilized to
observe asset twin behavior.
Process Twins: Digital reproductions of business processes, such as the process of producing a
product, are called process twins. Twins of the process can be used to streamline it and spot bottlenecks
or other problems. They act out processes like the flow of people or things through an establishment.
Section III highlights how network enabled IoT devices can be helpful majorly for Digital Twin ap-
plications in a smart city (Porter, Michael.et. al, 2015)

DIGITAL TWINS IN A SMART CITY

The concept of smart city may vary from place to place and country to country. It basically depends on
the willingness of city development authorities to strategize on the change and reforms. Smart cities are
those that implement scalable solutions that use information and communications technology (ICT) to
improve efficiencies, cut costs, and improve quality of life, according to businesses like Cisco.”. (Fal-
coner and Mitchell, 2019).
Digital twin technology constituting the IoT devices, configured network can be used very efficiently
in smart cities for the purpose of security and tracking. The security and tracking can be of civil structures
like school buildings, heritage buildings, important structures like defense structures, airports, hospitals,
banks, places of worship, etc.

25

Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

According to the British Standards Institute (BSI) “a smart city is a combination of digital and hu-
man systems existing in an orchestrated environment for the effective delivery of continual, successful,
comprehensive forthcoming for residents” (BSI, 2014). Smart cities are termed “smart”, since they use
capabilities of techniques, informed data for city management. They offer solutions to the city’s chal-
lenges and improve its infrastructure and services. Some of these services can be access to possessions
like aquatic, power, transportation, government services, etc. This can also be used for redeveloping or
developing unplanned and poorly planned areas. Areas in the cities like the slums, monitoring heritage
buildings and structures. The core objective is to prepare a secured city with lesser issues, adversities.
For example, security of womenfolk, kids needs can be safeguarded, with highly decreased illegal ac-
tivities like audiovisual surveillance
Networking based applications are supported by IoT connected to multiple devices. These devices
gather information from connected environment, send that information to the IOT device server, server
processes it. It used communication technologies. Smart building, city, AI, tracking, remote sensing,
emergency healthcare are few places where IOT can be used effectively. IoT network helps in routing
effectively. Paper has proposed cryptography based cost-effective model. It enhances data security. It
also determines monetary value of IoT Network records. (Sonam, Johari R,2023)
The goal is to determine how and for which applications, partial or complete processes, functions of
the smart city, and digital twins can be useful due to technological advancements in IoT devices, data
analytics and insights, and artificial intelligence to represent the applications of the smart city using
virtual and physical forms.
Gartner (2023), in a report shares that users can save on the cost, support improvements in the pro-
duction especially in the areas of carbon emissions. A number of new and innovative ways can help DTs
to optimize on a number of business operations such as operations, finance, and decision-making for
emissions reduction in large, complex building projects and assets. (Gartner, January 2023).
Digital twins are built on a two-way mapping interaction between the physical and digital worlds.
Bidirectional mapping transfers data in both directions, as opposed to unidirectional mapping, which
exclusively transfers data from real items to digital objects. In accordance with (Kritzinger, et al.,2018)
and (Zheng et al., 2019), the latter is also known as a “digital shadow since”a change in state of the physi-
cal object leads to a change in the digital object, but not vice versa”. Although, unlike digital shadows,
digital twins have a property that enables virtual things to have an impact on physical entities without
the need for human participation. (Enders and Hoßbach, 2019). (Deren, L. et. al,2021).
This particular concept is very innovative and also creepy, that any changes in the virtual objects
may affect the real world objects, but as of now it is still an idea, the practical part of this looks to be
distant and difficult to put in practice.
If an online 3D model is made available to the public of a city, they can view the improvements in
the city planning & policy. Before putting these judgements into action, this makes public disclosure
and transparency easier. An additional virtual feedback loop where citizens can participate and provide
feedback on recommended changes to the city is made possible by this open and transparent architecture.
Additionally, residents can engage with components to flag and report issues in their neighborhood.
When 3D data is required, such as for planning flood evacuation, the digital twin also enables further
experimentation.(Gary,White et.al.2021)
In support to the main research study (Gary White et al., 2021) the researchers have exhibited, an
open and public DT can provide the feedback for Dublin’s Docklands. It was used for planning the city’s

26

Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

skyline, green spaces and urban planning. It will facilitate citizens to not only access these areas but
interactively provide their feedback.
Similar kind of experiment was carried out by the leader of “physi” by collecting feedback from
citizens in designing the Dunakapu Square in Gyor from an environment aka climate perception. The
model could help in design, costing, impact on the neighbour environment. Also the maintenance and
design world-heritage site of Vienna, was also tried and tested with people feedback.(Nora Rado, 2021)
There are cities, globally using the digital twin technology like the city of Helsinki discussed by au-
thors (Ruohomäki et al., 2018), the city of Zurich, discussed by authors (Schrotter and Hürzeler, 2020),
and the city of Vienna discussed by authors (Lehner and Dorffner,2020). These cities and their digital
twins are clustered conceptually under one umbrella of Digital Twin concept (Vander Valk et al., 2020).
In all these cities, the digital application is implied for different services. The cities need to be sensitive
and respond to internal and external factors as well.
The agenda of the United Nations for 2030 for sustainable development has many goals which revolves
around creating safe, resilient, sustainable cities. China has also started to implement digital twins in cities
like Xiong. It uses 3D modeling techniques in improving urban public-services supporting government
policies. (Digital Twin Cities: Framework and Global Practices, 2022). The authors have discussed a
4+ 5 framework. The 4 stands for elements like infra, data sources, capacity, target domains. And the 5
elements stand for the supporting elements like strategy, the main stakeholders, finance, standards, and
cybersecurity techniques.
The Boston’s urban planners use ArcGIS Urban to include several pieces of data, such as building
footprint, height, and location, explore various scenarios, and achieve their goals—in this example, reduc-
ing the amount of shadows thrown on the park.(Soward, E., & Li, J. (2021). (Triantafilou, J. T.,2021).
A dashboard is created by New York City for its Vision Zero programme, displays crucial metrics
for pedestrian safety using data from sources and IoT devices like traffic sensors, intelligent cameras,
and pedestrian traffic tracking integrated into a geospatial context. Using predictive analytics and real-
time traffic collision monitoring, this data assists public safety agencies in managing traffic flow and
enhancing pedestrian safety.
As a result of businesses moving out of the downtown area, the City of Oshkosh, Wisconsin, created a
plan called Imagine Oshkosh to boost business and create investment opportunities. Oshkosh used ArcGIS
tools like Business Analyst and CityEngine to create, assess, and present the Imagine Oshkosh strategy.
The University of Zulia was instrumental in creating a digital twin of Maracaibo, Venezuela’s second-
largest city, using ArcGIS Urban and associated products like CityEngine. The digital twin combines a
wide range of indicators and factors, including data on particular buildings and developments, zoning
and restrictions, transportation patterns, and energy usage. This comprehensive, place-based perspec-
tive aids in assessing the effects of various scenarios and the degree to which plans comply with stated
policy goals.
Singapore, the “smartest city in the world 2019,” has been working on creating its “Virtual Singa-
pore” model, a digital twin that not only maps the unique infrastructure of this modern city-state but
also includes crucial data for future development. As the simulation is used by the municipal council
to determine where to remove architectural barriers, it is said to have aided individuals with decreased
mobility. However, it can also give advice to city planners on a variety of topics, such as how to create
a pneumatic garbage collecting system or how to deploy solar panels effectively.
The digital twin, a 3D FBX model that contains the first three layers of topography, buildings, and
infrastructure, was created using the Unity3D Software (Unity). It allowed crowd simulations with various

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

agent-kind. It included adult and elderly users, road walker’s mobilization related models being formed
using Unity. To create perfect simulations, the smart city data was used from the Dublinked7 website.
The city’s multidisciplinary modeling is made possible by the twining of the model with actual public
data through an open portal. (Gary White. et. al, 2021).
The present chapter focuses on the use of DT in a smart city for smart water management.

SMART CITY: DIGITAL TWIN EXAMPLES

Application of Digital Twin for Smart City: Water Management Applications

Water is the most needed resource for human beings. Water management is a basic requirement for cit-
ies. Water is a natural resource and due to urbanization and industrialization providing quality water for
its citizens is a mandate for most of the Governments.

Figure 2. Digital twin in smart city for smart water management

Smart Water Supply Management

The Indian Government initiative of Smart Cities is based on smart infrastructure solutions and services.
Smart water management is one of the basic needs which needs to be addressed. These water management
uses multiple machinery and techniques. Techniques used in these water systems perform supervision
through sensor applied mechanisms. The actual real data acquisition related to water supply, usage of
water, maintenance of the distribution system, managing the entire system requires IoT sensors, and a

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

well-connected network. This data managing, analysis allows for leakage management, water distribution
management, repairs and maintenance etc.
In their paper (Mankad U., Arolkar H, 2022) the authors have proposed the design, proposal, standard-
ization of the system needs to be introduced. Its applications lack a systematic framework of real-world
design, implementation of water meter systems. Authors proposed framework, tested and implemented
prototype. This paper aimed to reduce smart water meter application development work to some extent.
Framework is based on open-source technology. It introduced features like the device-installation and
maintenance, the statistics of water utilization, digital invoice pay, and dispersed data broadcast archi-
tecture. The challenges of smart metering still needs to penetrate to optimum level.
Here if the digital twin technology is implied, it will be the enabler or the trigger to real-time data
capturing, maintenance, tracking of the system. With the tracking of the system it can help to efficiently
manage the distribution of water, the loss due to leakage etc.
Due to high levels of urbanisation, climate change, rising and shifting consumer demands, and de-
pleted water supplies, urban water delivery systems are complex. Aim should be towards sustainable
water supply for fulfilling the increasing consumer demand. For operations intelligent systems help.
Water systems are looking forward to being digitized and sustainable. Water 4.0 is introduced. It
will help water systems, methods, processes and operations to be sustainable. The authors (Mankad
U., Arolkar H, 2022) have discussed important features of water 4.0. They discuss also how water 4.0
applications can improvise water supply system operations. Sustainable operation of municipal water
service is essential, and still there are its challenges and still opportunities in future.

Smart River Water Management

The collection, storage, and recycling of rainfall as well as the upkeep and repair of rivers and treatment
facilities might all be made more effective. SCUBIC – An AI-based software platform to monitor utility
water networks is an IoT System. It supports in improving the functionality of water utilities – A digital
twin can help to keep track of, maintenance, and safety of the treatment plants.
AI and IOT has catered to numerous applications in telecom, network, computing, and embedded
systems. AI and IOT together improvise application productivity with reducing consumption, provision
of real time information. Industry 4.0 application in smart city is discussed. Water consumption opera-
tions for monitoring, tracking models are proposed with an OCR, AI based algorithm, YoLo 4 proposed
as a machine learning model. The aim was to achieve desired results in optimum time. The algorithm
accuracy is ninety-eight percent. (Adedeji K.B.,2022)

Smart City Water Management With Energy Efficiency and Less Carbon Footprint

(Ktari, J. et. A, 2022) in their paper proposed for sustainable development, a water delivery system’s
digital transformation is considered. In this case, a real-time continuous measurement that corresponds
to network state is obtained using an IoT-based smart water network management (SWNM) application.
In order to make the best decisions possible, the data must be continuously gathered, analysed, and wire-
lessly supplied to a remote centre. The Digital Twin programme can help with this in an efficient manner.
Smart cities have a variety of applications like logistics, fleet management etc. IOT can connect a
variety of devices for these system operations. Smart city applications require huge energy consumption,
high cost, high battery life when IOT applications are used for it. IOT device capacity is a challenge. It

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

proposed an algorithm to extend IOT devices battery life called ’LoRa end-nodes’. It has been success-
fully verified on water quality monitoring systems with IOT implementation. It saved sixty two percent of
battery energy. It also carries out carbon footprint analysis and saved eight point six kilograms of annual
carbon emission per node. The IOT implementation here can be with a digital twin, which help to effi-
ciently manage energy as well as quality of water quality monitoring systems. (Philip M.S. et. Al, 2022)

Smart Swimming Pools

IOT is becoming more popular in a number of industries, including the creation of intelligent environ-
ments, remote control, and smart city monitoring. It aims to reduce manual, human efforts for it. Quality
of swimming pool is monitored and controlled by IOT enabled boat. It is lower in cost, uses wireless
sensor, actuators. IOT based boat uses aluminum, mechanical, electric parts and is lightweight. It reduces
manpower utilization at the swimming pool. The IOT boat with net cleans water of swimming pool of
leaves and wastes. It is controlled remotely as an IOT enabled device. Fresh water misuse in routine is a
challenge. Water quality records are required to be maintained, and alert to user when water can have risk.
The aim was to provide water sustainability, water saving and cost effectiveness to user. User can
login remotely from Android mobile having this IOT based application. It has features to manage swim-
ming pool parameters in real time, quick data analysis, parameter-based threshold risk alert indication
to user. These IOT devices are controlled in automated or in manual way. This smart boat can be doing
the work of an assistant security guard at swimming pools, which has been verified, tested and is suc-
cessfully implemented. (Asiri, 2022)
In the coming years, Fresh water management is going to be a challenging area. Facilities like swim-
ming pools need to be managed and the digital twins can help to manage this in terms of water quality,
safety, control etc.

Smart City Flash Flood Management

Ever increasing urban demographics, climatic changes, increasing urban area locations impact urban
water and its management cycle. It causes water deficiencies as well as flood situations due to urbaniza-
tion. Smart city development is hampered by severe climatic disasters, often urban flash floods. Flood
management strategies should be integrated and sustainable for smart city development and performance.
Urban flash floods impact socially, cost wise, infrastructure wise to people’s life and governance of
smart cities. Random, unplanned urban areas cause flash floods, runoffs to be real time managed. Poor
drainage systems, lack of real time marinating technologies is an issue to be solve in smart cities.
Authors (Yereseme A.K,2022) have examined the foundation for planning for smart cities, digital
automations, remote-sensing programmes, and real-time technology. Different urban flood management
techniques are discussed.
Water being a sensitive and is an important requirement of a smart city. Better drainage systems, real
time monitoring systems are challenges to be overcome with smart water systems. Flash floods, which
have been observed happening recurring need to be addressed. The core reasons to resolve them and
manage with the help of systemic drainage systems, planned and monitored development of urban areas
with the help of digital twins can to some extent resolve the issue.

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

Application of Digital Twins in Smart City: Facility

Management and Structural Health Monitoring

In the Digital twin implementation in smart cities, the concepts of GIS and GPS have been widely used.
GIS allows the use of geographic information systems and GPS is the global positioning system along
with BIM, which is the Building Information Modelling. These two technologies can represent the
buildings, people, vehicles and help in building a digital environment of the same. (Jincheng, S. 2022)
The Wired brand labs of IBM showcases a number of facility management strategies using digital
twins. The buildings and other civil infrastructure stood tall all these past years without communication
or to the external world. With Internet of Things (IOT) enabled tracking system and with a sensor net-
work the pulse of the such assets can be monitored for its efficacy including a number of measurements
like power utilization of particular floor in building, are there any leaking in the water system leading to
wastage, how is the elevator system functioning, how many square foot floor areas is under use or guid-
ing the service personnel to the right geolocation of an air conditioner and whom to send the bill post
services etc., can be efficiently managed by implying a digital twin of the building itself. (IBM, 2022)
Buildings and civil structures should have their structural health monitored (Jinecheng, 2022). The
fragility and damage brought on by deterioration, corrosion, etc. present significant measuring issues.
A digital twin and the data it produces can be utilised to offer current status and forecast the building’s
health. Researchers have discussed their usage of a digital twin to monitor the structural health of bridges
(Ye, Cong et al., 2019). Based on real-time data obtained from sensors in the building information
management system, they have examined the strength of the bridges under consideration. (BIM) and,
the underlying physics on the structural strength of the bridges. Using digital twins, the real-time data
that was obtained during the procedure enabled bridge health monitoring. For the example study, they
employed two monitored railroad overpasses in Staffordshire, UK. The heterogeneous nature of data
sources and integrating the collaborative models for simulation needs to be addressed. Authors in (Jiang
et.al., 2021) have clearly distinguished between a digital Twin and BIM and Cyber-Physical System.
(Francisco,et. al.,2020).
Important feature of intelligent security system is to re-identify individual across cameras. In track-
ing and security systems, person should be re identified. Cameras need to track multiple targets. An
individual should be identified uniquely by multiple cameras. From the image sets, best matching
image should be re-identified for any individual with accuracy. Smart bank, smart factory, smart city
construction can be supported with security systems with re-identification. With AI deep learning helps
in re-identification in security systems with unmatched results. Generalization, temporal information,
occluded objects are still not impactful in re identification. Research is ongoing on these challenges. This
research study reviews pros and cons of the deep learning technique application for re-identification.
The flow of the paper includes introducing re-identification, its applications, datasets and assessment
indicators, deep learning basic techniques for re identification. Local features, generative adversarial
networks, video data, and re-ranking are parameters for re-identification parameters categorized with
deep learning. Its comparison is conducted. (Li Q.,et.al, 2022)In spite of multiple proposed networks
to cater re identification systems, are used yet lot of challenges exist still to be solved. These networks
have higher representation capabilities, increased accuracy of individual re identification. Current issues
and future opportunities need to be explored, analyzed, and discussed.
Visualizations, real-time auto monitoring of smart cities with IOT is evident with Industry 4.0. For
smart city monitoring filtering algorithms can be helpful. Visual monitoring, impactful monitoring

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

with cognitive aspects is complex practically. Monitoring techniques are not aligned to human cognitive
system, hence re monitoring is not strong. The authors have studied the innovative ways a human mind
or brain operates with the video surveillance of smart cities. A concept called long term memory as-
sociated with some high reliability object is conceptualized. Likewise, a short term memory associated
with some low reliability object. This concept is used alternatively during the monitoring. It is combined
with stored target appearance attributes. It does not misuse original model in memory due to external
changes in occlusion, motion, clutter etc. The algorithm is fast, tracks the objects in complex scenarios.
(Wang S. et. Al, 2022)Smart city monitor with industry 4.0 based IOT filtering applications are used
with surveillance environments. Its complexity and limited resource constraints are the challenges and
these issues should be solved.
IOT is successfully employed in applications for smart cities such as the smart factory, smart health
monitoring, and smart tracking. Security and Privacy challenges of IOT is major hurdle in its acceptance.
User access authorization in network services with paired network devices smart phone, laptop etc. has
most security issues
This research study, proposes continual behavioural authentication system of IoT devices to optimize
IOT devices battery power and other computational resources. By taking into account the constraints of
IoT devices, such as battery life and other processing resources, this research introduces a magnificent
continuous behavioural authentication system to handle this difficulty. In order to identify dishonest
user behaviour, the suggested authentication model uses machine learning-based techniques to analyse
application usage patterns. The correlation coefficient is additionally utilised for feature ranking. (Kumar
et. al, 2022)
Three different machine learning techniques, including a multi-layer perceptron, radial basis function-
based SVM-SMO, and support vector machine (SVM) with sequential minimal optimization (SMO),
use the ranking features (MLP). A real-world application usage dataset was used for the experimental
research to show how well the suggested continuous behavioural authentication mechanism worked. need
of a secured authorization system to monitor device The digital twins can be incorporated in the health
monitoring, safety, remote tracking of the civil structures like hospitals, old civil structures like bridges,
schools where in any kind of accidents can prove fatal in terms of life loss, asset loss and monetary loss.
The cases discussed above are all the typical, regular cases related to digital twin applications.

DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION

Digital twins have a virtually limitless number of uses and benefits. Digital twins can improve our un-
derstanding of how infrastructure will perform in a number of conditions, such as when facing a natural
disaster, by simulating the interactions between various components. The smart city development with
digital twins can benefit multifolds as some of the solutions, simulations and predictions used from DTs
can enhance their efficiency in city operations. These can very well be utilized in planning future solu-
tions for cities which are environmentally, economically and socially sustainable.
Advancement of DTs call for inter and mutli-disciplinary research and collaboration efforts as we see
a number use cases of DTs for example from trees, roads, water to asset management, building manage-
ment to traffic management to health care, manufacturing and various other domains. DTs therefore
help in improved project visualization and urban planning.

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Digital Twin-Enabled Solutions for Smart City Applications

It can assemble knowledge to enhance city infrastructure. Increasing cooperation among a wide
range of city stakeholders will provide value for cities and inhabitants. Build resilient infrastructure by
anticipating, responding to, and recovering from severe shocks. Get the public involved and establish
a feedback loop. Encourage the use of open data efforts so that others can create, develop, and offer
services using reliable data on city and infrastructure.
Further advancements in DTs will be made possible by data processing and analysis techniques
and technologies. Future research should focus on, among other things, superior latest cloud based IT
services capabilities of enhanced microprocessors, big data analytics, machine learning, artificial intel-
ligence processing, analysis of IoT data, 5G communication, interdependent operations combination
for simulation, modeling, analysis, visualization software, simulation, modeling techniques to reduce
computational complexity.
The threats posed to the physical systems because of its virtual counterpart i.e. a DT, in terms of
information and cybersecurity threats needs to be still worked upon. We need intelligent data driven
solutions to prevent attacks. A number of standards are coming up so that stricter compliance to these
by DTs in our user case will make them robust, reliable and efficient. (Suhail, S.,2022)

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Chapter 3
Issues, Current Challenges,
and Research Directions in
Designing a Smart, Explainable
AI-Based Healthcare Systems
B. S. Rajeshwari
B.M.S. College of Engineering, India

M. Namratha
B.M.S. College of Engineering, India

Jyothi S. Nayak
B.M.S. College of Engineering, India

ABSTRACT
Artificial intelligence has recently gained great importance in healthcare and has played an important
role in the making the lives of patients, doctors, radiologists, clinical laboratories, emergency medi-
cal services, etc., better. Remote health monitoring is possible in less time and low cost for rural areas
where doctors are not available all the time. Assistance is provided to the medical professionals when
required in the time of emergency through deep learning algorithms which is beneficial. The anomalies
in the medical images can be easily detected and predicted with the help of AI, which were impossible
to detect by the human eye, thus adding extra value for the healthcare sector. The lack of specialized
medical professionals and increasing number of patients with lifestyle diseases necessitate the digitiza-
tion for the mundane tasks of healthcare. Explainable AI is important in healthcare sector, where the
consequences of incorrect AI predictions or decisions can be severe.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch003

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

INTRODUCTION

The usage of AI applications has been increasing in recent years especially in the healthcare domain.
Every year, 100,000 hospitalized patients suffer unnecessary harm and as a result 400,000 of them die.
Given this, one of the most exciting medical uses of AI has the potential to improve the diagnosing pro-
cedure (Shuo Tian, Wenbo Yang, Jehane Michael Le Grange, Peng Wang, Wei Huang, Zhewei Ye,2019).
The electronic medical record database contains a vast quantity of patient data, including diagnoses,
prescriptions, and lab results. The patient dataset is analyzed using AI algorithms. AI in the healthcare
sector uses machine learning algorithms and other cognitive disciplines to evaluate medical data and take
action with the intention of foreseeing a specific outcome. It is providing a way to the doctors, nurses,
radiologists, clinical laboratories, researchers, pharmacists, and many other healthcare professionals to
make their decisions and to assist in diagnosing, treatment planning and health management. AI ap-
proaches are increasingly used for molecular biological testing, medical picture recognition, medical
text recognition, and semantic recognition in addition to data analysis. When evaluating patients, the
medical staff can also utilize the research’s findings as a guide.
AI-driven systems in the medical profession build predictive models, identify groups of high-risk
patients, aid doctors in their diagnosis, and understand patterns from vast amounts of health-related
data. Unfortunately, human biases may be present in actual historical data used in the learning process,
which could result in unfair or incorrect choices. The lack of transparency in algorithms’ behavior and
the inability to explain the reasoning behind decisions may limit social acceptance and trust in their use
in a variety of delicate circumstances, which continues to draw criticism. This is why Explainable AI
(XAI) is a hot topic in technology. One of the most hotly contested issues in the use of AI in healthcare
is explain ability (F. Doshi-Velez and B. Kim, 2017).
The XAI intends to offer a collection of machine learning methods that:

• Generate more explicable models while keeping a high level of prediction accuracy.
• Provide users the accuracy which they can rely on and also be able to comprehend the result
obtained.

The healthcare sector has been transformed into a smart healthcare system by using AI approaches
across almost all industries. A couple of cases of the innovations utilized in healthcare nowadays incor-
porate automated surgery, computerized picture conclusion, extortion of location, clinical trial coopera-
tion, drug improvement, precise cancer determination, early discovery of deadly blood infections, adjust
treatment, administration of therapeutic records, and dose mistake decrease.
The Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm has demonstrated to be very successful in tackling
classification issues in many biological disciplines, particularly in bioinformatics. In contrast to logistic
regression, which conforms data to a logistic curve to predict whether or not a binary event will occur,
SVM makes distinctions between two classes once the input data have been processed into a high-dimen-
sional space. The data-driven and model-free nature of the SVM technique may provide it considerable
discriminative potential for classification, particularly when working with small sample sizes and a large
number of variables (high-dimensionality space). The application of this technology has helped recent
developments in automated disease categorization and illness detection methods.
SVM-based techniques can be employed for discerning between individuals with diabetes or prediabe-
tes who have not yet received a diagnosis and those who do. Only straightforward clinical measurements

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

without the need for laboratory tests were employed as the variables to create the SVM models. But a
number of dangers and difficulties are posed by AI systems, including the possibility of patient injuries
due to its systemic flaws, data privacy and security, biases and inequalities in algorithms, exponential
growth of healthcare data, lack of quality medical data and more.
The coronavirus illness 2019 (COVID-19) is brought on by SARS-CoV-2 virus. The bulk of the cities
and countries around the world experienced rapid spread. Direct contact with droplets of breath from
infected individuals is the primary method of SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Both moderate upper respira-
tory tract infection symptoms and highly serious sepsis and shock may be brought on by the illness. In
susceptible groups, especially in the elderly with concomitant conditions, it may result in severe and fatal
consequences. The sparse healthcare resources in the system are severely strained by the rising incidence
of COVID-19 and associated high deaths. Effective tools are needed to increase medical effectiveness in
hospitals and hasten COVID-19 diagnosis, treatment, and surveillance. Studies now underway suggest
artificial intelligence is capable of growing up more successfully than other technologies, analyzing data
more quickly, and even outperforming people in some healthcare-related jobs making it a viable field.
AI’s advantages can be seen in its high object identification sensitivity and specificity, quick reporting,
and consistency of results. By making new inferences from the massive amounts of data generated by
the experiences of many patients, Medical technologies based on artificial intelligence and machine
learning (AI/ML) are intended to raise the standard of care, boost diagnostic precision, decrease possible
mistakes, and forecast result. The most crucial steps to stop the COVID-19 pandemic’s spread are early
diagnosis, precise prognosis, increased surveillance, and efficient therapies. The considerable strain the
pandemic has imposed on the meagre medical resources would be lessened as a result. Numerous reviews
in this area have also been published. Few studies, most of which solely address issues like diagnosis or
treatment, have attempted to systematically evaluate the use of AI for COVID-19 in line with PRISMA.
As a result, the outcomes of these studies are uneven.( M.M. Ahsan, K.D. Gupta, M.M. Islam, S. Sen,
M.L. Rahman, M.S. Hossain, 2020 & R.M. Wehbe et al., 2020)
NLP is supported with huge applications in healthcare system. Rapid text analysis is made possible
by NLP technologies, which generate and compress natural language. Doctors are bale to understand the
medical records in a more accurate fashion by analyzing the results of XAI. NLP in healthcare such as
coding of medical data and monitoring has been explained using XAI (Loh, Hui Wen, Chui Ping Ooi,
Silvia Seoni, Prabal Datta Barua, Filippo Molinari, U. Rajendra Acharya, 2022). In order to maintain a
thorough medical history of the patients, medical coding is often done manually. These manual medical
coding processes are laborious technically and prone to mistakes made by humans. But this is achievable
because to XAI’s explainability.
Online psychological therapies are another area of use. This XAI in NLP aids individuals with men-
tal illnesses who are housebound because of the COVID-19 epidemic or for other personal reasons. A
network model was created to analyse patient text and recognise phrases exhibiting signs of mental ill-
ness, thereby aiding in the diagnosis of a sizable patient population (U. Ahmed, G. Srivastava, U. Yun,
J.C.W. Lin, 2022)
XAI may be very useful in identifying certain disease patterns in biosignals and pictures. Undoubtedly,
the XAI model aids in the categorization of breast cancer and the detection of certain disease patterns
in ultrasound pictures.
Additionally, XAI aids in the analysis of images, data extraction from them, and skin cancer diagnosis.
In their discussion of the XAI approaches currently being developed for application in dermatological
and dermatopathological support systems were evaluated and the efforts being made to ascertain the

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

methods’ applicability in clinical settings (Hauser, Katja, Alexander Kurz, Sarah Haggenmüller, Roman
C. Maron, Christof von Kalle, Jochen S. Utikal, Friedegund Meier, 2022)
In section 1 of this chapter, the architecture of AI based healthcare systems is presented. The advantages
and limitations of an AI based healthcare system are explained in section 2 of the chapter. The section
3 of the chapter covers the effect of AI based health care systems and some of the applications of AI in
the healthcare system. Section 4 elaborates issues, recent advancements in artificial intelligence-based
health services, current challenges and research direction towards designing an optimized AI based
healthcare systems. This gives an intuition for researchers, health professionals as well as designers in
analyzing and designing smart AI based health care systems which is very much necessary in today’s
digital era. Finally section 5 concludes the chapter with the future directions.

Architecture of XAI in Health Care System

The concept of a XAI and AI-based healthcare system is depicted in Figure 1. AI aids researchers,
emergency medical services, radiologists, nurses, patients, and physicians.
AI models often arrives at a result using machine learning algorithms, but the architects of the AI
systems do not fully understand how the algorithm actually reached that result, difficult to understand
and trust for the doctors and other healthcare professionals. XAI, on the other hand develops methodol-
ogy or process to confirm on the results obtained by machine learning and the whole process can be
tracked and also explained. XAI will produce more explainable models. These models will be combined
with the system to interface and the results of the algorithm are reasoned and useful results are collected
which enables doctors, nurses, radiologists, clinical laboratories, researchers, pharmacists, and many
other healthcare professionals to make their decisions and to assist in diagnosing, treatment planning
and health management.

Figure 1. Architecture of XAI in health care system

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

Principles of Explainable AI

The four principles for Explainable AI are as below:

1. AI systems should provide explanations with supporting evidences.

2. Explanations should be meaningful enabling doctors, nurses, radiologists, clinical laboratories,
researchers, pharmacists, and many other healthcare professionals to make their decisions and to
assist in diagnosing and treatment planning. The system must provide several explanations on the
basis of the available user groups.
3. Explanations should be clear and accurate in describing the AI system’s process which helps
healthcare professionals in taking correct decisions.
4. AI systems should operate within its knowledge limits that they were designed for to ensure a
reasonable outcome.

In section 1 of this chapter, the architecture of AI based healthcare systems is presented. The advan-
tages and limitations of an AI based healthcare system are explained in section 2 of the chapter. The
section 3 of the chapter covers the effect of AI based health care systems and some of the applications
of AI in the healthcare system. Finally, section 4 elaborates issues, recent advancements in artificial
intelligence based health services, current challenges and research direction towards designing an opti-
mized AI based healthcare systems. This gives an intuition for researchers, health professionals as well
as designers in analyzing and designing smart explainable AI based health care systems which is very
much necessary in today’s digital era.

PROS AND CONS OF EXPLAINABLE ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

Advantages of XAI Based Healthcare System

XAI has the ability to play significant roles in the healthcare system, despite the fact that the field is still
relatively new (W. Nicholson Price II, 2019). Figure 2 illustrates numerous advantages in the healthcare
system.

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

Figure 2. Benefits of XAI in health care system

 Increased Diagnostic Efficiency -Improved diagnostic performance of XAI in healthcare is one

advantage (Nenad Tomašev et al., 2019). In the medical profession, AI-driven systems build
predictive models and learn patterns, but during the learning process, there may be human biases
that could result in unfair or incorrect conclusions. By revealing the underlying workings of these
opaque models, XAI satisfies the evolving requirements of AI engineering. Performance can be
significantly enhanced with oversight.
 Transparency: The use of AI-driven systems in the medical field may be constrained in many critical
situations due to the lack of transparency in the behavior of algorithms and the inability to explain
the reasons behind the decision-making process. XAI explains the predictions made by machine
learning models, and it also helps us comprehend and evaluate these predictions.
 Reducing Cost of Mistakes – When estimates are off, some industries that require quick decisions,
like healthcare, are severely impacted. Monitoring the outcomes lessens the impact of incorrect
findings and identifies the underlying cause, strengthening the underlying model.
 Reduction in Model biasing -There is strong bias evidence for AI models. For instance, racial and
gender bias in autonomous vehicles, Apple Cards, and Amazon Rekognition. When making deci-
sions, a XAI system lessens the impact of such biased predictions.
 Responsibility - The effectiveness of the system as a whole can be increased by allowing a person
who might be in charge of those mistakes. Predictions made by AI models almost always have
some degree of error.
 Confidence -For more effective use, some vital systems, including medical diagnosis, require a high
level of coding confidence from the user. XAI’s support in giving the predictions along with its
explanation gains the system’s confidence.

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

 Compliance - Companies are under increasing pressure from regulatory bodies to adapt and use XAI
in order to quickly comply with the law. Explainable AI in healthcare can help to build confidence
in an industry and the organizations that demands governance and compliance.
 Increased Model Performance -Understanding the potential flaws is one of the keys to maximiz-
ing performance. It is simpler to enhance models when we have a better knowledge of what the
models are doing and why they occasionally fail. In order to increase user confidence, XAI aids in
identifying biases in the data and model defects. It aids in confirming the predictions for bettering
models and for developing fresh perspectives on the issue at hand.
 Reduces Costs and Resourceful -With AI, routine tasks like diagnosis may frequently be completed
at a small fraction of their original cost. AI, for instance, can search through millions of photographs
for medical symptoms. It eliminates the expensive manual labor required. With a high level of pre-
diction accuracy and more understandable outcomes, XAI helps human healthcare professionals
treat patients more quickly and efficiently, resulting in fewer admissions, longer wait times, and
fewer bed requirements.
 Patient Care - By quickly scanning through data, obtaining reports, and directing patients for ad-
ditional actions, XAI can assist prevent the typical misunderstanding in healthcare situations. XAI
uses a vast body of medical knowledge to assist healthcare professionals in providing patients with
impartial and ethical care.

Limitations in AI Based Healthcare System

 In explainable AI, sometimes some things are impossible to explain or difficulty in understanding
the explanations as they get more complex.
 XAI gives justification to the decisions developed by the model without interpreting the model directly
which leads to wrong diagnosis and disparate treatment.
 Explainable AI occasionally leaves out key details about how a model generates a forecast. It does not
describe the decision-making process; it only discusses the effect on model projections. Workers
are then forced to choose between an accurate, uninterpretable model and an inaccurate, interpre-
table model.
 Evaluating the trade-offs between “truly explainable and transparent AI” is another important aspect
of an explainable AI. Intellectual property would no longer serve as a competitive advantage if an
AI platform’s whole internal workings were made open to the public.
 Also, recent research has found many limitations in the gradient-based method.

The Process of XAI

The steps followed during the XAI process are as follows:

(a) Because it is believed that XAI will be useful for system enhancements in the future. As a result,
the following are the first stages needed for the XAI process:

Pre-processing: This phase describes data cleansing, imputation and feature analysis. Data imputa-
tion is the use of replacement values to fill in the gaps left by missing data, whereas data cleaning is the

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

management of inaccurate or not compelte datasets. In the instance of SHapley Additive exPlanations
(SHAP), a game theoretic method for improved prediction outcomes, the top dominant characteristics
are identified. (Marzyeh Ghassemi, Luke Oakden-Rayner, Andrew L Beam, 2021)

(b) Methodology: The model is especially created for the development and adjustment of machine
learning or deep learning. There are several machine learning techniques, such as naive bayes,
linear regression, decision trees, support vector machines (SVM), etc., while neural networks are
utilised to simulate human brains by offering a number of algorithms for identifying correlations
within the dataset (D. Wang, Q. Yang, A. Abdul and B. Y. Lim, 2019 & A. Holzinger, C. Biemann,
C. S. Pattichis and D. B. Kell, 2017). Similar ideas are covered by interpretable deep learning, but
it examines data processing at each layer, assisting the designer in managing data flow and internal
mathematical operations. Additionally, the layers may be built up by choosing the activation func-
tions, max pooling, fully linked classification, and feature learning via convolution, among other
options.
(c) Explanation: To understand the significance and actions done by the algorithm, this phase explicitly
explains each choice. The explanation gives thorough justification for every choice made throughout
the model, including preprocessing, prediction method, classification, evaluation, and conclusion.
The explanations that make up XAI’s core content help the end user, industry experts, or clients
accept the deployed system more readily.
(d) Re-evaluation: Feedback to differentiate the human results from the obtained system results is
incorporated. At the end, user engages with the system by giving the appropriate input on each
choice and set of parameters, which can then be evaluated successfully by re-configuration in a
subsequent version. As a result, the user friendly feature is and can boost the future iteration of the
training data and weights augmentation.

APPLICATIONS OF AI BASED HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

 Bed Side Sensors: By utilizing XAI approaches to explain how an AI system came to a particular
conclusion, it is possible to increase openness of how AI systems function and trust in them. This
results in increased transparency of healthcare equipment.
 X-Ray machines: Result tracing is more efficient since the explanations generated by XAI techniques
can be utilized to track the factors that affected the AI system to forecast an occurrence.
 Managing Medical Records and Other Data: Data management is where artificial intelligence and
digital automation are most frequently used, because gathering and analyzing data is the first stage
in providing healthcare (such as medical records and other historical data). Robots gather, archive,
convert, and track data to offer quicker, more trustworthy access.
 Doing Repetitive Jobs: Robots can perform regular tasks like data input, X-rays, CT scans, and test
analysis more rapidly and accurately. The radiology and cardiology departments must analyze a
lot of data, which can be challenging and time-consuming. Future radiologists and cardiologists
should concentrate on cases that require human supervision and are the most challenging.

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

 Treatment Design: Systems with artificial intelligence have been developed to evaluate data, in-
cluding clinical judgment, outside research, and notes and reports from a patient’s file, to assist in
selecting the best, most individualized treatment plan.
 Digital Consultation: UK apps like Babylon employ artificial intelligence to offer medical con-
sultations based on user medical histories and standard medical procedures. Users submit their
symptoms through the app, which uses speech recognition to compare them against a database of
diseases. Then, after taking into account the user’s medical background, Babylon provides a sug-
gested course of action.
 Virtual Nurses: The firm Sense.ly created Molly, a virtual nurse in order to help people, monitor
patients’ conditions and follow up on treatments in between doctor appointments. With a focus
on chronic conditions, the initiative supports patients using machine learning. Boston Children’s
Hospital created an app for Amazon Alexa in 2016 that provides parents of sick children with
fundamental health information and guidance. The app responds to queries regarding prescription
drugs and whether certain symptoms necessitate seeing a doctor.
 Medication Management: The National Institutes of Health created the AiCure app to monitor a
patient’s medication use. Together, AI and the webcam on a smartphone can help patients manage
their condition by automatically confirming that they are taking their meds. The people with seri-
ous medical conditions, people who routinely disobey medical advice, and participants in clinical
research are the most regular users.
 Drug Creation: Drug development for clinical trials can take over ten years and cost billions of
dollars. If this procedure could be accelerated and made more widely available, the world might
change. An artificial intelligence (AI) system was employed to look for current pharmaceuticals
that could be altered to treat the illness during the most recent Ebola virus outbreak. Despite the
fact that studies of this kind often take months or years, the algorithm discovered two drugs that
potentially reduce Ebola infectivity in just one day.
 Precision Medicine: In order to find mutations and connections to disease, genetics and genomics
analyze DNA data. A person’s genetic makeup can be used to anticipate potential health problems,
and AI-powered body scans can also identify cancer and vascular diseases at the early stages (A.
Holzinger, C. Biemann, C. S. Pattichis and D. B. Kell, 2017).
 Health Monitoring: Heart rate and activity levels can be tracked with wearable health monitors from
FitBit, Apple, Garmin, and other manufacturers. The user can be encouraged to exercise more
by providing this information to doctors (and AI systems) so they can learn more about patient
requirements and behaviors (Noseworthy PA, et al., 2019 & Bonner C, Bell K, Jansen J, Glasziou
P, Irwig L, Doust J, et al., 2018)
 Healthcare System Analysis: Medical bills in the Netherlands are almost entirely computerized.
The data is combed through by a Dutch company using AI to identify ineffective processes, bad
medical judgements, and potentially preventable patient hospitalisations.
 Patient Readmission: Patient readmission prediction process uses Deep Learning Techniques such
as Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) since they can capture complex patterns in healthcare
system. To overcome the challenge of interpretation of the deep learning techniques, researchers
have developed a variety of explainers that can provide explanations for the predictions made by
deep learning models. Few commonly used explainers for patient readmission prediction include
LIME, SHAP, DICE, and ANCHORS.

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

CURRENT CHALLENGES, POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS, AND RESEARCH

DIRECTIONS TOWARDS AI BASED HEALTHCARE SYSTEM

This section discusses current obstacles to developing intelligent AI-based healthcare systems, includ-
ing the risk of patient injuries caused by AI system flaws, data accessibility, integrations, security con-
cerns, privacy concerns, biases and inequalities in algorithms, exponential growth of healthcare data,
a lack of high-quality medical data, and more. It elaborates on the problems and potential remedies for
handling the dangers of AI-based healthcare. Also noted and presented are research directions for the
aforementioned problems. This provides knowledge that researchers, designers, and other experts can
use to design intelligent AI-based healthcare system.
Artificial Intelligence is a very popular technology to analyze the numerous picture modalities utilized
in healthcare. The capacity to analyze has been further improved by deep learning, which automatically
created features from the image data. Deep learning models typically target a single disease and require
discrete instantiation and retraining for additional diseases. As a result, each setting has a profusion of
specialized models. The task-specific models may not extrapolate or interpolate in the task context, thus
not possible to adapt these models to new diseases with domain change. The models need a huge quantity
of data to train, but there isn’t much of it available in the healthcare industry, and gathering that data
is also a labor-intensive process. There is a critical need for universal, moldable, AI-based models for
smart health care that can function for all types of medical issues. These models should be too general
to be useful for any ailment. Future trends in the AI-based healthcare system may include cost-effective
neuroimaging, particularly for stroke patients.
Patient-specific clinical aids: In order to solve a Precision Health problem, patient-specific prostheses
like implants, surgical aids, etc. may need to be tested before being made available to patients. Surgical
aids will be designed and turned into dependable, high-quality products through a phased approach that
includes designing, prototyping, and validation. Using artificial intelligence-based architecture, the entire
process may be visualized and modeled.
The earlier healthcare age faced difficulties in combating communicable diseases. Non-communicable
diseases (NCDs), which is also known as chronic diseases, have recently taken the lead, and have a
protracted duration and a slow pace of progression.
The high cost of medical care and persistent chronic illnesses have greatly increased society’s finan-
cial burden. The prevention and treatment of chronic diseases are still urgently needed in every country
today, but especially in low- and middle-income nations. The rehabilitation center’s use of the AI-based
smart healthcare system for monitoring, remedial action, and assistive living is significant.
The expense of therapy is the major issue for cancer sufferers. Drug and infusion expenses make up
the majority of treatment costs. The cost resulting from hospital in-patient fees makes up the majority
of the expense. By shifting patients to lower-cost care locations, such as from a crowded metropolis to a
second-tier town for the same drug’s infusion or to undergo radiotherapy, this is promoting distributed
cancer care. To provide cost-effective yet high-quality care, these issues require technological advance-
ment and process adaptation. Moving chemotherapy infusions from in- and out-patient settings, doctor’s
offices, and hospitals to private homes has been a significant cost-cutting measure. Home infusion and
shifting care are an emerging trend that is advantageous to everyone. Home infusion can be performed
in community clinics, hospitals, and primary care institutions in impoverished countries. In order to
transmit knowledge to primary care facilities, the proposal searches for approaches to create forecast-
ing models for oncology patients’ home infusions and monitoring. Create a digital twin to predict risk,

47

Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

identify cancer patients who might benefit from home infusions, and determine what actions should be
taken to remotely monitor them following treatment (Noseworthy PA, t al., 2019).
Device may produce patient-specific summaries. Chronic disease patients frequently go through
protracted multimodal treatments that involve numerous rounds of diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring
interactions with various healthcare professionals. Each of these interactions leads in clinical reports and
notes, which together form a historical account of the disease’s course, its treatments, and its outcomes.
However, as the patient trip lengthens, so does the cognitive load placed on the clinician, who must review
the patient’s history before making treatment recommendations. Doctors around the world have noted
that a significant obstacle to patient treatment is a lack of time for reading patient reports. Therefore,
computer aid is absolutely necessary to enable clinicians to manage the patient journey effectively. One
method of offering computer assistance is to utilize AI/NLP techniques to provide a succinct summary
of each clinical report so that the doctor can decide whether or not to pay attention to a particular report
right away. By employing AL/NLP algorithms to generate succinct summaries of clinical reports, you
can give oncologists, cardiologists, and endocrinologists AI assistance to help them traverse the patient’s
clinical reports effectively.
The use of AI in the healthcare industry demands a lot of precise results, endorsement by medical
experts, and a lot of stakeholders. Despite being widely employed in other fields, deep learning models
are still in their infancy in the healthcare industry due to the black box problem. The “black box” problem
refers to deep learning algorithms’ inability to explain how they arrive at their conclusions.
When developing AI-based smart healthcare, some of the challenges that we look at include the risks
of patient injuries due to AI system errors, data availability, data integration, data annotation, security
issues, privacy issues, biases and inequities in algorithms, the exponential growth of healthcare data,
the lack of high-quality medical data, and other issues.
While AI may offer certain benefits, there are also a lot of drawbacks as well:
Accidents and mistakes. The most apparent risk is that occasionally malfunctioning artificial intel-
ligence (AI) systems could put patients in danger or cause other problems for the healthcare system. The
patient can suffer if an AI system selects one patient over another for a hospital room based on incor-
rect predictions of who will benefit the most, misses a malignancy during a radiological test, or gives
the wrong prescription. The bulk of injuries are brought on by medical errors in the current healthcare
system, even in the absence of artificial intelligence. Errors made by machines and people can differ in
at least two ways. Machine and human errors can differ in at least two ways. First, different responses
from patients and doctors may be elicited when injuries are caused by software as opposed to human
error. A single AI system’s defect might hurt thousands of patients instead of just the few people affected
by a single provider’s error if AI technologies are widely adopted.
A few examples of sources used to train AI systems are electronic health records, pharmaceutical
records, insurance claims records, and consumer-generated data like activity tracker or purchase history.
These sources provide the necessary quantities of data. Various platforms typically use scattered data.
Even without the aforementioned diversity, patients frequently move insurance plans and providers,
which results in data being spread across numerous systems and formats. Due to this fragmentation, data
collection becomes more expensive, the dataset is less comprehensive, and there is a greater chance that
the data will be erroneous. It also restricts the types of companies that can create efficient health-care AI.
Privacy concerns. There are more threats to privacy. Developers collect this information from a lot
of patients since they need big datasets (Ashu et al., 2021; Hussain et al., 2021). Several legal disputes
regarding the exchange. Some consumers may worry that their privacy would be violated by this data

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

collecting, which has raised privacy issues in response to the data interchange between big health institu-
tions and AI businesses (Nenad Tomašev et al., 2019). Due to AI’s capacity to anticipate patient-specific
information that has never been given to the algorithm, privacy may be violated in yet another way.
Actually, this is a usual goal for AI in the healthcare industry. For instance, even if a person has never
stated having Parkinson’s disease, an AI system may recognize them by the movement of a computer
mouse. (or were ignorant). Particularly if the AI system’s judgment was made public and disclosed to
third parties like banks or life insurance firms, patients would regard this as an invasion of their privacy
(D. Wang, Q. Yang, A. Abdul and B. Y. Lim, 2019 & A. Holzinger, C. Biemann, C. S. Pattichis and D.
B. Kell, 2017).
Prejudice and injustice. AI in healthcare has issues with bias and equity. Since AI systems learn
from the data, they use to train themselves, they can include biases in the data. For instance, the result-
ing AI systems will know less about and treat patients from populations who do not frequently attend
academic medical centers-less well-if the vast majority of the data used to develop AI systems is obtained
in academic medical institutions. When encounter notes are transcribed by a source who belongs to a
racial or gender group that is underrepresented in training data, similar to the preceding scenario, AI
systems for speech recognition may perform poorly (M. T. Ribeiro and C. Guestrin, 2016).
Training of AI systems on accurate, representative data doesn’t guarantee an unbiased output as the
built-in biases and disparities in the healthcare system may still lead to problems (S. M. Lundberg and
S.-I. Lee, 2017). Even though the recommendation to prescribe lesser doses of analgesics to African-
American patients is driven by systemic bias rather than biological reality, an AI system that learns from
health-system records may someday learn to do so. In contrast to biological truth, white patients are
prescribed pain medicine more frequently than African-American patients (S. M. Lundberg and S.-I. Lee,
2017), a practice that is founded on systematic bias. By providing fewer resources to patients who are
seen by healthcare systems to be less attractive or profitable for a variety of reasons, resource-allocation
AI systems may lead to inequality.
Repositioning professionally. Change in the medical industry is one of the longer-term concerns.
Some medical careers, notably radiology, are anticipated to experience major change given that a large
portion of their labor can now be automated. Some academicians are concerned that as AI grows more
prevalent, human capacity and knowledge may deteriorate. As a result, medical staff could be unable
to spot and fix AI system errors and enhance medical knowledge (D. Wang, Q. Yang, A. Abdul and B.
Y. Lim, 2019).
The erroneous idea of Nirvana. There must be one more threat included. AI has the potential to
greatly advance medical technology. According to the nirvana fallacy, issues arise when people make
decisions and evaluate new options in comparison to perfection rather than the current circumstance.
Healthcare AI is in danger and facing challenges. The current approach, however, also has some serious
drawbacks. Inaction runs the risk of sustaining the status quo due to AI’s limitations.
There are many approaches, that might address potential health care AI issues:
Data generation and availability. A number of concerns are raised by the challenging task of
gathering high-quality data while protecting patient privacy. The government’s provision of the infra-
structure required for data collection, such as standards for electronic health records and direct funding
of projects for high-quality data collection in health systems lacking the required resources, is crucial
for a certain set of viable solutions. A different strategy is to make direct investments in the creation
of superior datasets. Both the US-based All of Us project and the UK-based BioBank project make an

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Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

effort to compile thorough health care data on a sizable population. Maintaining patient confidence and
engagement for these vast databases will definitely require setting up appropriate privacy protections.
Excellent guidance. Controlling the quality of AI systems will make it possible to reduce the danger
of patient harm. Several commercially accessible medical care The Food and Drug Administration is
responsible for monitoring AI products (FDA). The group has previously approved the distribution of a
number of devices and is currently discussing new rules for the use of AI in the healthcare industry (A.
Holzinger, C. Biemann, C. S. Pattichis and D. B. Kell, 2017).
Participation and training of the providers. The introduction of AI will likely impact how health-
care employees are employed. One benefit is that doctors and other healthcare providers will have more
time to speak with patients one-on-one and provide better, more individualized treatment (Noseworthy
PA, et al., 2019). Service providers would have to deal with an abundance of confusing predictions and
suggestions from rival algorithms in a less perfect future.
Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) is booming much in medicine. But there are some weakness
in designing a XAI based Healthcare Systems. Occasionally the input information and models are too
intricate, composite, and multidimensional to be well explained by a straightforward correlation between
the two. Examples include models created to assess audio, visual, and textual data. In these situations,
the emphasis has been on analyzing the model’s decision-making process to determine how much each
component of the picture contributed to a particular choice. Despite being well-liked by the healthcare
system, they are seen as problematic in the larger explainability literature. The weakness was in dealing
with uncertainties in the real world. Day by day applications in the field of healthcare system became
increasingly successful, but at the same time becoming increasingly opaque.
The threat associated with Explainable Artificial Intelligence’s development is another. Profession-
als frequently have profound understanding of the nature of society issues and the best course of action
to address them. If the experts are replaced with the new Explainable Artificial Intelligence, their tacit
knowledge would be gone. The Explainable Artificial Intelligence approaches may not always work well
for the issues they were not intended to address. XAI might not always be the best option for automating
decision-making. Prior to implementing any remedies, it is usually best to assess the problem and make
an appropriate choice (Marzyeh Ghassemi, Luke Oakden-Rayner, Andrew L Beam, 2021). However,
the tremendous amount of data being processed means it’s not without its pitfalls, particularly when it
comes to decision making for complex tasks.
Sometimes the nature of explanations provided through XAI may overlook important information
which leads to wrong decision making by the professionals in the healthcare system (Petch, Jeremy,
Shuang Di, and Walter Nelson, 2022).

CONCLUSION

The chapter will assist designers, professionals, and researchers in creating intelligent health-care sys-
tems that are optimized. The chapter goes into detail on the design of an AI-based healthcare system.
Applications, benefits, and drawbacks of an AI-based healthcare system are examined. Researchers,
designers, and professionals can gain insight into the current research difficulties, potential solutions,
and direction towards developing an AI-based smart healthcare system from the information provided.

50

Issues, Research Directions in Designing AI-Based Healthcare System

FUTURE DIRECTION

This chapter discusses the role of XAI research currently in healthcare, architecture of XAI in pros and
cons, issues, challenges and XAI in some healthcare applications. As said, the XAI models that are now
being developed may recognize patient inconsistencies and provide an explanation for them. The abil-
ity to extract critical clinical data for effective patient data recording could greatly streamline hospital
workflow, allowing nurses or other healthcare professionals to concentrate more on other crucial tasks
while handing off all the routine tasks to AI models. Future systems that enable real-time monitoring
of irregularities in certain physiological signals like ECGs, might be created using XAI models. Simi-
lar to how wearable technology allows for continuous monitoring of a user’s health, XAI can identify
abnormal trends in biosignals. As a result, it is useful to assess individuals who had a heart attack or
stroke. There presently is little XAI research on critical text detection in clinical notes and 1D biosignal
abnormality explanations. Researchers could draw attention on these two areas and promote healthcare
system to a larger extent. Additionally, researchers could focus on how XAI may affect dermatologists’
practises related to the identification of skin cancer. It lacks a methodical and thorough assessment of
its applicability in this case.
A comprehensive cloud system that supports both hospital and ambulatory applications is being
developed via more research. Researchers might endeavor to advance community healthcare and the
Internet of Health Things’ (IoHT) sustainability in hospital and outpatient settings.

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Chapter 4
Adaptability of IoT and Cloud
for Enabling the Smart City:
Applications and Challenges

Archana Sharma
IIMT College of Engineering, Greater Noida, India

Prateek Jain
Amity University, Noida, India

ABSTRACT
The ‘smart city’ notion places a lot of emphasis on using information and communication technologies
to boost connectedness and quality of life and effectiveness of various local authorities (ICT). Smart
city services stimulate the practice of cloud- and IoT-based services that have included actual web ap-
plications that make use of sensors, smart phones, and RFIDs. Cloud platforms besides the IoT persist
the two ICT models that are currently dealing the greatest influence on the Industrial IoT as well. Both
concepts significantly influence the way it has developed and put into practice applications and smart
city solutions. The first phase of this study highlights key features of IoT and Cloud along with smart city
applications. Further in the second phase the research investigates the confluence of cloud platforms
with IoT to build up the smart city besides various challenges associated in smart city implementation.
Lastly, the research focuses on the smart cities’ requirement for cloud-based IoT applications and pro-
vides the future direction in adaptability of smart city.

INTRODUCTION

Smart city aims in improving the niche of services provided to citizens while lowering operating expenses
for the utilization of government money by the public sector more efficiently. Cities are required to col-
lect information about their surroundings, infrastructure, events, and residents to serve smart services.
Its primary facilitators and drivers are the IoT & Cloud computing. An IoT is a collective global IT
platform that connects networked objects and unified networks & is a critical concept in the developing

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch004

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

internet. Virtualization comes in two flavors: ones that involve and don’t involve people. It gets rather
taxing managing such an excess of data. As a result, IoT applications are widely employed in diversified
industries which includes education, healthcare, agriculture, and smart cities. It uses various approaches
to collect cloud and sensor data, which is then cleaned, processed, and analyzed. Smart cities tend to
use many digital and physical devices for data collection. A city’s performance is enhanced because of
the data these sensors gather, and the information received from such devices is successfully used to
manage resources, assets, and revenues, among other things.
Cloud-based IoT apps may enable smart cities by processing and analyzing data from users, devices,
and various sources for the management and monitoring of water supply systems, energy utilities, waste
management, criminal detection, security systems, competency, digital libraries, healthcare facilities,
environmental monitoring, traffic services, and other opportunities. IoT thus enables the development
of fully novel smart city facilities besides the transformation of current city services into smart services.
This is made possible through Big Data, IoT & Cloud for various enhancements. By providing public
cloud services, service providers enable third parties to apprise the IoT environment and integrate IoT
data into IoT-enabled electrical devices.

Fundamental Layers in Smart Cities Operations

• Technological Layer: Numerous connected devices and sensors that are utilized to offer many
services.
• Dedicated Requests: Information systems utilized by people and experts for enhancing its
operations.
• Usage of Application: The installation and its usage by authorized users within the city.

The subsequent development of internet-based computing is cloud computation. As soon as intelli-

gent devices leave the cloud computing environment, the IoT has the potential to increase throughput,
performance, and efficiency. Smart cities are metropolitan places that systematically strive to attain
environmental sustainability, urban system authority, better public health, knowledge development,
and network-driven advancement. Besides communication technology, smart cities also observe for
themselves the direction of records. ICT resources can be transferred across a network because of cloud
computing, the upcoming stage of internet-based computing. Some advantages of cloud infrastructure
for IoT include increased payload, productivity, and performance, the ways in which electronic packag-
ing can be created, sold, and distributed thanks to cloud computing. Considering this, IoT and cloud are
now very close to new internet technologies that are compatible with IoT systems. Today’s connected,
diversified devices number in the billions, and they generate a tone of data. They consist of various items,
including as sensors, actuators, vehicles, telephones, smart gadgets, and home and office equipment.
Problems that arise in a dynamic, shared environment primarily emphasizes the IoT & it refers to a
broad category that includes a vast range of adaptable and unusual devices with limited storage, power,
and performance capabilities. IoT system development is impeded by these constraints, which include
complex issues like compatibility, efficiency, full functionality, and availability. The cloud provides shared
resources, which stand out for their accessibility, affordability, and aesthetic appeal. These resources
include networks, storage, computers, and software. This platform may utilize cloud-based resources
and services for data collection, transport, processing, and storage. It may also use cloud resources and
services to collect, transmit, search for, examine, and store data generated by complex situations. The

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

various sectors like commercial & public one’s have also helped in embracing the IoT by means of urgent
delivery, public transportation, public safety, and city lighting.
With the expansion of IoT, cities are connecting more frequently, which enables them to increase the
dependability and taking into account how well the infrastructure works, besides that the emergency
services’ responsiveness. With the usage of smart infrastructure like smart parking, smart transportation,
and smart health, the IoT has raised the standard of living for their residents. It has become a common
fixture in many households rather than just being used to make cities smarter.
The first section of the chapter highlights the key features of IoT, Cloud and Big Data as well as their
relationship. The research highlights the various smart city applications and focus towards the problems
associated with Smart City implementation. The second section of the chapter suggests the smart city
implementation using Cloud Based IoT. An IoT can get the benefits from improved cloud infrastructure
payload, performance, and efficiency. Section 3 highlights about the problems faced in the smart city
implementation. Section 4 about the suggestions in the smart city context. Lastly, the research proposes the
future direction of smart implementation with emerging technologies and conclusion in section 5 and 6.

LITERATURE REVIEW

IoT

It is a growing network with sensors and computer devices connected together with embedded technology
for gathering and exchanging data. The IoT includes plenty of intelligent devices that have been given
unique personalities (Moustafa, 2021). The ability for physical smart objects to gather and exchange
data is enabled by a vast network of these objects, including gadgets, sensors, transporters, and buildings
connected to software, electronics, hardware, and networks. For the operation of an IoT network the
management of unique identities is crucial (Whitmore et al, 2015). IoT networks must offer coupling links
among their distinct identities because they are task-oriented. Due to IoT- enabled devices, connected
smart items may be recognized from one another and remotely managed by the current system, which
results in improved accuracy, increased productivity, and favorable financial outcomes. The embedded
software makes every object distinct and recognizable (Malik, V., & Singh, S. 2019). The adoption of
mobile based devices and international services grew significantly in the earlier decade due to the enor-
mous advancements in remote communication technologies.
The opportunity of connecting the real world as well as the cybernet world has, however, grown, and
cyber-physical systems has been increased. (Conti et al., 2012). The phenomenon of “cyber-physical
systems” users in an era of embedded ICT in which computation and network interaction coexist with
physical processes. These systems manage and control their dynamic forces in order to be effective,
reliable, adaptable, and more secure (Zaman et al., 2015; Barro-Torres et al., 2012). Digital environ-
ment possesses the information that simulates physical processes is transferred, produced, and used, for
instance, data gathered by various sensors. However, by using input feedback loops such as actuators,
this information may also affect the physical processes (Jameer et al., 2018).

Characteristics of the IoT

Figure 1 highlights the various characteristics of IoT.

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Figure 1. IoT key characteristics

Massive scale: Compared to the various internet-connected IoT nodes currently in use, the count
of IoT nodes that will require management and connection will be many orders of magnitude higher. It
will be necessary to manage the information produced and analyze it for application-related objectives.
The key factors are content management and content semantics.
Security: Customers should not overlook security due to IoT advantages. As IoT senders and receiv-
ers, they should prepare for security. Both the security of client information and indeed the security of
their health are protected by all this.
Dynamic changes: The status of a device can vary depending on things like sleep and awareness,
connectivity and disconnection, & IoT node information like speed and position. Additionally, the IoT
node count is subject to dynamic fluctuation.
Connectivity: IoT may be used more widely and with more devices. Interoperability on the network,
which offers the similar capabilities for accessing and producing content, facilitates access.
Things-related services: IoT can offer many things-related services within the limitations of things.
Both global & data world procedures will be involved for providing services connected to things within
the limits of things itself.

IoT Architecture

It constitutes many different parts, including actuators, protocols, sensors, cloud services, etc. It often
includes dissimilar layers that permit administrators to observe, monitor, and keep up the system in a
consistent manner. It necessitates a strategy for organizational integration, like any system design plan
besides systems already in place at your business.

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

5 Levels in the architecture of IoT

• Things
• Sensors
• Internet Gateways
• Edge IT
• Cloud Plarform

These are shown in below figure 2:

Figure 2. IoT architecture’s five levels

IoT connectivity technologies

There are presently several IoT based applications & commonly used IoT networking protocols. Choos-
ing the connectivity technology according to the suitability of applications is crucial.

Important Considerations While Selecting Connectivity With IoT

IoT connectivity parameters include power consumption, range, dependability, bandwidth, cost, and
scaling qualities. Certain decisions require a certain environment, such as one with less electromagnetic
interference, and are utterly useless in other settings, such as the underground or the open air. When
selecting the best response to an IoT situation, keep the following things in mind:
Area Coverage: An access card’s range might be a few inches, while an agricultural drone’s range
might be a few miles.
Battery Usage: The majority of IoT-based devices are not constantly plugged in or near a charging
station. Some, like field-installed soil sensors, are dispersed over a large region and require a robust,
almost indestructible battery alternate for the data segments transmission without battery replacement.
Bandwidth: It implies the data transmission between modules in the sensor besides the cloud stor-
age. Its connecting means range from those that offer very high bandwidth, like WiFi, to those that only
allow minimal data can be sent periodically, like every few hours.
Cost: several variables, including the data volume.

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Conditions: As was mentioned at the outset, some connectivity solutions operate without issue in
the presence of obstructions, noise, interference.
The IoT components facilitate the smooth interconnection of IoT devices for delivering services that
are smarter, safer, and better. The IoT’s components are made up of 70% software and 30% hardware.
Relevant hardware devices are shown in the below table 1 (Sehrawat & Gill, 2019).

Table 1. IoT hardware and its application

Sl.
Sensor Description Applications
No
This device is generally used to
Temperature Sensor
measure heat energy by detecting
Ex: Thermocouples, Resistor A/C control, refrigerators, agriculture, health
1 an environment temperature
temperature detectors, sector and manufacturing processes.
change in some particular form and
thermistors etc.
converting it for user or device.
It can determine whether an object
is nearby and its characteristics by
Proximity sensor
detecting its presence or absence.
Ex: Capacitive sensor, The retail industry, parking availability in
2 Additionally, object’s properties
photoelectric sensors, ultrasonic stadiums, mall or airports.
can be translated into machine- or
sensors
It makes use of comprehensible
formats for end users.
a pressure sensor that transforms
Manufacturing, Water/ Heating system
3 Pressure sensor Ex: Pirani gauge pressure readings into electrical
maintenance.
signals.
This sensor measures water quality
Water Quality Sensor
4 and iron monitoring in distribution Waste water management
Ex: Organic carbon sensors.
systems of water.
To detect chemical changes in air
Chemical sensor Controlling processes, detecting incendiary
5 or liquid, chemical sensors are
Ex: Nano rod sensor devices, and identifying radioactive materials
used.
Gas sensor The utilization od Gas sensors may
Ex: carbon monoxide sensor, be to detect changes in quality of
6 Manufacturing & agriculture
gas detector, hygrometer, air air with presence of various gasses
pollution sensor similar to chemical sensors.

Cloud Basics

Large mainframe computers were first used by businesses in the 1950s, but purchasing a computer
for every user was prohibitively expensive leading to a creation of a method known as time sharing in
1960’s to utilize the central mainframe’s expensive processing time more effectively. Cloud computing
has developed and expanded into a broad range of services and tools intended to meet virtually any
imaginable corporate need.
Computing services — including servers of computer resources, such as storage, processing capabili-
ties, databases, network, analytics, machine learning, and software, by utilizing the internet. No need to
purchase and maintain on-premise physical IT infrastructure by companies because they may outsource
these resources and get the computing assets whenever they’re needed by them. Economy of scale is of-

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

fered, as well as flexible resources and quicker innovation. The modernization of data and IT is a direct
result of many businesses’ cloud migrations.
In this computing, one has access to a pool of shared computer resources (servers, storage, programmes,
and so forth). Resource scaling can be increased or decreased for the optimum resource usage. It is man-
aged by the CSP and is operated as a virtual computing environment with a deployment architecture
that varies as per the data volume you wish to store and who has access to the infrastructure. Since the
software does not need to be installed locally on the PC, cloud computing gives platform independence.
Consequently, Cloud Computing is enabling the mobility and collaboration of our business applications.
It uses the TCP/IP protocol for data maintenance as well as applications(Manogaran, 2018, Humayun,
2020).. An application is virtual which contains all the applications & components which are required
with a good operating system(Sharma & Roy., 2010).

Cloud Services and Cloud Distribution Models

It describes the particular sort of cloud computing environment based on the Cloud access, scale, and
control. It also specifies the connections between users and infrastructure. It has various models as
mentioned below:
Public cloud: It is an internet-based cloud infrastructure service that is made open for general public
or important business sectors. It is built on the cloud architecture, where a CSP who is the owner makes
availability of resources like apps and storage in either free or paid manner. The public cloud can be
less secure due to its accessibility.
Private cloud: It’s an infrastructure that is maintained internally or by another organization, hosted
inside or outside, and is only used by one business. In a one-on-one situation, a single user is present
(customer). No one else is allowed to use the equipment.
Hybrid cloud: It is a mixture of private & public cloud that are still separate but linked together,
providing the advantages of various deployment types. It provides the best services by incorporating vari-
ous types of models together and also gives the user an option to choose according to their requirements.

Big Data

It is used for data collection that is large and is still increasing exponentially. Some examples of BGD
include the American stock exchange market with generation of more than one Terabyte of data per day,
Facebook where 500 plus TB data is ingested into the database every day (Bosch, 2022; Burhanuddin
et al, 2017; Byk et al, 2021). Figure 3 express the Various V’s which include volume, value, velocity,
variety, veracity, variability, vulnerability, volatility, validity, and visualization (Hussain et al, 2021;
Ashu et al, 2021).

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Figure 3. Big data’s 10 V

The above 10Vs must all be satisfied to make the data considered as BGD, thus merely having
enormous quantities of data is not enough(Zaragoza, 2018;Conti 2012; Manogaran, 2017; Bosch,2022).
Organizations can benefitted from processing it in plenty of ways, such as by using external intelligence
in decision-making, enhancing customer service, identifying and reducing risks early, and improving
operational efficiency (Amazon, 2021& Yassine, 2019).

Relationship Among IoT, Cloud, and Big Data

These approaches usually deal simultaneously. IoT serves as a data provider as IoT technologies gather
enormous amounts of data from numerous networked IoT devices, Cloud offers storage and administration
for this data, and BGD entails treating this data to extract meaningful information. IoT and CC are mutually
supportive of one another as huge data has been produced by IoT, and the latter facilitates transfer of that
data and move throughout the internet (Whitmore, 2015; Khan & Kiani, 2012; Dey, 2017; Chen, 2017).
BGD systems receive data from IoT sensors for analysis and report preparation, which is yet another way
that BGD and IoT cooperate. A relationship between CC and BGD is inherently present(Jagadeeswari
2018; Hossain & Muhammad, 2017; Ahmad, 2017; Manogaran, 2017; Rath 2020; Elhoseny, 2018).
Therefore, the merging of these three approaches can bring improvement in various real-life applica-
tions if they are aligned in the best way. The combining of these technologies can increase ROI for the
business sector, smarter healthcare industry & can also help in the rise of self-service analytics, (Khan,
2012; Li, 2015; Liu, 2018). The same study is shown in the table 2 below.

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Table 2. Comparative study of IoT, cloud platform, and big data

Points IoT Cloud Platform Big Data

Pervasive: Interconnecting Universal: Virtual resources
Meaning Support to control the Massive Data
real- world entities available everywhere
Computing
Limited Virtually unlimited Unlimited
capabilities
Internet usage for providing cloud-built
Working mode Network Distributed computing
services
Automation of daily tasks and Lesser Maintenance, Backup
Benefits round the clock monitoring, mechanism & a centralization vigorous and profitable parallelism
total transparency based platform.
Data diversity, data maintenance, and
Challenges Accessibility, safety
resource management

Smart City

A smart city leverages ICT to improve operating efficiency, exchange information and deliver better
government services and social well-being. A smart city’s major goal is to apply smart technologies and
data analysis to enhance citizen quality of life, optimize city operations, and foster economic growth. In
this, numerous areas of daily life, operations, and management are automated and streamlined by efficient
and typically intelligent computing technologies. The sensors are a smart city system’s core component.
To monitor and record city parameters, various sensors, capacities, and functionalities are used.

Smart City’s Fields

Smart Governance

Through a more intelligent collaboration between various stakeholders and social actors, such as public
administrations, city officers, private companies, and citizens, the unification of ICT into city good
governance is discussed for improving the decision-making process and has ten bureaucratic & admin-
istrative processes(Demirel, 2021).

Smart Living

Smart living is constructed on linking common household appliances, such refrigerators, thermostats,
and HVAC systems, to a centralized cloud computing system. Technology is accessible and operated
through a web-based app by data made available through IoT devices & the same can be sensed through
the big data.

Smart Mobility and Transportation

It means the idea of moving away from earlier transportation systems and toward Mobility-as-a-Service
(MaaS), which involves connecting citizens, public administration etc., entities like vehicles, personal
devices, city sensors, etc.), and various technologies such as smart IoT infrastructure (Syed et al, 2022

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

).The IoT and ITs (Kezai et al, 2020) enable the delivery of intelligent applications to manage things
including individual and public traffic flows, dynamic traffic routing, smart parking, vehicle sharing
and sustainable mobility, linked driving, etc. Smart traffic solutions typically use predictive models to
provide the early warnings, prevent incidents, and manage traffic congestion in real-time.

Smart Economy

Its foundation is the creative ICT-based linking of local and international markets, enabling electronic
commerce and business services to boost output and delivery (Gill et al, 2018). This domain also en-
compasses the sharing economy, in which private businesses or people provide services by utilizing
their own resources & peer-to-peer marketplaces (Kumar, 2018).

Smart Industry and Production

Industry 4.0, a transformation process, which includes various technologies like IoT, cyber-physical
systems (CPS), and cloud-based manufacturing (Tariq & Asim, 2019) help in enabling an innovation
on individuals’ productive environment (Oztemel & Gursev, 2020). The field of smart industries and
manufacturing, thereby tackling the food security issue, covers all industries and production procedures
where ICT tends to automation. In the interest of enhancing irrigation efficiency, IoT is usually applied
in smart agriculture systems (Oztemel & Gursev, 2020) and AI based solutions are frequently used with
IoT to improve crop monitoring, disease diagnosis, and data-driven crop supply management (Paiva et
al, 2021).

Smart Healthcare

Using technologies like wearable sensor networks, BAN, and IoT, smart healthcare connects individuals,
resources, and organizations in this industry to access information dynamically. It produces universally
individualized medical services and aids in the advancement of telemedicine. Smart healthcare is fre-
quently utilized to support medical diagnosis and treatment, health management, illness prevention, risk
handling, and providing the patient’s results via an automated ledger and communication services (Xie
et al, 2019; Khan et al, 2014). The health sector can get the benefits in the below form:

• Assist medical professionals with disease differential diagnosis.

• Pre-primary care information and remote monitoring for reducing the life risk.
• Prediction model to check up diseases by evaluating patient’s electronic health records.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH SMART CITY IMPLEMENTATION

Smart cities tend to make city-related decisions easier for its residents by the relevant information to be
provided at the appropriate time and location. By allowing communication between people and objects
including between items, IoT-based solutions establish the foundation for the certification of services.
Mobility: IoT devices roam freely inside the network, causing their IP addresses to change as per
their location.

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Reliability: The IoT applications demand extremely dependable data, which must be gathered quickly
and communicated to users to make informed decisions. This is typically necessary for emergency reac-
tions. By picking the right routing and protocols of the application layer, IoT applications’ dependability
can be increased with the appropriate perception layer hardware.
Scalability: Because there are more devices linked to the same network, scalability presents a barrier
for various IoT applications. The network now has a few extra hardware pieces and services. Therefore,
IoT designs should support scalable operations and services.
Management: Managing all the devices is considered as the IoT’s biggest concerns along with failure
tracking, performance, and configurations of those devices. The makers of such devices oversee fault
management, configuration, performance, device accounting, and all other aspects.
Availability: It mentions the facility of necessary hardware besides software to service subscribers
and in any location. Software availability is the service offered to guarantee that systems are operational
and accessible. Hardware availability states to the service that ensures hardware availability.
Heterogeneity within IoT is described as a platform that permits communication between various
devices. The platform’s ability to support different devices from diverse suppliers is another asset. The
IoT employs a diversity of protocols, including MQTT, COAP and Modbus.

Vulnerable to Hacks

RFID will be used to enable the majority of connections with objects, and this technology is hacker-
prone. The development of smart cities will progress more rapidly if such an IoT ecosystem that really
is resistant to hacking is permitted.

Lack of Compatibility and Interconnection Among IoT Devices

Impossibility of IoT devices from different manufacturers to communicate with one another and ex-
change data.

Poorly Designed IoT Devices

The utilization of network resources and the overall operation of a smart city may be greatly affected by
poor design and implemented systems.

Economic Viability

With a great deal of detecting and actuating components for use in IoT applications, cost and payback
time are important aspects.

Updation and Insufficient Analysis of Data Collection

An IoT device’s need for updated hardware and software is important for detecting privacy, and the
identification of abnormalities (anomalous data) and traffic patterns.

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Ethical and Societal Issues

Major ethical and societal concerns raised by the proliferation of IoT also include misuse of data for
hidden agendas, the release of private data, a lack of fairness, and social injustice.

Costing Issues

Networks of sensors, screens, cameras, tech devices, the smart grid, and a secured information-sharing
infrastructure should be created, but there may not always be an equitable amount of the benefits.

Technological Problems

Device quality varies, and IoT is still developing. In order to get any benefits, it is also essential to use
contemporary technologies like cloud computing, machine learning, data analysis methods, and intel-
ligent sensors.

Standardization and Network Flexibility Issues

IoT systems and data collection do not adhere to consistent standards, which restricts network flexibil-
ity. It could be extremely challenging to swap out old equipment and add new equipment. IoT devices
technical standards should be established and standardized by the government.

Stakeholder Engagement and Collaboration Issues

Since diverse commercial and governmental players have different interests, the majority of smart city
initiatives lack collaboration, cooperation, and coordination.

SUGGESTIONS

The next phase of internet-based computer expansion is cloud computing which permits the use of
information technology expertise on a service basis. IoT has the prospective for enhancing the produc-
tivity, throughput, and efficiency when smart devices leave the cloud environment. In order to attain
environmental sustainability, urban system authority, enhanced health, knowledge development, and
network-driven advancement, smart cities are residential regions that systematically endeavor to notice
for themselves the new locations of records and various techniques of communication (Sharma & Roy,
2010; Sharma et al, 2018; Suciu et al, 2013). The next stage in evolution of internet-based computing
is cloud computing, which enables the distribution of ICT resources over a network. An IoT can get the
benefits from improved cloud infrastructure payload, performance, and efficiency. The rise of cloud-
based computing has assisted in its growth and expansion thereby additionally give support for the
packing of industrial electronic business. Hence, these technologies are very close to emerging internet
technologies that work with IoT systems.

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Smart Cities’ Requirement for Cloud-Based IoT Applications

Due to many aspects, cities have shifted to IoT and communication technology.

• IoT systems allow sensors to gather data to control appliance consumption, potentially saving
money.
• Cost is a big factor in deciding whether to go offline or online because deploying and maintaining
IoT apps is easier to do. Additionally, costs are dropping, and communications’ robustness and
power output enable novel situations that weren’t before achievable;
• Another factor is efficiency (Ge et al, 2018). For the utmost solutions, cloud providers must physi-
cally visit the website to inspect and implement communications equipment;
• Through various analyses, wireless communication enables monitoring and IoT transmission
management. Administrators can do this to enable firmware updates, apply security fixes to all
finished plans, and receive automatic alerts in case of a problem;
• In operational circumstances, when intelligent street lighting in addition to tracking devices are
maintained, decreased assistance is typically to blame.

Smart Cities Applications by Using Cloud-Based IoT

BT Suite From Bosch

Bosch unveiled the first cloud-based toolset for IoT developers in 2015 that aided in the evolution of
cutting-edge items and cutting-edge business models. IoT is a key approach for enhancing procedures,
enhancing performance, and fostering continuous improvement. Businesses make a use of IoT for a better
understanding of customer needs, improve aircraft operations, and instantly offer distinctive qualities
(Bosch, 2022).

ABB Robotics

Protecting and using linked sensors for robots is one that the IIoT has taken on with the most visibil-
ity. Offering cutting-edge technologies to a variety of industries, which includes telecommunications
manufacturing, and transportation, It is a world leader in AI based robots, automation & cloud solutions
(ABB, 2023).

Airbus

A company that offers IoT solutions globally is Airbus. Airbus deploys its IoT technology and con-
nectivity network using Astrocast nanosatellites for global connectivity. It consists of a communication
link inside its centralized design mechanism. It depends on a solid infrastructure that can support many
users that are using the similar sensors and radio signals (Airbus, 2023).

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Amazon Stockroom

The online-only supermarket is not typically thought of as an IIoT business, but the company has brought
up some innovations w.r.t their inventories and its planning. Amazon examines the boundaries between
automation and human connection, and the company’s discussion of the usage of delivery drones drew
significant attention (Burhanuddin et al., 2017).

Boeing: Using IoT to Improve Manufacturing Efficiency

William Boeing, a pioneer in aviation, famously said that “no one behaves to dismiss any innovative
concept with the assertion, it can’t be done.” The international airline formed by Boeing is unquestion-
ably consistent with that ethos. In repurposing its corporate enterprise, the organization has gone a
long way. They have integrated IoT-built services for driving their factory operations and other chains.
Smart technologies, including gadgets to communicate with devices controlled by networks, may be
incorporated into the atmosphere of the flight cabin and allow passengers to interact with the aircraft in
new ways (Mathur & Nishchal, 2010).

IIoT, a Caterpillar Pioneer

Caterpillar is increasing output by utilizing the IoT. The business has created various software tools
including data analysis, and APIs to help the issue and its clients handle, analyze, and store information.
Notably, the company and Zuora have established a new partnership to offer customers cloud-based
management and analysis tools for subscription facilities (Marr, 2017).

Fanuc: In Favor of Reducing Factory Downtime

The robotics company is dedicated to reducing unscheduled downtime in industrial facilities.By utiliz-
ing sensors together with cloud analytics, they are able to predict when a robotic equipment or system
may fail. With more than 240 service centers spread over 107 countries, it provides continuous product
servicing to users, exhibiting its dedication to the “Service First” philosophy (Alam, 2021).

Hitachi: Long-Standing IIoT Practice

Hitachi, a Japanese company, integrates its business processes and software through various institutions.
The H.X Family Models from them are a revolutionary industrial controller that is prepared for the IoT.
This controller may execute computer network connections and software platforms created for data
processing and features, like motion control and sequence control, without impairing control operations
(Alam, 2021).

Agriculture’s Future with John Deere

The various issues that farming encounters is the changing climate. Three significant technological
advancements that will influence the future are automation to autonomy, electrification and AI (Boe-
ing, 2017).

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Komatsu

The manufacturer of heavy machinery in Japan has a large supply of cutting-edge IIoT components. It
spent the time associated with its Japanese production plants in 2011. All of Komatsu’s robots are in
connection with the company’s major production facilities and network, giving management real-time
access to information on all operations worldwide. It’s a revolution in mining (Xu, et al, 2019).

Kuka: Robotic

Their IoT mechanism connects to numerous businesses. Robotics and manufacturing IIoT are produced
by Kuka. Their training philosophy continuously emphasizes value addition (Alam, 2021).

Maersk

International Air Freight Transportation: Although Maersk is well known for its services in industrial-
ized cargo shipping, it is growing beyond that. By integrating solutions, it is evolving into a full-service
logistics provider for the supply chain. Customers will always be focused to the location of their products,
and other conditions may be altered to guarantee that food and medications travel from other locations
for doing it perfectly. Because of the growth and versatility of the platform, it has faith in Azure’s IoT
capabilities (Alam, 2021).

Magna Steyr: Intelligent Automobile Manufacturing

Magna Steyr, an Austrian automaker, is an expert in the smart industry sector. Utilizing cutting-edge
technology, its 161,000 employees work on car parts and components while automatically ordering
cashback. Additionally, Magna is working with “smart packaging” and ways to enhance it using IoT
(Alam, 2021).

BlueScope

According to Andrew Spence, they can enhance existing systems and create whole new alternatives
thanks to smart, connected gadgets.Process factors include acid content, pressure, temperature, fluxes,
continuing, tier, and continuing. For instance, according to Spence, it is now easy to assess changes to
the operational process and the collection of data that can be applied to models to support more sophis-
ticated and accurate control systems (Suciu et al., 2013).

Real Time Innovations

Real-Time Innovations is the leading provider of software frameworks for autonomous systems which
is the paradigm that is most frequently utilized to develop intelligent, decentralized systems globally.
Its setting is distinctive in that it instantly disseminates information and connects AI methods to actual
device networking to create autonomous systems (Alam, 2021).

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

Shell

In a Rigzone, Shell was recognised as the top employer for oil and gasoline in 2016. According to execu-
tive director for technology at shell, Yuri Sebregts, “Right now, this will assist us in scaling concepts
we’ve been going to create” and “The new possibilities in dealing with data over the last several years
have unlocked huge promise in all sections of what we do in the firm.” Shell is also collaborating with
various experts to improve horizontal drilling through AI in addition to machine learning. The oil be-
sides gas industry has experienced significant cost savings by transitioning from conventional drilling
wells to long, horizontal drilling, reduced its environmental impact, and found new oil as well as gas
resources grounded (Alam, 2021).

Black & Decker Stanley

It offers software and pioneering solutions for the builders, explorers, and creators who shape and reshape
the world through their labor of love and creative imagination. It teams to create practical, applicable
products and solutions that improve the standard of life and give people access to smart & healthy oc-
cupations (Alam 2021).

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

AI-Powered IOT With Big Data Analytics

IoT big data analysis is a procedure that continuously gathers, mixes, and evaluates a variety of hetero-
geneous data gathered by sensors in order to address the problems the city is facing. ICT is essential
for developing as well as keeping up smart cities there by leading to the emerging demand of various
technologies. In recent years, a variety of machine learning issues have benefited greatly from the use of
ANN based models (Nalluri et al, 2017). Due to its remarkable spatiotemporal feature learning capabili-
ties, it has been extensively made available for the use in IoT based big data prediction learning, pattern
recognition, anomaly detection, and categorization. In a world where artificial intelligence permeates
every aspect of life, the usage of big data is encouraged to improve societal, economic, transformational,
and ecological well-being. The smart cities’ “intelligence” is supported by artificial intelligence, IoT &
Big data analytics, which have emerged as essential disruptive technologies.

Smart Cities Need Smart Security

Today, certain towns all around the world are embracing cutting-edge technology and becoming into
“smart cities.” Modern technologies improve people’s quality of life. However, using any technology
brings up fresh problems and difficulties. A single careless act by a person or group can endanger the
entire city in a “smart city.” The smart city’s behavior is impacted by cyber-security issues (such as
information leakage and harmful cyber-attacks). Cyber security must therefore be used in an advanced
manner for adapting to the enthusiastic adoption of global smart city technology.

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Adaptability of IoT and Cloud for Enabling the Smart City

CONCLUSION

Due to advances in sensor technology and falling costs, the smart city as an application of the IoT along
with the cloud ecosystem is expanding quickly. Smart systems are therefore needed in such cities to
handle emergency circumstances. Accessing, analyzing, and managing precise data made possible by
cloud-based enabling technologies which could help professionals, businesses, and individuals make
better decisions to improve the standard of living for people. Residents in smart cities utilize mobile
devices to communicate with connected autos and smart homes. The physical infrastructure and facilities
of a city can interact with technology and data to improve the productivity and cut expenses. This study
highlighted cloud founded IoT applications along with its impact in smart cities. It has also highlighted
smart city applications based on cloud and other IoT technologies. Future study can uncover the smart
city applications like AI-Powered, IoT & Big data analytics, Smart Security etc.

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Chapter 5
Smart City Ecosystem:
An Exploration of Requirements,
Architecture, Applications, Security,
and Emerging Motivations

Wasswa Shafik
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9320-3186
School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei & Dig
Connectivity Research Laboratory, Kampala, Uganda

Kassim Kalinaki
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8630-9110
Islamic University in Uganda, Uganda

ABSTRACT
This chapter explores the growing use of technology in various aspects of people’s lives and focuses
on smart cities. First, it provides a comprehensive survey that examines the need for smart cities, their
architectural elements, and the characteristics and purposes of different architectural layers. The chapter
also offers an overview of notable smart cities such as London, New York, Singapore, Busan, Amsterdam,
and Sunshine Coast Regions, highlighting their unique features. Next, privacy and security concerns
associated with smart cities are addressed, emphasizing the importance of privacy issues and suggest-
ing potential solutions. The chapter discusses future research directions, including the integration of
blockchains, security considerations, collaborative filtering, and infrastructure upgrades in smart city
applications. The analysis of privacy and security concerns is organized into three subsections: smart city
security traits, leveraging issues, and privacy challenges and solutions. Finally, the chapter concludes
by presenting future research trends in this field.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch005

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Smart City Ecosystem

INTRODUCTION

The concept of a “smart city” strives to create environmental sustainability by integrating advanced in-
formation and communication technologies (ICT) while promoting efficient use of resources. Sustainable
development and the creation of smart cities have gained widespread acceptance as urbanization trends.
The most cutting-edge innovative information and technology integration has made it possible to cre-
ate a model smart city (Yang et al., 2021). Intelligent living environments, abundant connectivity, easy
access to goods and services, smart decision-making via high-tech government, and optimum resource
management are all merits that the public in smart cities can use. More applications of smart cities are
presented together with the identification of prominent smart city examples worldwide.
Residents of smart cities will have convenient and continuous access to resource sharing, allowing
them to efficiently manage their daily lives using collective secure digital intelligence (Elrawy et al.,
2018). Availing an acceptable life experience for inhabitants is part of the smart city concept, encom-
passing intelligent transportation, decentralized economics, and government. To appreciate these smart
developments in existing smart cities, there is a need to pay attention to the application and its associated
related impact on both the public and the technology industry. The prediction is that the number will
increase to 70% regardless of the current covid-19 pandemic (Nam & Pardo, 2011).
A self-sufficient community known as a smart city prioritizes its residents’ quality of life above
everything else. A smart city requires sustainability, comprising a comfortable social life and a greener
way of living. The smart city ecosystem is preserved by ecological effluence reduction and effective
waste management like recycling and smart grids. Decentralized and fully transparent government and
economy are essential. In addition, several security assaults might jeopardize the infrastructure and
applications of smart cities (Shafik, 2023). Numerous businesses, for instance, banks, insurance firms,
hospitals, and others, may suffer from data loss and experience a severe technological catastrophe.
A detailed analysis of various applications and potential research areas for smart cities highlights
the need for increased security and safety measures. They pointed out that while monitoring everything
online in a smart city can enhance security, it may also raise privacy concerns (Gharaibeh et al., 2017).
Components and applications overview of smart city infrastructure to better understand its architecture
(Sookhak et al., 2019). Thoroughly examined security concerns, protocols, intrusion problems, and re-
sponses based on the Internet of Things (IoT) in smart cities. The authors also presented a comprehensive
analysis of fault detection systems, providing a thorough overview.
A thorough summary of the architecture, use, and future trends of smart cities and broad and thorough
representations of the architecture, uses, and characteristics of many smart cities across the world has
been presented in the recent literature (Du et al., 2019; Silva et al., 2018). An accurate review of recent
research on smart city challenges, including a comparison of these studies, was presented (Sánchez-
Corcuera et al., 2019). The authors provide an overview of designs, applications, examples of smart
cities, and upcoming research paths. An explanation of the state of the smart city around the ecosphere
illustrating the contemporary problems associated with smart cities’ privacy and their cutting-edge
remedies was depicted (Curzon et al., 2019).
To give the researcher a clear knowledge of the smart city motivations and outstanding research
questions, (Chen et al. 2019) gave an exhaustive assessment of the recently expanding study field of
AI in smart city applications. Lau et al. (2019) provided an exhaustive analysis of AI-based approaches
for addressing numerous smart city difficulties. Laufs et al. (2020) discussed security and architectural
problems. One of the most recent works on smart city surveys explored smart cities, reviewed the re-

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Smart City Ecosystem

search on smart city surveys and valid summaries on the applications, components, and smart city future
(Kirimtat et al., 2020).
After an exhaustive search, a sizable research gap has been identified grounded on the related works
studied above. Thus, this research mainly tackles applications, security requirements, privacy, smart city
worldwide, and future research trends is necessary. Also emphasizes and depicts data related to this idea,
development, and potential future smart city research areas. This chapter can be an essential resource
for future research directions and background information for learners, scientists, and researchers. This
work serves as a succinct introduction to the advent of smart cities and the necessity for urbanization.

Key Contributions of the Chapter

This chapter contributes the following:

• A detailed description and examination of the need for smart cities and various architectural
elements.
• The architectural layers of a smart city and their characteristics and purposes are presented in a
tabular manner.
• Present an overview of the top recognized smart cities (namely, London, New York, Singapore,
Busan, Amsterdam, and Sunshine Coast Regions) and their distinctive traits.
• Privacy and security concerns together with the attributes leveraged are highlighted, and privacy
issues and possible solutions are demonstrated.
• Avails future research motivations for smart city applications, some identified ones entailing block-
chain integration, security considerations, collaborative filtering, and infrastructure upgrades.

Chapter Organization

The remainder of this chapter is arranged as details. Section 2 portrays the contextual smart city in three
ways: the need for smart cities, requirements, application, data management, transmission, and sensing
layers. Section 3 portrays the application of a smart city entailing the most considered smart entities
like smart transportation, healthcare, power and energy management system, network connectivity infra-
structures, and homes. In Section 4, international standard smart cities examples are presented. Section
5 discusses smart city privacy and security concerns categorized into three subsections: security traits,
privacy concerns and leveraging issues with solutions. Finally, section 6 exhaustively presents future
trends like smart cities blockchain, cost management, sustainable energy management, data storage,
processing, and security, among others, and the conclusion is presented within Section 7.

SMART CITY ENVIRONMENT

The population is growing at an exponential rate, making urbanization more challenging. This calls for
properly managing sectors such as education, transportation, energy, and healthcare. Better administra-
tive decision-making and implementation involve transparency, reliability, optimization, and monitoring
(Nam & Pardo, 2011). A smart city’s significance and its elements, pillars, prerequisites, and architecture
are highlighted.

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Smart City Ecosystem

Smart City Necessities

Since these cities utilize cutting-edge technology and data-driven solutions to enhance the quality of life
for their residents and promote sustainable development, the following are some of notable contributions.

Connectivity

A connected society and a community approach to learning will foster innovation and, in the end, make
people smarter. Smart cities live with connectivity. The smart city offers wired and wireless connec-
tions (Laufs et al. 2020). The unified connectivity of a smart city facilitates data transmission and offers
residents of the city real-time application.

Sustainability

Sustainable health systems and smart buildings are a framework for justifiable energy utilization, and
encouraging a greener routine are all smart city goals. Building a smart city requires addressing climate
change, social challenges, waste and pollution control, and proper use of nature. The mental and physical
well-being of people is frequently diminishing due to technological innovation.

Decentralization

Decentralizing government, healthcare, education, finance, and other functions is a significant aim of
creating the smart city so that individuals can receive services without limitations at any time and in
any location. Furthermore, transparency and immutability of individual records kept using blockchain
technologies will stop fraudulent actions. In some countries, digital identity is already in use and can be
applied for individual and corporate authentication motives (Jun et al., 2021).

Security

Modern technology, including smart city infrastructure, enhances the protection of physical structures.
blockchain technology’s pseudo-anonymity secures smart city’s large data transfer. As a result of elimi-
nating third parties and fostering trustless transactions, Blockchain reduces fraud. However, various
smart city infrastructures are vulnerable to cyberattacks. Smart cities leverage several sensor networks
and IoT devices to create context-aware applications. Because of their architecture and construction,
sensor networks are vulnerable to cyberattacks (Ghandour et al., 2018).
Devices may become unavailable, data loss may occur, people in smart cities may experience privacy
breaches, and malicious software may be introduced to feed false information and thereby infect the
infrastructure of Smart cities because of attacks on the infrastructure. Giving people false information
can seriously lower their standard of living and inflict catastrophic environmental damage (Jun et al.,
2021). Because of this, intelligent cities deploy advanced security countermeasures to protect against
attacks at any time. The city’s residents may suffer severe harm in case the personal information of the
people is exposed because of any kind of software or hardware malfunction.

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Smart City Requirements

Recent urbanization of cities demonstrates secure connectivity and environmental friendliness. As dis-
cussed below, many areas can be considered to create an innocuous and protected smart city.

Quality of Life and Sustainable Environment

Every form of technology offers a good setting for leading a healthy life. Government functions as a
service. Effective governance can improve quality of life. Decisions and administrative processes should
be visible to the public and automated. Citizens will experience standard benefits because of harmoni-
ous coherence across various smart city infrastructure components. Sustainable and environmentally
friendly cities are essential (Elrawy et al. 2018). Climate change is accelerated by rapid urbanization, an
increase in industry, and declining amounts of greenery (Xie et al., 2019). Therefore, it is imperative to
create the possibility of leading a greener lifestyle. Effective waste management that reduces pollutants
and biodegradable materials is essential for a cleaner, greener environment.

Privacy and Security Component

IoT devices like sensors are heavily used in modern urbanization, there are applied in several infrastruc-
tures. For better strategic management, data gathered from various devices is analyzed. Data analysis may
greatly enhance administrative decisions and practices. However, the entire system may be in danger if
any of the infrastructures suffer a security compromise. Social security needs necessitate constant moni-
toring of residents in smart cities (Shokoor et al., 2019). Any privacy violation endangers individuals
and society since smart cities depend on gathering and processing sensitive information on inhabitants’
personal, locational, and personal characteristics.
Patients’ physical and personal information, including location, heart rate, and other health-related
information, is collected through wearable technology and health monitoring equipment. The information
is private in both situations and should not be accessible to the public. People who have their privacy
violated may be subject to serious attacks (Haque et al., 2021). A smart city has enough privacy and
security safeguards for everyone’s digital identification and footprint (Eckhoff & Wagner, 2018).

Intelligent Services

These services contain a system for managing patient records, a smart appointment system, data stor-
age, and data sharing across linked institutions. People who require medical attention may be able to
access remote healthcare services. It is possible to analyze healthcare data to find diseases and prescribe
treatments. Financial services, such as banking and insurance, are essential for citizens (Arora, 2018).
Critical services should be available from the city administration whenever someone needs them. The
online banking industry is expanding; heraldry services can be used to provide citizens with cutting-
edge services.

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Smart Infrastructure

A city’s infrastructure can be developed if it is to grow. Infrastructure upgrades in smart cities include
smart buildings. The smart building uses energy effectively while protecting the environment. Solar
power can be used in structures. Such an infrastructure uses a variety of sensors and IoT technologies for
improved performance. Intelligent transportation systems are a component of the infrastructure develop-
ment for smart cities. The importance of Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and various autonomous ad
hoc network infrastructures for smart infrastructure cannot be overstated (Maier, 2016).

Smart Human Resources

Effective and competent human capital makes up smart human availability. The most imperative com-
ponents of any sort of society are its human resource base. People practice their knowledge, education,
intelligence, and creativity to grow as individuals. Sustainable social infrastructures also have a significant
impact on social learning. Critical thinking is an essential skill for a citizen to progress both personally
and socially. It is necessary to monitor and have authoritative control over citizen data properly. The
seamless use of all services by citizens will be made possible through digital identity.

Smart City Architecture

Despite the deployment of a few smart city features, the components and implementation are still inad-
equate. Since every choice in a city is made only after a thorough study of the data gathered from diverse
infrastructures, the data is crucial to its success. There are four tiers based on the suggested works and
methodologies; the following are explanations of the architectural layers of a smart city.

Application Layer

Through this layer, citizens of smart cities gain access to several advantages. As a result, this layer is
crucial for providing services to the user. First, a choice is provided using data from the preceding layer
that has been analyzed. People are more interested in the outcome than in the underlying working theory
or algorithms that serve as the smart city brain. These amenities will impact individuals’ personal and
professional lives (Syed et al., 2021). With load balancing, a smart grid, and reliable electricity supply,
effective citywide distribution methods, automatic electricity utilization, data bill generation, and other
features are all guaranteed.

Data Management Layer

The management and processing of data are tasks performed by this layer. Different infrastructure
generates data. Large amounts of data are produced daily by citizens as well. The fundamental data
characteristics that are guaranteed are integrity, confidentiality, availability, and authenticity. Data from
diverse sources can also be processed later, including cleaning, editing, and merging. The issue of data
processing and storage is brought up by the enormous amount of data (Syed et al. 2021). In addition,
infrastructure and services will develop over time. Therefore, data storage needs to be scalable as well.

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Thus, data centers can be constructed for the backup and storage of data. Table 1 summarizes the several
infrastructure layers of smart cities and their unique characteristics.

Table 1. Smart city features corresponding to the identified layer (4G, Fourth generation; LTE, long-
term evolution; WiMaX, Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access; BLE, Bluetooth Low Energy,
WiFi, Wireless Fidelity)

smart city Traits Smart City Layers

Application Data management Transmission Sensing
Home automation, Decision-making
Wide Range Humidity sensors,
Healthcare Monitoring, algorithms, Data
Technology Communication, WiFi, RFID, BLE,
Smart Grid, Application Processing, Analysis
4G/LTE, WiMaX Temperature Sensors
Development technologies
Connected Sensing, Data Transmission,
Data Management Application, Transmission
layers Management, Physical world
Tracking devices, Smart Data processing equipment,
Devices Transmission Devices Various sensors
devices, Smart distribution Storage Devices
Protecting, Integrity,
Remote maintenance,
Authenticity, Data
Data visualization = Data Transmission, Interaction with
processing, Confidentiality,
Functions visual data + better user Fault detection, and surrounding,
Availability,
experience/interaction Communication among Collecting data
Data Analysis and
connected devices
Management.

Transmission Layer

An interconnected network of devices gathers data in the preceding layer. Data can be transferred to the
destination after collection. Additionally, the devices that are connected communicate with one another.
Device-to-device communication helps in remote maintenance, decision-making, and fault detection.
The transmission layer includes the communication methods utilized for data processing (send/receive).
Long-range communication occurs between standard smart devices like mobile phones and various wired
and wireless smart equipment. Cellular networks’ most recent addition is 4G/LTE (Silva et al. 2018).
In addition, wireless local area networks like WiFi are common and often utilized. The device variet-
ies and specifications for the sensing layer have expanded along with the demand for communication.

Sensing Layer

Practical data analysis is a critical component in most decision-making processes. Therefore, gathering
accurate data is an essential duty. However, gathering data from diverse infrastructures is a complicated
operation. The infrastructure for smart cities is made up of a variety of components, including sensor
networks, IoT devices, and more. Sensors gather information from several kinds of devices. Healthcare,
medicine, intelligent transportation, and other industries all heavily rely on IoT-enabled devices and
applications (Chen et al., 2019). Sensors, particularly IoT devices utilized in various appliances, are
important sources for data collecting. Infrared, Radio-frequency identification (RFID), temperature,
humidity sensors, Bluetooth, cameras, and other types of sensors are used to collect data.

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APPLICATIONS OF SMART CITY

When there is a traffic jam, IoT sensors send a warning notification to the closest traffic control facility
for possible fast root navigation. Within this section, some applications of Smart cities are presented.

Intelligent Transportation System

The traffic control system, which is automated and efficient in some places, is a major problem for
smart cities. A cloud-assisted IoT intelligent transportation system was recommended as a resolution to
the problems of traffic management (Zantalis et al., 2020). An integrated IoT sensor camera is mounted
at each intersection’s traffic signal to track the movement of vehicles. An algorithm that detects traffic
direction and regulates the signal lights is performed using the data from numerous signal corners.
Some developed models to aid this smart transportation system include, for instance, IoT information
and communications technology integration in transportation framework design, secure smart transpor-
tation, privacy-protecting system, and drivers’ location tracking (Lin et al., 2019), traffic control and
crowd management (Boukerche & Coutinho 2019), machine learning (ML) application for transportation
effectiveness (Yan et al., 2020), vehicular technology topology implementation (Kelley et al., 2019),
Traffic pattern prediction (Shukla et al., 2016), cruise control (Khazaei et al., 2016), and fog centered
architectures (Giang et al., 2016; Reddy et al., 2022).

Smart Home

Disability, activity restriction, and participation restriction all have strong correlations. Technology has
advanced significantly recently and will likely continue to do so. Intelligent home and communication
methods provide new ways to get around some limits and limitations affecting persons with disabilities.
This scoping review’s objective was to investigate how smart home and wireless technologies affected
the results for those with complex needs and impairments (Ali et al., 2020). Consequently, people with
disabilities and complex needs appear to benefit from technology regarding independence, involvement,
and quality of life.
Notwithstanding, ethical issues were brought up due to the population’s susceptibility, including
possible threats from social interaction and privacy issues with monitoring technologies. Other models
include deep learning disease detection, hypothetical and research tasks (Tripathi et al., 2020), health-
care resource distribution (Abou-Nassar et al., 2020), efficiency analysis (Tanwar et al., 2020), smart
healthcare traffic network (Ismail et al., 2019), data integrity (Ahad et al., 2019), AI established disease
recognitions (Oueida et al., 2018; Mahmoud et al., 2018), Blockchain oriented method (Zhang et al.,
2018), Edge computing-based method (Chen et al., 2018), tracking using global positioning system
(Chui et al., 2017).

Smart Connectivity Infrastructure

Integration of AI technologies and Blockchain is changing the design of the network of smart cities
to create sustainable ecosystems. The technological advances have produced both opportunities and
problems for us as we work to construct smart cities (Duda et al., 2022). The safety problems and dif-
ficulties that distress the use of blockchains in creating maintainable and intelligent communities are

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key. A thorough discussion of many important topics for combining AI with blockchain knowledge aids
in developing smart societies.

Intelligent Energy And Power Management Systems

The study analyzes the application of probabilistic ML in fundamental energy technologies, the integra-
tion of thermal, electric, and large-scale renewable energy resources and fuel grid is greatly aided by
ML approaches (Ahmad et al., 2022). It is covered how to use several tools for effective management,
operation, and control of energy systems. The most significant recent ML advancements, their difficul-
ties, and cutting-edge next research prospects are briefly reviewed. Some other models include privacy
for stakeholders (Gai et al., 2019), energy management and consumption (Abate et al., 2019; Hussain
et al., 2020), Effective and intelligent energy supervision (Kim and Lim., 2018), big data for intelligent
grid administration (Marinakis et al., 2018), energy markets (Mengelkamp et al., 2018), energy storage
management (Olabi et al., 2017), Cloud service integrations (Rivera and RodriguezMartinez, 2016), big
data analytics (Zhou et al., 2016; Ashu et al., 2020), vehicle integrations and (Tan et al., 2016).

SMART CITY EXAMPLES

Smart city adoption globally has been slow due to much-unresolved security and other challenges. Despite
those challenges, several cities worldwide have adopted smart cities due to technological advancement.
Such cities include London, Paris, New York, Reykjavik, Amsterdam, Singapore, Tokyo, Dubai, Busan,
Santander, and Stockholm (Ismagilova et al., 2020). A summary of top cities that have implemented
smart methods in daily operation and their characteristics with some initiative automated meter reading
(AMR) is demonstrated within Table 2

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Table 2. Selected smart cities corresponding to their initiatives

Smart city Initiatives References

Street lamp posts, London data store, electric vehicle charge points,
London self-driving Heathrow pods, Air quality sensors and public Wi-Fi, smart (Willems et al., 2017)
surveillance
Air quality monitoring, AMR, Solar powered trash bins, Energy efficient
New York (Angelidou, 2017)
smart lighting, Web-based crime prediction system. Etc.
Smart National IDs, Core Operations Development and
Singapore eXchange(CODEX), E-Payments, Smart Urban Mobility, Moments of Life, (Chang & Das, 2020)
Smart Nation Sensor Platform
Smart streetlights, Smart crosswalks, Smart parking, Building energy
Busan management, socially disadvantaged individuals service, Smart store (Bauer et al., 2021)
management system, Lost child prevention system
Open Data, MyNeighbour App (MijnBuur), Wyzer App, Social Glass, (Amsterdam Smart City, n.d.; Bauer
Amsterdam
Plastic free rivers, IoT Living Lab, et al., 2021)
Waste bin sensors, Networked LED Street lighting, Sunshine Coast Council
Sunshine Coast
App, Networked flood sensors, Smart Street, Pedestrian and cyclist (Sunshine Smart City, n.d.)
Region
counters, Networked irrigation system
Parks and gardens irrigation, Environmental Monitoring, Outdoor Parking
Santander Management, Participatory sensing and Guidance, Traffic Intensity (Galache et al., 2012)
Monitoring, Waste management
Halle Pajol solar power station, IoT-enabled park benches, and E-bike
Paris (Kylili & Fokaides, 2015)
renting schemes, among others.
Tokyo Rinkai disaster, Smart Grids, Prevention Park, Energy Management,
Tokyo (Bauer et al., 2021)
Smart homes, buildings, and factories

Smart City Security Attributes

This section discusses the security attributes of such solutions that every smart city should have to
guarantee security for users and connected IoT devices.

Secure, Mutual Authentication

Through various network communication protocols, different IoT devices can communicate with each
other across the different layers of the smart city. Providing a secure communication link between those
devices hinges on non-repudiation, integrity, confidentiality features, and implemented network security
(Khadidos et al., 2022). The mutual and secure substantiation attribute of smart cities ensures that data
transmission occurs between the IoT device and smart city service after the proof of their identities is
established. By undergoing a rigorous validation process, IoT devices connected to the smart city network
can ensure their validity and prevent potential security breaches from fraudulent devices.

Security Life Cycle Management

The IoT device life cycle generally consists of three phases, namely, device provisioning, firmware or
software update, and decommissioning, OEMs can ensure the security life cycle management attribute
for smart city devices and mitigate the fallout from any security compromises (El-Jaouhari, 2022)Fur-

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thermore, measures such as secure device shutdown guarantee that decommissioned IoT devices will
not be re-purposed to connect to a smart city amenity without approval from the security executive for
cyber free threat (Kalinaki et al., 2023).

Secure Boot and Firmware Integrity

To ensure the security of a smart city, a cryptographic code signing method is used for the modus
operandi of the secure boot and firmware integrity attribute. This method ensures that an IoT device
can only execute code generated by its OEM or a verified and trusted party, thereby preventing mali-
cious attacks by denying code execution from programs that contain unsigned malware such as viruses,
worms, and malware. In addition, this attribute restricts hackers from replacing the original firmware
with compromised versions of instruction sets (Singh et al., 2020). For smart city devices, the secure
boot attribute preserves the authenticity and integrity of program packages by preventing the execution
of unsigned code (Nath & Nath, 2022).

Updating and Patching

Due to the constantly evolving nature of cyber-attacks on the increasing number of IoT devices in a
smart city, service providers and OEMs occasionally update software packages inherent within their
supplied IoT devices. Such updates ensure the devices’ proper functioning and enhance inbuilt security
features that protect them against new and sophisticated attacks from multiple attack vectors (Obaidat,
2022). Moreover, updating and patching provide a means through which security vulnerabilities can be
identified and resolved by different security architects and enterprises.

Security Analysis, Response, and Monitoring

The security attribute of a smart city involves an automated capability for its communications network
to collect, record, and monitor data transmission between multiple interconnected IoT devices and their
connectivity traffic. Additionally, this attribute requires the analysis and processing of the collected data
to identify possible security and privacy breaches and evaluate the severity of any detected threats or at-
tacks. Following established security policies, any identified threats or privacy breaches can be resolved
by disabling and quarantining the compromised devices or disconnecting and removing them entirely.
Given the vulnerability of numerous heterogeneous IoT devices in a smart city, this attribute is crucial
for mitigating the potential fallout from any security breaches.

Privacy and Security Concerns

The heterogeneous nature of IoT devices in a smart city makes them vulnerable to various security threats
and privacy breaches. These concerns include cyber-attacks, threats to device and connectivity security,
issues related to data collection and transmission security, physical attacks on smart city infrastructure,
and cloud-related security issues. These and many other security concerns have been a significant ob-
stacle to the widespread adoption of smart city services. This section provides a detailed description of
these security and privacy issues.

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Cyberattacks

Different IoT devices have unique inbuilt security measures from their OEMs. This renders them vul-
nerable to attacks as hackers can take advantage of the weakly implemented security measures in the
devices and disrupt the entire smart city network. Several studies have documented different cyber-attacks
on smart city services (Ismagilova et al., 2020). These cyber-attacks (both passive and active) can lead
to security and privacy breaches leading to data loss, service disruption, and degradation of the user
experience of smart city dwellers.
Such violations can undermine the fundamental security goals (confidentiality, integrity, and avail-
ability) preserved by imaginative city security architects, service providers, and OEMs to safeguard
end-users, data, and IoT devices. The table below briefly summarizes the cyberattacks on the smart
city network with their corresponding impacts on the security goals affected. In addition to the above
attacks, the following attacks have been reported and include malware attacks, ransomware attacks,
social engineering, brute force attacks, hardware trojan, and eavesdropping attacks, detailed in Table 4
(Al-Turjman et al., 2022; Yaqoob et al., 2017).

Table 4. Summarized selected attacks and their targeted implications

Attack Impact References

Man in the Middle attack Confidentiality, Integrity (Ismagilova et al., 2020)
Denial of Service (DoS) and Distributed
All (Khalifa et al., 2022)
DoS (DDoS)
Eavesdropping attack Confidentiality, Non-repudiation, Privacy (Thilakarathne & Madhuka Priyashan, 2022)
Replay attack Confidentiality, Integrity (Yaacoub et al., 2020)
Botnet attack Availability, Confidentiality (Al-Turjman et al., 2022)
Jamming attack Availability (Reynvoet et al., 2022)
Flooding attack Availability (Shafiq et al., 2020)
Integrity, Confidentiality, Non-
Packet Analysis attacks (Koshy et al., 2022)
repudiation, Privacy

Device Power, Storage, and Connectivity Security Issues

IoT devices are heavily impacted by their low power and storage capabilities in the service layer of the
smart city architecture. Such challenges greatly limit their processing powers which are mitigated using
third-party applications and services located in the cloud. However, these third-party cloud solutions
areusceptible to security attacks such as adversarial attacks, cyber kill chain-based attacks, backdoor
attacks, trojan attacks, and data manipulation attacks (Qayyum et al., 2020; Rao & Deebak, 2022). Us-
ing third-party methods may result in enterprises having no control over their data, which may lead to
potential risks of data leakage by the service provider. Hence, secure communication channels that deploy
lightweight end-to-end encryption schemes between the IoT devices, applications, and third-party cloud
storage providers must be provided to ensure the necessary authentication, authorization, identification,
and device management (Rao & Deebak, 2022).

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Physical Attack on the Smart City Infrastructure

In addition to data protection through the prevention of security and privacy breaches in the virtual space,
the physical security of the smart city infrastructure is equally important in all smart city services. All
IoT devices, wired and wireless communications, sensors, powerlines, base stations, substation facili-
ties, and others in an urban setting can be stolen and vandalized by intruders in case they have access to
them (Yang et al., 2022) Such physical disruptions and vandalism to smart city infrastructure can lead
to outages, data leakage, degradation of user experience, and serious financial losses to enterprises due
to the fact they are stationed in outdoor settings. Therefore, physical security solutions (see discussed
in the next section) can be instituted to ensure smart cities’ smooth and uninterruptible functioning.

Cloud-Related Security Issues

The introduction of cloud computing in smart cities is mainly to tackle resource constraints such as
storage, hosting, and processing for IoT devices. However, being a shared multi-tenancy and multiuser
environment that accommodates various enterprises and service providers with different cloud service
needs, there exist loopholes that lead to security and privacy breaches. Such breaches include malicious
code injection, unauthorized data access, data sniffing using a man-in-the-middle attack, and DDoS
attacks, among others, which have the potential to destroy the quality of life (QoL) of smart city users
(Alam et al., 2022). Therefore, solutions capable of mitigating cloud-based security issues can be put in
place to ensure the smooth operation of smart cities.

PRIVACY AND SECURITY SOLUTIONS FOR SMART CITIES

In this section, we summarize some of the different commonly deployed security and privacy solu-
tions for IoT-based smart cities. Their detailed modes of operation have been fully explained in their
corresponding references. Cyber-attacks on the smart city infrastructure can be mitigated by deploying
cyber-safe utilities such as demilitarized zones (Dhungana et al., 2015), intrusion detection and preven-
tion systems (Singh et al., 2020), honeypots (Dalamagkas et al., 2019) and firewalls (Haar & Buchmann,
2019). Such utilities can protect against potential cyber-attacks targeting different smart city services.
Furthermore, blockchain-based cloud architecture for secret sharing was proposed by (Cha et al., 2021)
for smart cities to solve the challenges of managing and accessing storage devices provided by cloud-
based service providers. Their framework improves the integrity and security of different end-user
information through a secret sharing algorithm. Their proposed approach depicts enhanced privacy
and security via security analysis and demonstrates faster transaction speed and data storage efficiency
compared to existing research.
Authors (Gheisari et al., 2021) proposed an ontology-based framework for preserving privacy in smart
cities. Firstly, their proposed model enables seamless, secure interactions between heterogeneous IoT
devices from various OEMs. Moreover, it identifies abnormal patterns of interactions while addressing
the quality of the services provided through its semantic reasoning rules. Finally, by constantly changing
the privacy behaviors of connected IoT devices, the framework’s third module addresses privacy chal-
lenges through the privacy rules manager. Compared to other frameworks, its effectiveness was proved

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through extensive testing on synthetic smart city datasets while providing affordability and robustness
against data leakage.
The use of biometrics has broadly been used for end-user authentication in IoT-based Smart cities.
These human-dependent methods can automatically recognize individuals based on their biodata, such
as fingerprints, facial appearance, handwritten signatures, and voice. Brainwave-based and mutual
authentication protocols have been the most widely deployed in smart cities to authenticate users and
secure their private information due to their high accuracy and efficiency (Al-Turjman et al., 2022).
Authors (Alzubi et al., 2022) proposed a dynamic software-defined network-based privacy-preserving
framework for IoT-based smart cities using the trust technique. Its software-defined network (SDN)
controller operates under the nodes’ mutual trust and depends on the confidence level to choose packet
routes from the IoT device to the cloud domain. By identifying a device that lacks trust in its neighbor,
it can reroute the packet on a different path.
To enhance the security of data storage, transmission, and processing in a multi-tenancy and multi-
access smart city infrastructure, lightweight encryption schemes (referred to as tiny cryptography) can
be utilized for resource-constrained IoT devices, as suggested by Noura et al. (2019). In their research,
they proposed an economical, efficient, and resilient lightweight stream cipher scheme (referred to as
Lsmart city), demonstrating a high level of security for IoT devices with limited resources.
To mitigate physical threats and attacks posed by intruders on the smart city infrastructure (Yang et
al., 2022), we provided four countermeasur, including circuit and system design, installing additional
sensors, biometry, and analysis tools and theft tracking devices. The circuit design involves embedding
a chip theft detection technique installing additional sensors, such as cameras, motion sensors, and RFID
can help detect and physical theft and vandalism. Schemes such as biometry and behavior analysis apply
acquired data originating from embedded sensors to authenticate different users and evaluate the opera-
tion state of equipment. Finally, tracking mechanisms for stolen devices can be deployed using GPS and
location-based services for outdoor equipment. For indoor equipment, Bluetooth tracking, ZigBee, RFID,
and infrared are the most used tracking options with limited distances of up to 10 meters.

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTION

Within this section, some sampled future research directions are presented below:

Data Storage and Processing

Real-time data accessibility can lead to digital culture and literacy, improving future urban societies,
online consultation platforms, and public involvement (Nagarajan et al., 2022). The future of cities will
be shaped by collective and civic intelligence (Chaves et al., 2022), crowdsourcing, the emergence of
wireless internet and mobile applications, the impact of neogeography, simulations, and three-dimen-
sional virtual surroundings that replicate and evaluate complex social phenomena and cities, as well as
the impact of these technologies (Skaržauskienė et al., 2022). Data-driven Smart cities are areas where
business intensive should be done at the academic and industrial levels and advance the quality of life,
safety, environmental preservation, and the design of the smart city future.

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Emergency Services

To properly analyze smart city public engagement from an emergency perspective, the authors (Zhu
et al., 202) depicted that for quality services, a continuous experience between the issues affecting
health service quality and citizen engagement using the current technology must be availed. Cities have
significantly impacted a nation’s economic and social growth. They are actual locations where people
reside, work, conduct business, and get services. Nations should consider factors like effectiveness and
sustainable development as an early presentation of the United Nations (Moyle et al., 2022), quality of
life, and prudent resource management while considering this scenario. Technology and communica-
tions are crucial for achieving sustainable development goals where cities will effectively manage vital
infrastructure and provide integrated public services (Blasi et al., 2022). Emergency services should be
a key component of the definition of smart cities because they assist people in dire circumstances and
communicate risks.

Collaborative Filtering

These artificial intelligence-based systems filter massive data content or responses to an individual de-
pending on the search history. There are sometimes referred to as recommender systems as defined by
the authors. The sparsity of the data can be impacted using the proposed model, for example, the Naive
Bayesian classifier (Zhang et al., 2022), the three-way Naive Bayesian collaborative filtering recom-
mendation approach demonstrated a minimum risk decision process. Furthermore, the authors (Wang
et al., 2022) still suggested intelligent security sensors as an ideal to play a vital collaborative ability in
human source administration.
A considerable number of Smart cities have encountered, for instance, water shortages, traffic con-
gestion, waste management, energy inadequacy, and low public participation in city governance due to
the traditional filtering approaches that are used. This makes it complex to identify such loopholes in
operation; it is vital to categorize the most life-threatening and urgent concerns that smart city solutions
must address in developing, operating, and maintaining as suggested (Khadidos et al., 2022), smart
security frameworks based on collaborative reciprocated authentication models.

Smart Cities Security

As the public gets into the operation of smart operations in their daily life because of these technologi-
cal advancements like smart farming, transportation, e-government, digital citizenships, buildings, and
healthcare, among others, security and privacy breaches are more likely to increase due to the public.
The majority want to take advantage of smart city initiatives and experience greater levels of safety,
lower crime rates, and generally better quality of life (Hussain et al., 2022). Many individuals doubt
smart city projects because of the security issues they face. IoT gadgets have security issues, and the
concerns about the proliferation of IoT sensors and the tighter coupling of infrastructure silos in cities
are logical (Singh et al., 2022). On the other hand, technology industries are developing security solu-
tions based on blockchain technology, big data analytics, and encryption technologies to combat more
complex cyber-attacks.

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Blockchain

Initially meant for decentralized financial transactions among different parties, Blockchain has seen wider
applications in several domains such as agriculture, healthcare, power grids, home, supply chain, and
governance, among many others. The robustness of blockchain technology, as evidenced by its ability
for immutability, anonymity, and confidentiality, has shown large potential in solving many smart city
security problems highlighted in the previous sections (Bracco et al., 2022; Rejeb et al., 2021) Blockchain-
as-a-service (Baas) is another trend that integrates IoT-enabled smart city devices in blockchain-enabled
Cyber-physical systems like smart power grids, smart homes, smart healthcare, etc. Baas promises greater
security for smart city services and users as it allows management, access, and monitoring of blockchain
applications with minimal security requirements (Li et al., 2022).

Sustainable Energy Management

As one of the components of smart cities, the main purpose of smart power grids is to meet the increas-
ing energy demand as more cities adopt smart city features. This is geared towards ensuring that there’s
enough supply ability to minimize energy loss and enhance power grid reliability, sustainability, cost-
effectiveness, and operational efficiency. The application of renewable energy resources (RES) such as
solar and wind is one such initiative that is becoming popular in emerging smart cities (Majeed et al.,
2021)In addition, bckchain application in smart grids also promises to ensure computerized decentral-
ized power transmission and distribution along with real-time operational surveillance of the power grid
(Musleh et al., 2019).

Cost Management

As smart cities evolve, the operational costs of upgrading existing infrastructure with smart city tech-
nologies to improve the quality of life for city dwellers are becoming too high. To ensure sustainable
progression towards smart city status measures such as public-private partnerships geared towards fund-
ing smart cities will have to be instituted. Another means of managing operational costs is using the
alliance approach, which involves the creative financing model based entirely on coalitions, procuring
products & services, androviding supervision to achieve smart city promises (Smart Cities Funding and
Financing Strategies | Deloitte, n.d.).

CONCLUSION

This chapter presents architectural smart city levels, applications, requirements, security concerns, and
emergent trends in detail. With technological advancements, developing a smart city has become possible
with added benefits to the public. It has been identified that security, collaborative filtering, emergency
services, sustainable energy management, and Blockchain will be highly needed to operate smart cities.
These include enhanced connectivity, intelligent decision-making, and enhanced resource supervision.
Furthermore, various security concerns have emerged due to the increasing acceptance of smart cities.
These include data security, authentication, and unauthorized access. It further also explored the various
applications of this technology.

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Chapter 6
Interaction Between IoT-
Enabled Services in Smart Cities
Sumathi Pawar
Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India

Manjula Gururaj Rao H.

Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India

Niranjan N. Chiplunkar
Nitte Mahalinga Adyanthaya Memorial Institute of Technology, India

ABSTRACT
Smart cities are IOT enabled applications which provide services from controlling streetlight according
to weather conditions, smart parking vehicles according to free parking slots, up to traffic management
according to train arrival time. They also concern access to education, health, cultural and sports services.
If all the applications are based on interaction between each other according to the requirement, then it
will be great success in achieving robust smart city services. Many services factors such as availability,
quality, affordability, and continuity can be increased by enabling communication between the services.
This research is focused on communication between different IOT enabled services. Two techniques used
here are centralized level interaction and peer level interaction. The task of centralized level interaction
is registering all IOT enabled services and sending required information to the respective services in
time. Peer level services speak to each other whenever required. This research also analyses advantages
and drawbacks of both of these techniques.

INTRODUCTION

Smart parking, transport, power and water supply, telecommunication services, public transport and
many other services including access to a high-speed internet connection, free Wi-Fi, 4G/5G coverage
and many more are part of smart cities. People uses smart city applications such as smart homes, con-
nected cars through smartphones. Sustainability can be improved by pairing systems of infrastructure of
smart cities and also cost can be reduced. With the help of smart city communities’ energy distribution

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch006

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Interaction Between IoT-Enabled Services in Smart Cities

can be optimized, traffic congestion can be reduced and air quality can be improved. If the services of
the smart city speak each other there will be numerous benefits.
Advantages of communication between services are given here.

• The usage of connected lights of the traffic receive data through sensors and corrects the light to
real time traffic thus reducing the congestion of the road.
• Drivers directed to nearest parking slots through connected car services.
• Waste management companies automatically get information to pick-up wastes according to pre-
planned timings.
• Smart city services and government services can be accessed through mobile phones of citizens
by their digital credentials and ID cards.

In olden days distributed systems were using message queues to handle communication between dif-
ferent parts of system. Huge amounts of data were transferred for massive amounts of activities to the
cloud server (Ashu et al, 2021). The model used by traditional system were asynchronous processing
architectures which was working in only single direction.
Smart cities’ Internet of things requires different kind of messaging styles and messaging between
the services required to follow appropriate protocols and existing network architecture to speed-up the
services. To integrate the different components of application stack, messaging models need to be more
complex.
One way messaging and 2-way messaging are 2 kinds of messaging models used by IOT-enabled
services to interact between server or cloud services. One-way model was asynchronous and to overcome
this 2-ways model was used. Sending messages between IOT services to cloud and cloud to IOT services
requires 2-way messaging model.
Message brokers/Queue: This allows the queues support from one-to-many connected clients which
supports massive huge amounts of big data scenarios () . Identifying, authenticating and addressing of
IOT devices are done through message brokers. Among many platform-as-a-service providers such as
Azure IoT Hub, Microsoft Azure cloud, IOT message broker service support huge events or telemetry
from numerous IOT components. Due to message brokers, the burden of installing up and maintaining
virtual machines in the cloud are reduced and it is required to focus on only maintain and building IOT
solutions (Renuka et al, 2018).
Benefits of IOT message brokers compared to traditional brokers are

• Device authentication for device management

• Tracking messages from connected IOT devices
• Uniquely addressing IOT devices to support “Cloud-to-Device” messaging model

The proposed system is focussed on 2 kinds of communication between services and messaging
models with their architecture. That is centralized message-based system and peer to peer to level mes-
saging system.
The organization of this research paper is as follows; section 2 discusses literature survey, section 3
explains methodology, section 4 focusses on the centralized communication system, section 5 discusses
about implementation, section 6 on results, section 7 describes analysis, and finally section 8 mentions
about conclusion and future work.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

Advantages of P2P based middleware compared to centralized system is made it to use P2P middleware
system as proposed by (Genaud et al, 2007) and (W. T. Teacy et.al, 2012). The important task of the P2P
MPI is fault-tolerance, scalability, ease of maintenance and resource discovery. When there are large
number of IOT services, one of the goal of P2P middleware is scheduling the jobs of IOT services. The
performance of middleware is measured by throughput of the system(H. Rajab and T. Cinkelr, 2018)
and (J. Wang et. al, 2016).
The performance of the peer-to-peer based networks depend on workflows, knowledge of the sched-
uler and also depends upon whether parallel jobs or independent tasks. The set of resources need to be
co-allocated to start job immediately. The optimal scheduling is very important to increase the speed
of IOT services because every IOT device needs required resources. The network locality, available
bandwidth, load balance and availability of resources are factors influence the speedy communication
between IOT services. But in a peer-to-peer communication this information is not known much and
therefore in a distributed systems it is challenging to achieve highest throughput. Because individual peers
not knowing all information of other IOT services state, distance etc factors, it is very much required to
suitably design P2P network.
IOT messaging architecture is classified as One-way messaging model and 2-way messaging model.

One-Way Messaging Model

Providing of asynchronous communication among the components of IOT services were done through
1-way messaging model and it was used by disconnected systems. There was only sending communica-
tion messages from cloud to IOT devices through message brokers and no interaction form IOT services
to back. Limited ability of managing large amount of connected IOT services and security issues, made
it use of 2 way messaging model.

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Figure 1. One- way messaging model

Two-Way Messaging Model

Device-to-cloud messaging and Cloud-to-Device messaging are 2 kinds of communication provided by

2-way messaging model.

Figure 2. Two-way messaging model

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Device-To-Cloud Messaging

Here sensors’ data are transferred from device to cloud. Each device data is gathered and massive amount
of Big-data are transferred to cloud. The event telemetry and sensor’s data are 2 kinds of data sent from
IOT-enabled services to cloud. The messages of events are sent from sensor’s to cloud through queue
or message brokers which is consumed by processing components of real-time or batch processing. The
function of message broker is to gather message from sensors and convert them into message stream
which is sent to cloud.

Cloud-to-Device Messaging

Sending messages from cloud services to IOT devices is bit different compared to big data messages
(Hussain et al., 2021) of other distributed systems. The control messages sent by cloud to other IOT
devices and integration of cloud-based components with IOT enabled services through other types mes-
sages also done via this messaging model.
The properties of 2-way messaging model are

• Communication of control messages from Cloud to IOT services for device configurations
• Changing the behaviour of IOT devices also accomplished through messages from cloud
• Updates of firmware also done through cloud messages to IOT services
• User feed back sent from cloud to IOT devices through this communication model.
• Most of the message brokers does not support communication from message brokers to IOT en-
abled devices.

Types of Peer-to-Peer Architecture

• Query Flooding
• Centralized Directory
• Exploiting Heterogeneity
• Centralized Directory: There is huge central server which resembles client-server architecture and
provides directory service. Here IP address of each peer will be informed by each peers. Server
send token query in regular interval to check whether peers are alive or not. Data base is main-
tained by middle layer to know which service is present at which IP address.
• Query flooding: In this distributed system, there is a overlay network where there is path exists
between one each peer, which results in graph-like structure. The nodes connected to overlay net-
work gets request from client and if nodes don’t have requested file, then this query will be passed
to their neighbors. When client gets required service then this query flood stops. “Gnutella” is
oldest example for peer to peer network.
• Exploiting Heterogeneity: This makes use of distributed system and there is centralized server for
request processing. There is supernodes or group leaders which have huge network connectivity
and higher bandwidth. Peers connected to these supernodes share their IP address and services.
Thus after getting information about peers’ availability, file sharing begins.

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P2P Messaging API

JXTA(Bilal Siddiqui, 2012) was an early P3(Power Plan Project) built P2P overlay network which
presented client server oriented API and message-passing APIs. Because there was no control on the
selection of peers by middleware system, another project ProActive(Denis Caromel et. al, 2007) was
added as infrastructure to make it ease the resource discovery. To dynamically acquire a peer in the P2P
infrastructure, the discovery service is used. This is a ProActive system, which allowed a manager to
dynamically choose peers at the beginning of the program execution. But this infrastructure does not
have knowledge about the infrastructure and network topology, network locality is does not taken into
account as proposed by(Niels Drost et al, 2006) and (Z. Su et al, 2015). The overlay network of P2P aware
about peer locality. The algorithm of Bamboo project(Vignesh Venkateshan, 2022) used by Vignesh,
found close resources with the help of a simple DNS name affinity. A local group is formed by sharing
hosts in a common domain name. According to the work of Zorilla which proposed flood scheduling
that is originated at a peer and broadcasted to all the neighbours according to depth of given radius.
Until suitable number of peers, or until enough peers accepted the job, the flooding steps are performed
successively. Finding suitable parameters for flooding is challenging task here.

METHODOLOGY

P2P communication adresses directly without VPN. Sim card of each IOT device gets a static IP and can
communicate each other through this IP addresses in the LAN. Instead of going through cloud server,
IOT devices communicate each other directly. Here one of the IOT device act as router and direct IP
access of all the devices will be done from the server. No need of Virtual Private Network and even
though it is not secure as VPN, this network is secure compared to general IOT devices’ communication.

Figure 3. Overview of the proposed system

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Registering IOT Service

Registering Services: This process is nothing but avertising the existence of the IOT device to its peers.
This advertisement is done throgh a small XML message. Every IOT service need to register its pres-
ence through registration process. The steps are given here.

• Send connection establishment request message with Registration service.

• After establishing the connection, a request is sent for registering the service.
• Registration service validates this request and sends security token
• Then IOT service creates IOT object and sends registration information to registration service
with registration request.
• Registration service sends authentication message based on security token
• Then registration service forwards registration information to IOT service
• Then IOT service will be connected to peer network
• IOT service will send confirmation message to registration service.

The registration service act as a super node. The registration information of the IOT device have
IOT service details such as type of service, IOT service name, IOT service port information and static
IP of IOT service.
The registration service keeps track of all peer registrations, through its service ports and “last seen”
time stamp. The list of peers tracked by supernode and a peer network is constructed by broadcasting
this information to all services of peer networks.

HandShake Service

Ping message is a test message of P2P network to check for availability of IOT services. Sending ping
message to required nodes of P2P is initiated by handshake service through middle-ware. Middle-ware
service need to prepare task list and lookup method of handshake service gets port addresses of required
services from service registry and initiates handshake process. Once handshake service receives the live
information, the peer-to-peer communication started through a middle-ware.

Middleware Layer

When a user request is submitted then a service table is created by a middle layer according to available
services information of service registration list. The network topology is constructed by middle-ware
and sent to required peer-to-peer IOT services. Construction of network topology is a challenging task
because middle-ware should know what are the required services for a user request. There will be a
set of tasks need to be performed for a user request and this task list is need to be constructed. For ex-
ample, for a smart home system as soon as temperature reaches a threshold value, air condition needs
to switched on. For this purpose, the set of tasks are temperature sensing service, a controlling service
which checks for a threshold value and instructs air condition to swich on and an air condition service.
The sequence of service task for a given request is need to be stored in the middle layer and according
to this sequence peer-to-peer topology is constructed. After checking availability through handshake
service and trust vector of required service, the network is constructed by the middleware. Middleware

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checks for availability of the service by sending alive message to its peers. Thus, middleware maintains
a big database to hold IP address of different registered live services.

Peer-to-Peer Communication

Peer service sends reservation message to its subordinate and reserves required service as proposed by
(Heba Kurdi et al, 2018) and (Zanella et. al, 2014). Distributed Eigen trust algorithm is used by all the
peers for trusting and limiting the flow of data in traffic. As shown in the given figure 4, checking trust
worthiness of each service during interaction is important to decide whether that service is included
for interaction or not whenever required. The infrastructure management table is used by middle-ware
to avoid deadlock. According to the task list of middle-ware layer, peer IOT service is executed for
performing the required task.

Figure 4. P2P Communication model

Trust Manager

This process uses Distributed Eigen trust(Sepandar et. al, 2015) algorithm for checking trust-worthy of
services. A global trust vector computed by this algorithm to minimize the overhead of the computation.
Local trust vector and global trust vectors are stored by each node of the peer network. Pre-trusted peers
will have highest trust value. In P2P networks, peers have very limited interaction with other peers and
very less number of message passing between peers and therefore limited number of local trust values
reported by each peer.

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Eigen Trust Algorithm

Pi: Let ‘Pi’ is peers’ set that downloaded files from peer ‘i’
Qi: Let ‘Qi’ is peers’ set that downloaded files from peer ‘i’
Each peer named ‘i’ do
{
Request all peers j€Pi for tj(0)=pj
Repeat
Compute ti(k+1)=(1-a)(c1it1(k) +c2it2(k) + ….+Cnitn(k))+api
Send cijti(k+1) to all peers j€Qi
Compute δ = | ti(k+1) – ti(k) |
Wait for all peers j€Pi to return cjitj(k+1)
Until δ<€
}

Here ‘c’ is normalized local trust value and in distributed systems, each peers rate with each other after
transaction. When ‘P’ and ‘Q’ download files from peer ‘I’, then rating of transaction as positive or ‘1’
when transaction is successful i.e. tr(P,i)=1. When ‘Q’ transaction is successful then tr(Q,i)=1. When
transaction is not successful then tr(P,i)=-1 and tr(Q,i)=-1. The average of ratings of ‘n’ transactions
will be calculated using Eigen value process and sent to all peers and this rating is taken as trust value
for further transactions.

CENTRALIZED COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Here service registry information is passed to a centralized system which maintains the task list and
act as co-ordinator of the entire system. The problem of this system is if centralized system fails, then
entire system will get disconnected. There is robust co-ordination, highest efficiency and great speed
between the task execution of centralized system, but very smaller number of nodes can be connected
between server and network. (Rodriguez, 2018)Some of the key capabilities of the centralized system
are service management, Event notification, event processing, device discovery, event notification and
system integration.
Figure 5 shows centralized model of service communication. Services share information through
centralized server and data of each system will be stored in central repository. Even though this system
has huge capability, there are several drawbacks which are discussed in the analysis section. Task list of
required services for a given request is maintained by central server and controlling, coordinating the
services is job of centralized server.

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Figure 5. Centralized communication of IOT services

IMPLEMENTATION

The usage of P2P-MPI from library of JAVA used “run everywhere” feature which made it easy to
implement P2P networking model. The MPI(Huaiqing et. al, 2009) has no defacto standard as with
popular implementations of OpenMPI(Huaiqing et. al, 2009) and MPICH(Ferrer et. al, 2012) because
no bindings proposed for Java. MPJ/Ibis (Mark Baker, 2006) and MPJ Express(Mark Baker, 2006) were
an efficient communications supported over TCP or myrinet devices. The portability layer (IPL)(Bouras
et al, 2018) of Ibis multilayer system, presented a network communication features through an object-
oriented interface. The above layer of this model supported different programming models. But this does
not support fault-tolerence and resources available are discovered by the system.
MPI_Scatter, MPI-Gather, MPI_Allgather and MPI_Bcast are APIs used to deploy P2P-MPI system.
The proposed system is tested for several processes as IOT services and function of each API is briefly
discussed here.

int MPIAPI MPI_Allgather(

_In_ void *sendbuf,
_In_ int sendcount,
_In_ MPI_Datatype sendtype,
_Out_ void *recvbuf,
int recvcount,
MPI_Datatype recvtype,
MPI_Comm comm
);

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Following data structures are used by the MPI_Allgather() service.

“sendbuf “ Points to data that need to be sent to all services in the group. “Sendtype” and “send-
count” shows data type of each element and count of elements that sent from each process. The comm
shows an intra-communicator where value stored is “MPI_IN_PLACE” to an in-place option. “recvbuf
“ is pointer to the buffer where received data from the process or service is stored. “recvCount” and
“recvType” shows count of elements and data type of received elements. Comm is communicator handle.
Thus MPI_Allgather service sends data through sendbuf[] and receives data through recvbuf[], count
shows number of characters sent, datatype of sending and receiving data are indicated by “sendtype”
and “recvtype” data structures.
MPI_Bcast and MPI_Scatter Sends data to all the processes through communicator from a speci-
fied root. MPI_Scatter sends small pieces of data and MPI_Bcast sends chunks of an array to different
processes.

• MPI_Gather is another function which sends data to only to root using function MPI_Gather (sen
dbuf,sendcount,sendtype,recvbuf,recvcount, recvtype,root,comm) for root = 0, ..., n-1.

RESULTS

System is simulated with computer node’s processes instead of real smart city services by assuming each
process as a service. The speed of responding to ping message in peer-to-peer network is compared to
centralized system.

Figure 6. Performance of P2P system

It is found in P2P system from result of figure 6 that, when 25 ping messages are transferred from
25 nodes it is taken 2 second to reply, for 25 nodes(doubling of messages) i.e. 50 messages, system has

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taken 2.5 seconds to reply, from 50 nodes and 50 messages, it has taken 3 seconds for reply, for 50 nodes
and 100 messages, the P2P network has taken 4 seconds to reply.

Figure 7. Performance of centralized system

For same set of nodes and messages in same machine configuration, centralized system has taken
more time than P2P system due to congestion of network and many other factors which is discussed in
the analysis section.
It is found from the result that speed of execution of ping message from centralized system is faster
when there is a smaller number of nodes. Performance is improved in distributed system compared to
centralized system as number of nodes increases. Also, as the number of nodes increases, server band-
width will be bottle neck and managing the nodes also time consuming in centralized system compared to
distributed system. Therefore, it is more tedious for centralized system to manage the required resources
compared to distributed system which is explained clearly in analysis section.

ANALYSIS

While comparing distributed system to centralized system it is found that, distributed system is more
stable and applicable for huge applications as given in table 1.

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Table 1. Analysis between centralized and P2P system

Performance Factors Centralized System P2P System

Unable to support huge scale of IOT services. Cisco is reported that 50 billion IOT services will be
Scale Therefore scaling limitations need to be connected by 2022. For huge applications distributed
addressed in centralized system. systems are applicable.
To serve multiple services at same time huge
In P2P systems, the resources are consumed
resources required parallelly which increases
after completion of execution of its tasks from its
Cost the cost of entire system. Cost of deployment of
subordinate peers, therefore no demand of same
centralized server also increased due to storage
resources parallelly or simultaneously.
of large data(piyushji et al, 2016)
Data is vulnerable because all the data is stored
in one place and there will be security risk. As data is stored in their own node in P2P network,
Privacy There can be damage to this data and privacy there is no much data privacy risk because private
maintaining is another issue in the centralized data is stored in its own peers.
system.
Centralized server and IOT devices are
In P2P network there is no such risk because all data
Security vulnerable to security attacks and will be easy
is not stored in centralized server.
target for DOS and DDOS attacks.
Single point of failure is another drawback of
There is no single point of failure in P2P network due
the system because if server gets fails then entire
Single point of failure to interconnectivity between different nodes and even
system corrupted. Redundant switches can be
one node fails another node can achieve given task.
connected to avoid this.
Diverse systems cannot be accessed through In P2P network, as different nodes can support
Diversity and Access centralized system because lack of flexibility in heterogeneous services, flexibility of connecting
diverse needs(Bilal Siddiqui, 2018) diverse system increases.
Centralized server is associated with delays In P2P network, as load is shared by different nodes,
Inflexibility produced due to peak-load concerns and due to there will be rare cases of tight schedule due to peak
tight schedule. loads.

Since centralized system manages all processes with a central server system, this kind of system scale
well for small networks. Large business system cannot deploy this due to hard transportation (Garcerá
et al,2017) of data to different locations. Also due to massive increase of IOT devices it is suitable to
use P2P networks for efficient communication between IOT services.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Even though large number of nodes deployed by P2P networks, setting up 600 peers will not overflow
by requests because most of information cached by peers locally. IOT services are heterogeneous in
nature and ensuring access of these devices should be a basic need. Implementation of distributed P2P
network for smart cities services communication is more benefitted than centralized system while
comparing scale, privacy, cost, diversity and security. Centralized systems can be used for small set of
services, while P2P network are applicable to large set of services. This system uses network topology
which is designed through middleware for a particular request. As a future work it is decided to design
sequence of task list of required functions dynamically according to QoS(Quality of Services) parameters
to provide robust outcome.

Conflict of interest: There is no conflict of interest.

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115

Chapter 7
A Role of Artificial Intelligence
and Machine Learning
Algorithms for Energy
Efficiency Applications
M. Senbagavalli
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3806-8257
Alliance University, India

Shekarappa G. Swetha
Alliance University, India

R. Rajagopal
Alliance University, India

ABSTRACT
Recent years have seen a significant increase in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning
(ML) concepts across a variety of academic domains. AI’s major objective is to build intelligent systems
and give machines human intelligence. Artificial intelligence is a tool for creating systems, making judge-
ments, solving problems, learning, and linguistic intelligence, as well as for imitating human conduct.
Electrical and computer engineers are at the forefront of intellectual creativity as they participate in
the planning, creation, evaluation, and production processes for newer generations of gadgets and tech-
nology. Even if these professionals want to grow, their objectives might conflict with the consequences
of artificial intelligence, which are continually expanding. The practice of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
and Machine Learning (ML) applications in industrial industries that have a significant influence on
sustainability and the environment, such as renewable energy, smart grids, the catalyzed industry, and
power storage and distribution The main popular approaches are artificial neural networks and Machine
learning. Demand for energy is skyrocketing at a higher pace than production in the industry between
2004 and 2017, implying a decline in energy efficiency (EE). Under the premise of steady future output,
an explicit energy efficiency enhancement target of 26% from 2017 and 2050 is set.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch007

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

A Role of AI and ML Algorithms for Energy Efficiency Applications

INTRODUCTION

The main techniques of AI are automation and robotics, Natural Language Processing, machine vision
and machine learning. Some examples of Artificial Intelligence algorithms are classification, clustering,
regression, and ensemble learning algorithms. Applications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) incorporates
Healthcare, the auto industry, robotics, agriculture, e-commerce, education, data security, and social
media, among other industries. The energy sector is facing challenges from heightened competition,
productivity, a lack of statistics necessary for effective management, and altering supply and demand
trends. Artificial intelligence is incorporated into renewable energy technology such as resource predic-
tion, energy efficiency, and energy affordability.
(ONU World Population Prospects, 2019) by the end of this era, there will be more than 10.9 billion
people on the planet, up from 7.7 billion in 2019 and 9.7 billion in 2050. Consumption for water, energy,
and natural resources will rise in tandem with a spike in people on the planet, overtaxing biological
systems and causing nature to gradually deteriorate because of increased energy use. This will have a
broad impact on the built landscape. As a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, limiting global
warming, and reducing the carbon footprint, ecological and efficient energy use is becoming more and
more prevalent. The attempts of several administrations, businesses, and stakeholders demonstrate the
widespread concern for effective energy management and energy efficiency as a means of reducing cli-
mate change and promoting environmental preservation. India’s Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDCs) were centred on Zero Effect, Zero Defect (ZED) manufacturing to improve energy and resource
efficiency, to decrease pollution and handle waste, and to utilise renewable energy sources against the
backdrop of the global efforts. The Indian government has reduced subsidies and raised taxes on fossil
fuels by about 26% as a step towards the ZED aim, converting the carbon subsidy regime into a carbon
taxation system. This section’s main goal is to shed light on the direction that actual research into energy
recommender systems is taking as well as the problems that are driving significant R&D in the near
and distant future. The increasing success of machine learning (ML) approaches in handling routine
categorization or prediction tasks has significantly increased the number of applications that use ML
models, often implementing them as “black boxes” that are challenging for end users to comprehend.
The shift of existing modern AI applications to modern explainable AI models is thought to depend on
an ML model’s capacity to “explain itself and its actions” to the consumers.
A component of artificial intelligence called machine learning uses many data kinds to complete
tasks. A machine learning algorithm first gains knowledge from user data before solving prediction
problems on its own. Machine learning approaches can be divided into three basic categories: supervised,
unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. techniques use different mechanism to solves problem make
use of machine learning. Applications of Machine learning includes self- driving cars, email spam and
malware filtering, traffic prediction, image, and speech recognition etc (Pradhan B. et al, 2022).
Machine learning and natural linguistic interpretation have made an impact on practically every
business and field of academic experiments, including engineering. Artificial intelligence (AI) is used
by specialists in machine learning and electrical engineering to develop and improve technologies as
well as provide the most recent data for AI to analyse. While the existing environment is conducive
for the advancement of energy efficient techniques, the industry still lacks information, expertise, and
experience in how to put these principles into practice. The efficient AI algorithms for various energy
efficient applications includes Deep learning and Artificial Neural Networks.

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A Role of AI and ML Algorithms for Energy Efficiency Applications

As state-of-the-art literature, this study aimed to review, analyse, investigate, and project the various
models incorporating artificial intelligence, machine learning, and certain leading indicators important in
economic projection about renewable energy. Using machine learning algorithms, obtaining the pertinent
research publications on the topic of energy efficiency. Analize areas and significant opportunities by
capturing research interest in this field. Explaining how these technologies are used to get useful infor-
mation about energy efficiency issues. Assessing the ideal client to respond for the traits and demands,
appealing price, organizing, and monitoring amenities, rewarding demand response participants, and
supporting them evenly and financially are all AI ways that can be used to tackle various issues. The
presented approach review study shows the potential to enhance energy efficiency and the usage of
renewable energy resources by implementing AI and ML.
Two of the most important drivers of the global energy shift are global warming and air pollutants.
Regional environmental pollution is a big problem in countries like China and India. However, in Europe,
the negative health effects of air pollution, which are mostly linked to power supply and consumption,
are gaining traction. The increasing proclivity of organisations toward globalisation has several envi-
ronmental implications. The influence on the ecology has now become a global problem. Even though
several levels of research provide contradictory results, numerous studies have found that globalisation
has had a detrimental influence on the ecology and has worsened ecological harm. This research study
targets to examine the multicollinearity of globalisation and environmental contamination.
This book chapter explains the importance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML)
concepts in energy optimization and the focus of this book chapter is to review and give an overall idea
on some Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) based intelligent algorithms which
is implemented for energy efficiency and identifying the exposed challenges and leanings in the cur-
rent research. The sections below are contained in this book chapter. Section I focused on AI and ML
ideas in Introduction, Section II focused on the AI, Section III focused role of AI and ML optimization
algorithms in energy efficiency, Section IV focused on different sectors of energy efficiency using AI
and ML optimization, Section V on latest trends, future scopes and challenges, Section VI on Key Chal-
lenges of AI and ML in Energy sector and at last Section VII focused on conclusion and future work.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

It is a large phrase that refers to the use of technology to accomplish the tasks that bear a resemblance
to human intellectual function. It is described as a machine’s ability to simulate intelligent human be-
haviour. Theory and development of computer systems accomplished of working responsibilities gener-
ally requiring human intellect, such as speech recognition, visual perception, language translation and
decision-making, according to the Artificial Intelligence definition. Building an AI system requires a
laborious process of mirroring our traits and skills in a machine and then utilising its processing power
to outperform our skills.

Types of Artificial Intelligence

Different Artificial Intelligence objects are built for a variety of purposes. AI can be classified based
upon on the functionalities.

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• Artificial Narrow Intelligence(ANI)

• Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)
• Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)

Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)

This is the highly conventional type of AI on the market right now. A specific problem can be addressed
by this Artificial Intelligence systems and these can perform a single task exceptionally effectively. They
only have a few capabilities, including suggesting produced goods to an online shopper or predicting the
weather. Currently, only this kind of artificial intelligence is accessible.

Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)

Even if we are moving into science fiction territory, ASI is seen as the logical progression from Arti-
ficial General Intelligence. In every regard, an artificial superintelligence system would be superior to
humans. This would entail making decisions and sensible decisions, as well as producing greater art
and growing emotional connections.

Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)

The concept of artificial general intelligence (AGI) is still in its infancy. It is described as AI with a
mortal-position of cognitive function throughout a range of disciplines, including image and language
processing, among others. An AGI system would need to consist of thousands of Artificial Narrow Intel-
ligence systems working together and interacting with one another in order to mimic human reasoning.
In addition to the aforementioned categories, there are also Strong and Weak AIs.

Types of AI Algorithms

Regression Algorithms

Regression is mostly used to build models that can predict one variable from the values of other known
variables. The system factors for a function that will be appropriate to a set of detected data and useful
for future predictions are established using regression analysis. A fundamental statistical method that
has been applied in machine learning is regression. It is helpful in many circumstances when numerical
estimations are required, including corporate strategy, financial forecasting, marketing, and trend research.

Decision-Tree Algorithms

These algorithms are used for extracting information from groups of samples. In this Algorithm, each
node in a tree signifies input characteristics, branches signify attribute values and leaves signifies indi-
vidual decisions. With the knowledge of algorithm, each node of the tree is managed recursively. The
child node properties can be reduced by states of preceding nodes.

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Association Rule Learning Algorithms

One of the most well-known data mining approaches is association discovery, which includes examin-
ing a set of properties from a database for recurrent dependencies. Associative rules and parameters
are the end result of this strategy. When the goal is to construct cause and effect correlations between
occurrences recorded in the examined database, mining approaches based on extracting associative rules
are used. The outcomes of this methodology could be quite beneficial for assessing shopping carts or
developing offers for specific client groups.

Instance-Based Algorithms

It is a kind of algorithm that contrasts examples of training data stored in memory with new issue cases
rather than actually training. The objective is to find the most similar matches. Instead of creating a
target function for the entire collection, instance-based algorithms evaluate each new case separately
using just training examples. When the target function is complex but can be reduced to a more basic
generalisation, they work brilliantly.

Clustering Algorithms

A method for classifying things into groups that are similar in nature is clustering. The basis for grouping
in the majority of algorithms is the similarity between components provided by the similarity function.
The identification of homogenous groups that can be submitted to statistical, economic, or data min-
ing analysis is accomplished using clustering techniques. Grouping, for instance, can be used to divide
clients into smaller groups.

Ensemble Algorithms

The outcomes of many smaller, separately trained machine learning algorithms used in ensemble tech-
niques are combined into a single performance. The right models must be chosen for this technique,
and their integration must be done in the correct way. When applied correctly, this group of methods
can be highly powerful.

Artificial Neural Network Algorithms

These are models based on the framework of biological neural network systems. They’re frequently em-
ployed in regression and classification problems. The field of artificial neural networks is exceedingly
complex, with numerous versions and solutions for specific challenges.

Deep Learning Algorithms

Deep learning is a brand-new way of thinking about neural networks. Stronger designs with a hierarchi-
cal system structure made of numerous nonlinear layers are used in these methods. These algorithms are
particularly useful for jobs like object recognition and machine translation. Researchers also use other
techniques, such as regularization, that is used to initiate extra details to solve a problem and enhance

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the quality of the software, or the Bayesian theorem, which is used to estimate the possibility of an event
based solely on preceding information of circumstances that could be connected to the event. The method
employed is mostly determined by the problem’s kind and complexity. Some models are effective for
certain situations but ineffective for others. Therefore, scientists are always developing new approaches
and combining old ones to create new equipment and systems. Because artificial intelligence and machine
learning is such a big and intricate field, there is no one-size-fits-all solution.

Strong and Weak Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is further divided into two classifications based on extensive research: Strong
Artificial Intelligence and Weak Artificial Intelligence. Here are a few key distinctions between them.
The first difference is that strong AI applications have incredible human-level intelligence, whereas
weak AI applications are good at specific tasks. The second difference is purely related to scope, the
strong AI is a wider application with a larger extent, whereas weak AI is a narrow product with a smaller
scope. The final distinction is that strong AI processes data through clustering and association, whereas
weak AI processes data through supervised and unsupervised learning. Finally, Advanced Robotics is
an example of strong AI, while Siri and Alexa are examples of weak AI. In practice, AI is a catch-all
word that incorporates a wide range of technologies and operations, some of which are detailed here.

Machine Learning (ML)

The area of computer science that uses techniques to handle and learn from massive amounts of data is
that field. In contrast to conventional rules-based programming, machine learning (ML) models learn
from incoming data to make predictions or identify significant patterns without requiring open coding.
There are different types of machine learning algorithms there and algorithms are varied with respect to
size which is based on effectiveness. Types of different Learning Algorithms are listed here.

• Supervised Machine Learning: Supervised model is trained with labelled input information that
compares to a certain production.
• Unsupervised Machine Learning: The input data is not labelled, and the production is not speci-
fied in unsupervised Machine Learning. Instead, enormous amounts of raw data are input into the
models, and the procedures are meant to find any fundamental relevant patterns. The procedures
may group comparable data, but they do the same without any expectation of outcome.
◦◦ Reinforcement Learning: In this Learning, through trial and error, the model learns dy-
namically to obtain the desired result. The prototype algorithm is rewarded if it performs
well and produces the desired result. It is, on the other hand, penalised if it does not deliver
the intended output. As a result, the prototype learns to operate in a specific approach that
maximises the gain reward over time.
◦◦ Deep Learning: This Learning approach is purely based upon the artificial neural network; it
uses multiple layers of learning to interpret vast volumes of unlabelled or unstructured data
in a way like how the neural networks works in brain. These prototypes are often employed
when the fundamental data is huge in volume, comes from a variety of resources and can be
in a variety of formats (e.g., text, voice, and video).

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◦◦ Natural Language Processing (NLP): It is a subset of artificial intelligence that enables ro-
bots to read out or recognise text and voice, extract information from a problem, and maybe
transform that information into a desired output format, such text or voice.
◦◦ Computer Vision (CV): It is also suggested to as machine vision. It is a discipline of com-
puter science that aims to enable workstations to perceive, recognise, and analyse images in
the similar manner that humans do, and then again deliver suitable output.” ML models are
frequently used by CV applications to translate what it “sees” and generate determinations
or expectations.
◦◦ Robotics Process Automation (RPA): Robotic process automation, or RPA, is the use of
pre-programmed software devices that communicate with other applications to carry out re-
petitive manual tasks with increased accuracy, efficiency, and speed. RPA (Robotic Process
Automation) systems are frequently used for high-volume, repetitive tasks involving struc-
tured data, such as account resolution, account payable processing, and check accumulation.
RPA focuses on process automation in a way that is more comparable to a rules-based system
than AI, according to some market participants. Others, though, consider it to be a more
basic form of artificial intelligence, especially when combined with other innovations like
machine learning. Each ML task often requires a different set of steps, depending on the data
at hand and the objectives selected.

ROLE OF AI AND ML OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHMS IN ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Around 70% of the electricity generated is used to power companies and houses, with 60% of that being
squandered. That is billions of money paid out on energy production that we haven’t used. To prevent this
from taking place, we must initially comprehend where and how the waste occurs. This is where artificial
intelligence enters the picture. Max-impact integrates AI applications into energy saving strategies to
assist metropolises, business, and commercial businesses with energy forecasting, energy supervision,
renewable energy storage, and future sustainable development.
Artificial intelligence is used to track, gather, control, assess, and manage energy use in buildings
and enterprises. It continuously analyses energy handling, lowering it during peak hours, spotting and
signalling problems, and anticipating equipment malfunctions. It is important for monitoring and un-
derstanding data generated by the energy sectors in order to reduce energy use since it can compress
and analyse vast volumes of data. Depending on the company or industry, bottlenecks might occur at
various stages of the process. By using data to inform decision-making, Max-impact may aggressively
evaluate such processes and, using predictive analysis, identify concerns before they become problems.
AI systems can use numbers, text, images, and videos to generate these predictions. This increases the
utility of AI but also calls for the employment of a skilled problem solver to tailor each AI response to
each circumstance.

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Figure 1. Role of AI and ML in energy efficiency

Figure 1 depicts the overall process of AI and machine learning in energy efficiency, which may be
used to a variety of industries for energy optimization. The first and most significant stage is to collect a
data set, as a dataset is a critical resource for finding answers to any problem. Once it’s ready, the feature
extraction process begins, with the identification of precise Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine
Learning (ML) techniques and parameters being critical for proving the best answer. Finally, the above
stages, which are depicted in this figure, can be used to predict the estimated energy variable.

Common Steps of AI Algorithm for Smart Energy Systems

1. The public sector’s Big Information gathering level is based on the data from the energy manage-
ment information system (EMIS) databases and the IoT Smart Building network.
2. Preparing input for prediction models utilising the methodologies is done at the data pre-processing
stage using R or Python programming.
3. Machine learning forecasting level is to estimate energy efficiency by using various learning
methods.
4. Level of data interpretation and visualisation is the next step. In this, the results of machine learning
techniques are presented clearly to the users using dynamic charts and tables, which are integrated
by several R and Python libraries.
5. At this level, users make the decisions about power generation and investments in rebuilding ef-
forts, among other things. A rule-based decision tree in the software can back up these findings.

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Literature Review on AI and ML Optimization Algorithms in Energy Efficiency

(Zili Yang et al., 2021) This research provides an AI-based arrangement model that achieves dynamic
energy utilisation efficiency optimisation through the knowledge and assessment of various current
stimulation policies. In this paper, they proposed model which is managed with superior performance
in the profitable goal collaboration and hydrate recovery by changing the portions of the optimization
control policy function as substantiated by the optimization results. The model raised the energy product
injection rate by 4.5 times grounded on methodical assessment of the energy utilisation effectiveness of
colourful thermal stimulation programs. The AI reproduction learning findings also revealed that hydrate
recovery at the reactor scale had a range effect, and later the energy efficiency that could be achieved in
a great level. The proven correlation linking each thermal stimulus policy and its evolving energy usage
efficiency is also established using model learning.
(Ghezlane Halhoul Merabeta et al., 2021) This paper conducts a wide-ranging and in-depth systematic
reassess of AI-based building control techniques by evaluating the outputs of these methods and their
implementations in the re-examined works, as well as examining their capabilities to improve energy
efficiency while preserving thermal comfort. This gives researchers in the area a complete observation
of the challenges of on condition that thermal comfort to consumers inside the buildings in an energy-
efficient manner, and the corresponding catalogue information to aid researchers and specialists for
handling in the field such a dispute. Identification and recognition patterns, optimization, and predictive
control are among the twenty AI techniques urbanized for comfort control and energy consumption. The
application of AI technology in control of the building, which is based on the findings of this study, it
is a potential spot of research that is still uncompleted, that is the performance of Artificial Intelligence
based control is not yet totally adequate. It is partly owing to the piece of evidence that these algorithms
typically require a substantial amount of high-class real-world data, which is scarce in the construction
or, extra specifically, the energy sectors. According to the current analysis, from the year 1993 to 2020,
the use of Artificial Intelligence approaches and individualised comfort models resulted in average energy
investments of 21.81 to 44.36 percent and comfort improvements of 21.67 to 85.77 percent. Finally, this
article analyses the obstacles to using AI to get better energy efficiency and comfort, as well as the major
future possibilities in AI based building control systems for energy administration and human comfort.
(Aparna Kumaria et al., 2020) AI-based techniques provide a variety of services, including energy
load prediction, customer classification, load control, and analysis, all of which require the BC to pro-
vide data immutability and a trust mechanism for secure energy management. As a result, this article
examines several existing AI-based techniques, as well as the benefits and limitations of combining BC
technology and AI in an ECM system.
(Kypros Milidonis et al., 2021) Artificial intelligence technique is becoming gradually more important
in designing part of energy system. Several AI ideas are already extensively used throughout the energy
business in activities like production predicting, energy conservation monitoring, power storage, and
total energy system design. This paper examines the application of critical AI techniques to assessment,
optimisation, operations, and safeguarding of Solar Tower systems, which are amongst the high common
forms of Solar Thermal systems. Initial, key AI approaches is for a short time introduced, with examples
of how they might be applied to solar systems. Following that, a thorough examination of how the AI
methods is applied to main part in solar tower systems is presented. The re-examinations are organised
in the region of several subsystems that make up a solar tower system.

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(Muhammad Uzair Mehmooda et al., 2019) They discuss how AI may be used to propose and oper-
ate energy efficient business constructions and residential residences in this study. The present research
emphasises that AI, when combined with Big Data (Hussain M. W. et al, 2021), can dramatically improve
the energy optimization and cost effectiveness of buildings that are designed to offer residents with a
pleasant indoor living situation. The findings in this research show that AI is increasingly playing an
essential responsibility in design and operation of energy-efficient buildings with a suitable indoor living
environment in the future. Fast datamining and optimal skewing of climate data from various resources,
such as satellite data and individual weather stations, more comprehensible interfaces to suit dissimilar
user’s favourites and functioning conditions and prototypes, and applications of AI and Big Data to
smart homes and buildings with highly adaptable building mechanisms are some of the not compulsory
research guidelines in this area.
(Yassine Himeur et al., 2021) The CVX(Convex)modelling framework for convex optimization was
used to create a multi-objective optimization problem in MATLAB software. The tested network’s topol-
ogy consists of 4, 6, and 10 patients moving in four zones at a minimum speed of 2 m/s and a maximum
speed of 6 m/s using the STEPS mobility model. The simulation was carried out using a single Com-
puter Aided Engineering (CAE) model as an example, demonstrating the effectiveness of employing the
CAE model as an adaptive compression strategy in reducing the transmission energy of huge medical
data. (Miguel Angel Bermeo et al.,2021) In the multi-objective optimization problem, they employed
simulation parameters. Finally, the use of recommender systems in the building energy sector is a very
promising subject because it not only recommends energy-saving acts but can also be expanded to assist
consumers in purchasing products.
(Abeer Al-Marridi et al., 2020) In m-Health applications, AI-based algorithms on edge devices to
optimise energy efficiency, The usual method of communication between the patient and the doctor is
no longer appropriate. As a result, academics believe that the widespread use of mobile phones around
the world, together with speedy improvement of knowledge domains such as smartphones, communica-
tion barriers, sensors, and much more, will help to alleviate the health-care shortfall. (AI-Marridi AZ.,
et al.,2019) The advancement of smart-phone gadgets provides researchers with new options to include
them into the therapeutic process. (Lee J, 2011). As a result, smart-Health (s-Health) was classified as a
subset of m-Health. Because practically all smart gadgets have a built-in sensor for biosensing tracking,
there is no need to integrate separate sensors with patients. Furthermore, as mobile cellular network
coverage expands fast, smart gadgets will be used to solve the connectivity problem.
(DiogoA.C.Narciso and F.G.Martins, 2020) This research investigates the potential utility of manu-
facturing data using methods of Machine Learning to achieve energy efficiency targets. This project
recognises and examines the scientific contributions that have been published to date. There is a totality
of nearly 42 published papers in this topic that make innovative ideas and address a variety of energy
efficiency concerns. The amount of published works in this topic is quickly increasing, according to a
descriptive analysis. Most of the contributions deal with issues in the petrochemical industry, specifically
ethylene production. The proposed framework can be used as a suggestion guideline for the industrialized
and process sectors for selecting appropriate Machine Learning techniques to achieve energy efficiency
goals using industrial data.
(Won Shina et al., 2021), (Kasaeian A et al., 2020) Predictive maintenance was the focus of this
study since it’s a very important constituent for the booming operation of renewable energy systems and
extending predictive maintenance to adequately regular and intermittent inspections is expected. They
examined a typical bearing failure detection scenario in which endoscopic pictures were collected for

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inspection. They considered the merits and drawbacks of human-only and AI-only procedures, as well as
the advantages of AI-assistance. According to the findings, AI-assisted generalist and specialised groups
can improve all variables, including specificity, sensitivity, and time efficiency. Inspectors benefited
from AI-assisted inspections even when AI-only performance was inferior to individual performance.
(T.S. Ibrahim et al., 2020) The special effects of perception were also examined, with promising grades.
Future research could include regular operating tests as well as unlimited experiments in renewable en-
ergy domains outer surface of wind farm operation. For the treatment of high-organic-content sludge,
the AI system is an excellent solution in terms of energy efficiency.
(Cheng Chen et al., 2021), (Haupt SE et al.,2020) Artificial Intelligence was created using physics-
based methods (AI-PBM). The structure provided by State of Kuwait for the Green Energy Park is
explained by AI-PBM. Wind turbines, photovoltaic panels, and solar-focused renewables with luggage
compartment capacity make up the park. The methodologies, how they are coupled with every AI ap-
proach, and the quantitative significance to the forecasting system are all briefly explained in AI-PBM.
Each component of operational AI provides value to the device.
(Prince and Ananda Shankar Hati, 2021) In this paper, they assessed the effectiveness of three alter-
native methods for forecasting daily electricity usage in a local industrial sector (the studied case). At
first, as a probabilistic system, an alternative of the Multiple Model Particle Filter is suggested. Then,
two distinct ANNs(Artificial Neural networks), one with one hidden layer and the other with 2 hidden
layers, are calculated and experienced. Lastly, we show how a built Artificial Neural Network based
design may modify its structure in response to chronological fluctuations supplied by a dataset contain-
ing the used electricity for the same observed region between the year 2011 and 2015 that is 1825 days.
The prospective of AI-based methods will be highlighted by summarising a harmonize heuristic learn-
ing that uses an evolutionary algorithm to recommend an optimum solution outage routine for original
creators supplying the support higher in order to perform scheduled maintenance that may be needed
from periodically or to rest several of the units if the anticipated utilisation for a given time period doesn’t
really require the total generated power.
(KhalidHamid et al., 2021) Experiments on different masses of Problems that could occur are main-
tained at a constant air velocity in order to determine different evaluation characteristics such as the
heat pump’s conversion efficiency, evaporation of water, humidity extraction efficiency, and specific
humidity mining efficiency in this paper. Study was designed to compare loads, achieve a higher level
of highest efficiency and heat transfer characteristics. The rate of evaporation elimination is determined
by the moisture permeability, which improves as the drying air temperature and speed rise. In addition
to that, a machine and deep learning model using the most powerful dryer inlet conditions like air tem-
perature, and airflow rate as input features, load, and time to approximate dryer opening conditions and
weight diminution for measurement of drying kinetics of the measured material was developed. It’s a
straightforward and reliable way to estimate freshening performance of diverse resources with a closed
loop heat pump drier because of its excellent accuracy.
(KiJeonNam et al., 2021) To pick up environmental operations of wastewater treatment plants, most
favourable active solutions have been widely used. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) plants, on the other
hand, have been subjected to insufficient optimization systems, ensuing in high energy expenditure suit-
able to unknown influent and difficult natural and substantial interactions connected with membrane
fouling. They employ simulation software to build up a dual-objective optimisation method that is based
on the cuckoo search approach. A multimodal gated recurrent unit provided the most precise predic-
tions of increasing fluctuations in everyday prominent amongst competing products. And operational

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advice was based on the projected influent data. Using an incorporated biological and physical model,
the optimization system looked for predictive operating techniques, such as ventilation intensities and
permeation-cleaning periods. The indicated aeration intensities for cleaning air on top of membrane
surfaces were applied after systemic absorption duration was optimised. A pilot MBR plant outfitted
with the recommended optimization method enhanced energy consumption by 4% and decreased fouling
by 39% when comparing to a conventionally run system. At a full-scale MBR system, dual-objective
tuning increased energy efficiency by 12percent and reduced fouling by 26%, demonstrating viability
and consistency.
(C.Solaimuthu et al., 2015) This study was conducted with the energy consumption of pumps con-
nected to diesel engines for irrigation and locomotive tractors in developing countries in mind. According
to the findings, Mahua biodiesel provides comparable performance and lower emissions, making it a vi-
able alternative fuel for diesel locomotives and irrigation pumps that do not require engine modification.
(G.RaviK and R.Kashwan, 2015) In this paper, they have mentioned Energy-Aware Span Routing
Protocol (EASRP) is a new algorithm that applied energy discounting technique such as the Adaptive
Fidelity Energy Conservation Algorithm (AFECA). The use of a hardware track known as the Remote
Activated Switch (RAS) to make active in sleeping nodes significantly reduces energy consumption
(Hussain M. W., et al, 2020) and this energy-saving technique is well time-honoured in reactive proto-
cols. Still, when employing EASRP in a mixture protocol, particularly a proactive protocol, there are
several concerns to consider. When compared to Energy-Aware Zone Routing Protocol (EAZRP) and
(Zone Routing Protocol) ZRP, simulation findings for the EASRP procedure reveal a 12.2 percent and
17.45 percent increase in energy efficiency, respectively.
(Vinith KumarLakshmanan et al., 2021) The use of an Eco-Driving Optimal Controller to apply
cooperation to a detachment of electric vehicles is discussed in this study (EDOC). It is offered a hypo-
thetical examination of sequence stability with and with no cooperation. The simulation findings reveal
that a subdivision with cooperative EDOC outperforms a platoon without collaboration in the form of
energy efficiency and twine firmness.
(Miguel AngelBermeo et al., 2021) Adjustment and monitoring of machinery’s energy use leads to
a more efficient and sustainable industry. As a result, and in accordance with a digital twin strategy,
this study proposes and describes an online data determined energy modelling system with balanced
abilities. This method can be used to create reliable energy management systems that improve industrial
machinery’s energy efficiency. Without employing phenomenological principles, the dynamic behaviour
of their energy consumption can be represented in this way. Traditional techniques, on the other hand,
rarely analyse such dynamic behaviour or employ an intensive modelling process. The suggested method
comprises an adaptive mechanism that considers natural machinery degradation. This approach relies on
an idea go with the flow detector, which identifies when the machine’s current utilization is not accu-
rately characterized by this corresponding model assessment and make to fit the model to accommodate
for these new behaviours. (Zhou. R et al., 2020), (aidya S and Nandi C, 2020) The idea drift detector
has a wide range of applications in terms of lowering preservation costs, monitoring the contact and
progression of anomalous behaviours, and determining which fundamentals vary. An industrial testbed
has been used to validate the suggested methodology. The testbed was used to conduct experimentation
with 3 simulated concept flows. Finally, they have concluded that the proposed adaptive technique has
highest fit rate of the energy prediction or estimation and correctly detected these changes in energy use
than the non-adaptive technique. (Senbagavalli M and G Tholkappia Arasu, 2016), (M Senbagavalli et

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al., 2022), (MS Valli and GT Arasu, 2016) and (Anitha M and Senbagavalli M 2023) used various ad-
vanced machine learning and deep learning algorithms for improving efficiency of the proposed model.

SECTORS OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY USING AI AND ML OPTIMIZATION

Here, we have emphasized some of the industries that are interested in learning more about how artificial
intelligence and Machine Learning is used in Energy Efficiency.

Industrial Sector

The industrial sector may now employ artificial intelligence to minimize energy expenses by optimizing,
monitoring, and controlling energy consumption. Many industrial firms and sites use a lot of energy,
and more than 60% of them haven’t investigated how they may save energy. Through quantitative and
progressive energy management methods aided by artificial intelligence and data mining, energy us-
age may be controlled and managed. We process data using data mining and artificial intelligence to
figure out where energy waste comes from and how it might be eliminated. The AI then uses this data
to regulate and control energy use while also collecting other data. It focuses on reducing waste through
process innovations and supply chain efficiency in order to meet competitive pressures and lower costs.

Step 1: Max-impact uses data mining to identify energy-saving potential, process bottlenecks, and process
variability issues in process and utility systems.
Step 2: Max-impact reduces energy usage by identifying the ideal operational set point and equipment
using algorithms.
Step 3: The system will autonomously regulate and control energy usage to maximize efficiency by
integrating artificial intelligence and combining it with data found by data mining.

In industrial production facilities, artificial intelligence reduces energy wastage by:

• Self-managing power grids — AI applications are built to handle numerous energy sources ef-
ficiently, including solar, wind, and fossil fuels, allowing the Energy Forecast to be used to energy
management.
• Increasing plant yields by determining the best process set points
• Reducing energy usage for heating and cooling applications
• Reducing breakdowns - AI forecasts any potential failures of vital energy infrastructure using a
combination of analytics, sensors, and operational data.
• Improving Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant unit energy efficiency
• Predicting energy consumption and matching renewable energy production to it. This minimizes
plant emissions while also reducing reliance on fuel. In places where manufacturers are solely
reliant on fuel, AI can assist in optimizing fuel utilization and judiciously managing consumption.
• Optimizing performance and sequencing, as well as identifying maintenance concerns, to reduce
compressed air, nitrogen, and water plant utility costs.
• In today’s competitive business environment, organizations all over the world are looking for ways
to save money on energy and other operational costs. In most businesses, energy accounts for a

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significant amount of operational costs and is a critical resource in the manufacturing process.
Due to a combination of environmental and geopolitical challenges, energy costs have been con-
tinuously rising over the last 20 years, forcing industrial players to look for ways to become more
energy efficient.
• Investing in energy efficiency can also have other advantages, such as lowering your company’s
overall carbon impact and increasing your capacity to accomplish carbon-related goals. Industries
have discovered that replacing old inefficient systems with more efficient and reliable ones has a
direct impact on product quality, improved working conditions, and energy cost savings of up to
60%. Energy audits and services assist industrial establishments in determining where, why, and
how they may reduce energy consumption and waste. At the same time, delivering crucial infor-
mation on energy consumption to management. Max-impact’s energy efficiency and renewable
energy experts are highly qualified in their fields and work with a variety of significant worldwide
enterprises, as well as governments, municipalities, and international development organizations.
They can provide first-class advice by participating in cutting-edge energy research initiatives
targeted at solving actual difficulties, which can result in significant energy savings of between
15% and 45 percent.

Municipalities

Municipalities and the public sector can use artificial intelligence to help them handle a variety of prob-
lems and transform into smart cities. Municipalities have a variety of energy-consuming assets, ranging
from street and traffic lighting to heating and cooling office buildings, as well as powering shipyards,
airports, schools and churches, residences and hospitals, factories, and retail stores. Artificial intelli-
gence will not only give real-time energy consumption statistics, but it will also be able to use that data
to change energy supply based on demand. It, for instance, considers the weather.An AI system can use
a combination of renewable energy sources to meet its energy needs, only using fossil-fuel-generated
energy when essential. Depending on the difficulty, sector, location, and size, Max-impact assists gov-
ernments in selecting the best AI-controlled energy solutions.

Commercial Sector

The way energy is managed in commercial buildings will be revolutionized by artificial intelligence.
Whether you’re dealing with a hospital, a stadium, a retail mall, an office building, a school, or a hotel,
artificial intelligence can help you save money on energy and manage your usage more effectively over
time.Artificial intelligence (AI) is used to develop intelligent, or smart, profit-making buildings that find
out and optimize their energy convention on their own. These apps have a wisdom curve that allows
them to incessantlyprogress complex operations by organizing and analyzing massive volumes of data
about your energy use habits. The AI solutions become people facility’s automatic energy management
system.In order to achieve energy conservation, certain AI programs monitor and control a whole build-
ing’s energy activity. These are some of them:

• Air quality and Vibration

• Early problem detection and Variable air volume systems
• Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)

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• Temperature sensors and Humidity

• Gas and water supply systems

Examples of AI Applications in Commercial Sectors:

• Google reduced their energy bill by with percentage of 40

Google uses a significant quantity of electricity. They are estimated to have used 4,402,836 MWh of
electricity in 2014, which is about like the annual usage of 366,903 US houses. Google has decreased
its energy expenditure by hundreds of millions of dollars thanks to DeepMind AI.

• AI helps different universities scratch their energy costs by as much as 30%.

At six British universities, the Energy Consortium has piloted an energy efficiency AI project. An
AI program will be used by different universities to discover energy waste, enhance efficiency, and save
expenses.

• Hospital in New Delhi within six months condensed their energy usage by 35 percent

Using an AI application, Sant Parmanand hospital in New Delhi, India was able to lower its monthly
energy use by 35 percent in just six months.

LATEST TRENDS, FUTURE SCOPES, AND CHALLENGES

Uses of Artificial Intelligence in energy sectors are listed here:

Data Digitization

Since the rest of the world moves toward personalized computerized services, the energy business is
falling behind. Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning can help translate data collection process,
storing and managing, permitting the energy segment to catch up with the times. Even though the industry
is large and successful, it still relies heavily on physical labor. Energy firms have a lot of information to
handle, and it’s a lot of it. Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligencecan store the data, process the
data and manage the data which is collected already with more timeand cost-efficiently. The AI data
governance method can reveal fresh perceptions that have the potential to totally change the way the
industry operates.

AI Forecasting

Due to global population, more and more energy needs to be maintained by modern machines. Predic-
tive analytics is the most important job of AI and ML in the energy industry. Energy related company’s
needs to make progress that is predictive analysis for providing better customer service, to save energy,
to cut down costs. AI and MLalgorithms are useful to bring forecasting to the subsequent level in the

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energy industry. In the energy sector, AI and machine learning algorithms can help take forecasting to
the next level. Changes in consumer, network overloads, and potential breakdowns must all be forecasted
as accurately as feasible by energy producers. In the energy sector, the cost of a mistake is extremely
significant. General Electric intends to use Machine learning and artificial intelligence to enhance their
business processes. Anodot is a specific example of artificial intelligence technology being successfully
implemented in the solar industry.

Resource Management

Once AI forecasting is done then the Resource management is concentrated because it is the next phase
in the energy business. Thanks to intelligent Intelligence forecasting procedures, energy providers would
be able to more effectively deploy their resources, plan for demand ahead of time, anticipate difficulties,
and conserve resources whenever possible. End-users will profit from AI-assisted energy conservation
in the form of decreased effectiveness bills and tailored services, which is a major advantage of AI in
sector of energy.

Failure Prediction and Prevention

AI can predict system overloads and warn operators of potential transformer breakdowns. VIA has cre-
ated Trusted Analytics Chain, a blockchain-based technology that assists businesses in gathering and
analyzing data in order to predict system behavior. PreNav is a start-ups that uses drones, lidar, and
deep learning to assist energy companies digitize their infrastructure. This type of service can assist
businesses in better visualizing their capabilities. In the energy business, PreNav came up with a great
usage of AI. Their machine learning and deep learning algorithms can detect problems and dangers
specific to the energy business.

Energy Storage Facilitation

The problem of storage technology efficiency is tough to tackle. As the amount of electricity to also be
stored develops, more capacity and more management methods are necessary. Artificial Intelligence
(AI) can assist businesses in optimizing their energy storage space. Renewable Energy (RE) is difficult
to store since it is produced in a predictable, if not chaotic, manner.By combining AI-powered storage
with renewable energy, the energy storage management may be considerably simplified, resulting in
increased business value and reduced power losses. Consider the startup, which is called Stem, that
assists businesses in improving their energy plans. 80 of the country’s leading solar energy producers,
assisting them with increasing project value by up to 90% by increasing storage space.

KEY CHALLENGES OF AI AND ML IN ENERGY SECTOR

Shortfall of Theoretical Background

The absence of adequate understanding about AI technology between decision-makers is one cause for
the sluggish implementation of AI and ML in the energy sector. Many businesses simply be short of

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the technical knowledge required to grasp how AI may enhance their operations. Traditional consum-
ers would rather remain with tried-and-true ways and technologies than take a chance on new things.
Energy decision-makers are paying attention to many sectors, include education, healthcare, and trans-
portationwith the help of AI.

Shortfall of Practical Expertise

There are many professionals that have a thorough theoretical understanding of the issue. However, find-
ing individuals capable of developing powerful AI-powered software with real-world utility is extremely
difficult. Furthermore, the energy sector is known for its conservatism. Even though energy businesses
collect and process information, digitizing it with cutting-edge technology is difficult.Loss of data,
inadequate customization, equipment malfunction, and unauthorized access are all potential concerns.
Because the penalty of error is so significant within the energy sector, most organizations are hesitant
to attempt new ways with which they are unfamiliar.

Outdated Infrastructure

The most significant impediment to power sector transformation is antiquated infrastructures. Utility firms
are presently mired in a mountain of data they acquire and have no clue how to deal with it. Whereas
the industry has much more information than most, it is frequently dispersed, unstructured, fragmented
across multiple forms, and only saved locally. Whereas the business makes a lot of money, it also loses
a lot of money due to the weaknesses of antiquated technology.

Financial Pressure

Incorporating advanced modern devices in energy subdivision may be the most excellent option, except
it is not the most cost-effective. It consumes a lot of effort and resources to find a competent software
provider, develop and customize technology, adjust, manage, and audit it. Before power companies can
realize the rewards of adopting AI and machine learning into scheme, they must be willing to commit a
sizable budget and incur the risks of replacing outmoded technologies.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

This chapter begins with an opening to AI and machine learning introduction, tracked by an example of
how Artificial Intelligence and machine learning may and have been used to improve energy efficiency.
Also, the effects of the globalisation I the current and the future generation. Which is leading to the en-
ergy transition for the better efficiencywith the smart energy system. The second section of this chapter
looks at recent articles on AI and machine learning in energy-efficient systems. In recent years, AI and
machine learning have played a significant role in a variety of industries, such as industries, digitization,
and forecasting, to improve energy optimization. Renewable energy is a strong financial force as well as
a viable solution for sustainable development. In the context of the previous concept, the energy business
is one of the primary industries where “energy digitalization” has expanded rapidly across a wide range
of resource sectors. Artificial intelligence is being incorporated transversely into various industry areas,

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boosting data analytics capabilities. Because of the unpredictable nature of weather, suppliers may be
forced to rely on conventional energy sources to congregate consumer demand. As a result, AI-driven
energy forecasting tools may offer potential in giving energy suppliers the data they need to answer to
and plan for changes that could negatively impact operations.

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Chapter 8
5G-Enabled Secure IoT
Applications in Smart
Cities Using Software-
Defined Networks
Syed Yaser Mahmood Tapas Kumar Mishra
SRM University, India https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6363-5017
SRM University, India
S. Aashrit
SRM University, India Kshira Sagar Sahoo
Department of Computing Science, Umeå
B. Venkatesh Reddy University, Umeå, Sweden & Department of
SRM University, India Computer Science, SRM University, Amaravati,
India
Arati Behera
SRM University, India

ABSTRACT
With the idea of shifting towards a smart future there is a lot of research being done in the area of internet
of things (IoT) and wireless communication, especially 5G network technology. These technologies are
instrumenting society towards a world of high connectivity, through secure evolutionary telecommunica-
tion methodologies. In this chapter we understand the role of 5G networks in enhancing IoT devices and
discuss their security aspects. Integration of IoT and software defined network termed as SDIoT enables
automatic traffic rerouting, device reconfiguration, and bandwidth allocation seamlessly. Smart cities
utilize the SDIoT integrated with 5G to gather real-time data, better understand how demand patterns
are changing, and respond with quicker and more affordable solutions. The authors try to understand the
existing research scenario in 5G networks and IoT, and what areas are being taken into consideration
for improvement in the coming future.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch008

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

5G-Enabled Secure IoT Applications in Smart Cities

INTRODUCTION

Internet of things (IOT) is collection of devices which are connected to internet where the devices are
assembled with computing power and memory. The above devices also may collect information about
their surroundings (Kumar et al., 2019, pp. 1-21), (Bhoi et al., 2022). Further, the devices may send
data to their neighbors and/or to internet (Jain et al., 2012). In the current scenario, we already see a few
IOT devices around us such as google home voice controller, which allows us to control home lights,
handle other devices like TVs and mobiles to plan the day by setting up alarms or entertain ourselves
with playing media etc. As IOT is such a broad technology, which has its application in various fields
like manufacturing, safety, health systems, public transport and infrastructure, with the advent of tech-
nology in recent years and the huge amount of research done towards development of smart connected
society it is obvious to observe the increase in number of such IOT devices in the near future (Din et
al., 2017, pp. 175-182). This smart connected society comes with large volumes of data transfer, huge
connectivity and a large variety of use cases of the IOT devices.

Figure 1. A sample integration of 5G, IOT and SDN

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5G-Enabled Secure IoT Applications in Smart Cities

Problem Statement

The luxurious lifestyle of the peoples has created many opportunities and challenges for the generation.
Recent development of the information technology and the devices made many thins possible such as
smart farming, smart health care systems, smart and intelligent transportation system, etc. The large-scale
use of devices and the need of information in real-time environment like smart manufacturing, smart
and intelligent healthcare require fast communication along with connectivity with many devices (IOT
devices). Further, there may exist many types of security threats which needs to be filtered at the arrival
of the data packets at any organization server or individual computers. Thus, smart packet forwarding
using artificial intelligence and machine learning is evident which is called as software defined networks
(SDN). The integration of the 5G, IOT and SDN is shown in Figure 1.

FIFTH GENERATION MOBILE NETWORK (5G)

Since all these IOT devices rely on transfer of large amounts of data among a lot of interconnected devices
it is required for it to have a network which is fast, energy efficient and comes with low latency rate and
high throughput (data rates). This is where the fifth-generation mobile network (5G) technology plays
a role as it promises to meet the demands of these smart IOT devices, which the previous network tech-
nologies could not provide (Din et al., 2017, pp. 175-182). 5G aims to improve wireless internet access
when compared to existing cellular networks like 4G LTE and Mobile WiMAX. 5G is the new genera-
tion of cellular technology which is an evolution of all previous generations, and it is designed in such
a way that it is compatible with the current generations so that there is a smooth transition from current
network to the new network and at the same time aims at improving the efficiency of the network (Park
et al. 2014). With the integration of 5G networks into the IoT devices we can see massive mobility with
efficient use of energy and quick communication between devices which provides fast response. The
5G is an advanced mobile network in this new generation that not only enables innovations but edges
towards a progressive change across industries like smart grids. Moreover, 5G mobile communication
technology is based on a whole new architecture that is adaptable.

Table 1. Some methods that make 5G better than the existing networks

S.no Method Advantage

Increases the number of devices that can be connected to the network at one
1 Millimeter Wave Communication
instance
2 Smart Antenna Systems Increase in 5g network coverage
3 Cognitive Radios Better data traffic management
4 Media Independent Handover Easy transition from existing networks to the 5g network

Integration of IOT with 5G networks has been an active area of research. In the recent years, it also
has lots of applications specially when it comes to smart cities. Massive amount of applications in a wide
spectrum ranging from smart automotive industry that focuses on safety of drivers, reduced emissions

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from vehicles and efficient energy use to smart healthcare and infrastructure is expected when we talk
about smart cities. The technological and network related demands of the smart cities can be achieved
once IOT and 5G networks are integrated using the technologies such as millimeter wave communica-
tion, Software defined networks and several others which are discussed in detail further in the paper
along with the potential security threats that these technologies come with. Some special techniques
are adopted in 5G which are highlighted in the table 1. A brief explanation of the features of the 5G
technology is presented as follows.

Millimeter Wave Communication

This method has allowed maximum possible use of mm-wave spectrum which in turn supports simul-
taneous mobile communication and backhaul with convergence of cellular and Wi-fi services. This
has acquired significant interest as it is able to meet the requirements for 5G network (Land, Millman,
2014). This has a frequency range between 30-300 GHz. The combination of cost effective CMOS
technology which can properly coordinate with the mm-wave frequency bands can strengthen wireless
communication. This is done in order to carry frequency of large bandwidth with directly higher data
transfer rates which enhances communication. This method improves the propagation characteristics of
differing frequencies making them much more comparable and homogeneous (Yilmaz et al., 2016). As
a whole we can say that the millimeter wave technology is used for better transmission speeds. Millime-
ter waves have high frequencies and short wavelengths, allowing for smaller antennas to receive them.
Hence, fewer large-scale base stations are to be deployed, in favor of a slew of small base stations that
can cover areas where huge base stations can’t.

Cognitive Radios

Cognitive radio is the concept that to use idle channels by other users using some software defined
techniques. Again, the potential may be executed through the mixture of the 3 parameters, spectral
performance, spectrum, and spectrum reuse. The 5G networks will encompass nodes/cells with hetero-
geneous traits and capacities (e.g. macro cells, small cells which include Femtocells and Picocells, D2D
consumer equipment’s and M2M USERS etc.), with a purpose to bring about a multi-tier architecture.
Due to growing complexity in community control and coordination amongst a couple of community
tiers, the community nodes may have the functionality of self-employed which include interference can-
cellation, spectrum sharing and the electricity control. The communique performance in 5G structures
may be advanced through incorporating strategies which include heterogeneous networks, interference
cancellation and spectrum reuse.

Media Independent Handovers

Media independent handovers have been a hot topic in 5G. To comprehend the benefits of 5G via a
media-independent HO, the following points can be considered:

• 5G will be more than just 5G base stations with their own core network. Backwards compatibility
and seamless handover to 4G, 3G, and 2G will be critical, as they have been for all previous gen-

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erations of cellular communications. Furthermore, handover to and from non-3GPP techniques is

a requirement of 5G.
• Media-independent handover enables faster switching, lower latency, and improved Quality of
Service for users during mobility events.
• Another 5G requirement is a latency of 1ms for mission critical services and 5-10ms for other
services such as mobile broadband, etc.

As a result of the foregoing, it is possible to conclude that a media-independent handover will improve
5G technology performance and assist in meeting its potential and stated requirements.
In the author’s research they have been trying to explore some methods that make 5G better than
the existing networks. A few methods that have been discussed are Millimeter Wave Communication,
Cognitive Radios, Media Independent Handovers and Smart Antenna Systems. Coming to Millimeter
Wave Communication:

• it increases the spectrum bandwidth for the betterment of 5G transmission speeds. Millimeter
waves produce the bandwidth of around 28 Ghz and 60 Ghz, whereas the available spectrum
bandwidth for 4G is 100 MHz at the maximum carrier frequency (Land, 2020). As a whole we
can say that the Millimeter wave technology is used for good or even great transmission speeds.
• As every coin has two sides, Millimeter technology has drawbacks also, one of the major draw-
backs is structures and other impediments can’t be penetrated by millimeter waves. Which means
these waves cannot even pass through a paper.
• Millimeter waves have small wavelengths and high frequency; thus, they may be received with
smaller antennas. As a result, small base stations might be developed. As a result, fewer large-
scale base stations will be deployed in favor of a bevy of tiny base stations that can cover areas
where giant base stations can’t.

The radio access network is under increasing pressure to deliver improved coverage, capacity, and
end-user throughput as end-user performance needs continue to rise.

• Because data usage is increasing at a far faster rate than revenue, mobile network operators must
upgrade the RAN to cut cost per bit while meeting new end-user performance demands. The time
has come for the telecommunications industry to undertake the technological leap to improved
antenna systems (AAS).
• The ability to develop AAS cost-effectively and the higher performance of AAS in both uplink
(UL) and downlink (DL) are the major reasons for this technology transfer. We deploy Cognitive
Radio technology to meet the high mobile data load of wireless networks and effectively handle it.
• 5G intends to give increased capacity and a network speed of 10Gbps since the future of mobile
broadband will be predominantly driven by ultra-high-definition video and because the things
around us will always be linked. 5G equipment will also be less expensive, use less battery power,
and have lower latency than 4G equipment. Many industries, including entertainment, agriculture,
information technology, and manufacturing, can benefit from the 5G platform.
• Additional spectrum will be required to meet the need for more capacity, culminating in the in-
clusion of CR in 5G networks. CR’s main goal is to make significantly more effective use of the
spectrum by adapting to provide the best communication route

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5G-Enabled Secure IoT Applications in Smart Cities

• There are few problems with CR like there is no complete automation, and any changes must be
implemented with the help of the user, it always necessitates the use of a multi-band antenna, in
comparison to typical wireless networks, cognitive radio technology presents greater opportuni-
ties for attackers.

Not only in 5G, but also in other technologies such as IEEE 802.x, media independent handovers have
been a hot topic. IEEE offers a standard for facilitating media-independent handovers called 802.21. 5G
will consist of more than just 5G base stations, each with its own core network. Backwards compatibility
and seamless handover to 4G, 3G, and 2G, as with all prior generations of cellular communications, will
be important. In addition, handover to and from non-3GPP approaches will be required in 5G. The 3GPP
spec sheets TS23.501 and 23.502 also specify these needs and criticalities. When a user is experiencing
mobility events, media-independent handover enables for faster switching, lower latency, and higher
Quality of Service. Another criterion of 5G is a latency of less than 1 millisecond for mission-critical
services and 5-10 milliseconds for other services like mobile broadband. It may be concluded that a
media-independent handover will improve 5G technology performance and help it reach its full potential.

SOFTWARE DEFINED IOT (SDIOT)

The IoT network has a vast number of linked devices, making it impossible for existing IP protocols
to support all of them. Another routing protocol must be added to account for the possibility that these
objects will have distinct traits and attributes. While using IPv6 may be seen as a wise decision to handle
such a large number of objects, it does not address the heterogeneity of the underlying objects. The
capacity to control, modify, and manage network behavior dynamically using software via open inter-
faces as opposed to depending on closed boxes and proprietary defined interfaces is known as network
programmability, or Software Designed Network (SDN). The SDN architecture makes it possible to
centrally regulate data route components regardless of the network technology used to link these devices,
which may come from many manufacturers. Centralized control incorporates all the intelligence and
keeps track of all the data channel components and linkages from a network-wide perspective. Many
efforts are being made to amalgamate SDN and IoT. The main motive of merging these technologies
is effective data retrieval and achieving networks that may be configured remotely. The amount of data
being transferred to-and-fro due to the various applications in the IOT field the capability of handling
it must also be improved. Therefore, a flexible network architecture with high performance and stabil-
ity is required to serve smart city applications. SDN’s key goals are to separate the control plane from
the forwarding plane, end vertical integration, and add network programming capabilities. In SDN, the
control plane elements are represented by a single entity, the controller, while the data plane elements are
transformed into highly effective and customizable packet forwarding devices. SDN makes it simpler to
create and deploy applications than conventional networks. Big data is a crucial network application that
will significantly affect how SDN is designed and run. In particular, the logically centralized controller
in SDN may acquire massive data from physical to application layers with arbitrary granularity thanks
to the global perspective of the network. Integration of software programmable devices with Iot devices
would produce great results. The system must be able to accommodate various sensor kinds, platforms,
data formats, communication standards, and hardware heterogeneity. It is also thought that any system
must be built to be expandable, either vertically to provide additional storage capacity or horizontally to

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enable effective load balancing. That solution should also offer remote reconfiguration for the support-
ing devices. It should also feature fine-grained user applications to make it easy for users to access and
query the data being collected. SDN enables software implementation by decoupling network control
from data transmission hardware. The fundamental tenet of SDN is that data management and data
transmission are distinct. The other tenet is network management is centralized through unified software
and even virtualized network resources replace actual ones. Benefits like Automatic traffic rerouting,
Device reconfiguration, bandwidth allocation and many others can be given by the integration of SDN
and IoT technologies.

SDN in 5G Networks

Although wired enterprise networks were the primary setting for SDN’s early adoption, it has recently
emerged as a promising tool for other networks, including wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and next-
generation wireless networking infrastructures. This is due to SDN’s flexibility, programmability, speed,
and cost advantages. By supplying the network virtualization capabilities required for remote and dy-
namic network management, SDN will be one of the biggest enablers of 5G and beyond networks. A
number of IoT use cases can be supported by 5G networks thanks to their quick failover and autonomous
management capabilities, which will be made possible by SDN applications. The provision of enhanced
network security through global visibility and quick automatic flow rule modification is one of the main
promises of and justifications for the implementation of SDN (Hussain et al., 2022). This will make it
possible to identify and stop malicious activity in the network in real time. In order to interrupt network
functionality, these assaults any layer of the TCP/IP model including the other layers like data plane
and application plane in IOT.

Need for SDN in Smart City Communication System

SDN appeals to the idea of a smart city due to three distinct qualities in addition to its advantage in the
most fundamental network operations, such as routing and end-to-end performance optimization (Tadros
et al., 2020, pp. 53997-54008). A logically centralized control plane, programmability to enable in-situ
configuration virtualization, and resource sharing amongst applications running on the same physical
infrastructure are all requirements for efficient global view and control. But the creation of networking
and security solutions that make use of SDN capabilities can open up new attack avenues for malicious
users, leading to network dangers and exploitation. Examples of major assaults include Man-in-the-
Middle (MITM), Link Discovery Service (LDS) exploitation, and Denial of Service (DoS). Network-
ing infrastructures that are simple, programmable, and flexible have been shown via SDN. In fact, the
SDN infrastructure layer’s programmability feature allows for a flexible and affordable deployment of
networks to enable smart cities.
There are still numerous technical issues that need to be resolved even though academics have been
aggressive in investigating the most recent SDN technologies to ensure safe SDN-based communication
systems:

1) SDN-enabled networks actually only make up a small part of the entire network architecture. We
anticipate that a wide-area network will soon be a hybrid system made up of a number of linked
SDN domains encircling cloud locations or data centers.

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2) The wide-area network will still include numerous domains, each of which will provide end-to-end
security with the potential for varying QoS needs.
3) Despite the fact that there is research on SDN security, very little has been done to address the
demand for trustworthy real-time communications in smart cities.

Security is sometimes seen as an add-on in older networks since it relies so largely on manual
configuration-based solutions. Therefore, administrators must configure each related network object in
accordance with vendor-specific low-level instructions in order to achieve high-level security applications.
On the other hand, SDN boosts security in a networking-enabled environment thanks to its central-
ized management of the network system, comprehensive visibility of the network activity, and run-time
manipulation of inserting/pushing forwarding rules (Hussain et al., 2020). As a result, the SDN non-
distributed administration of the network enables more effective application of security regulations and
a decrease in their conflicts. Additionally, security solutions like security monitoring applications might
effectively query flow samples from data routes through an SDN controller (Renuka et al., 2021).
Additionally, SDN enables effective policy and application updates for security. Instead of modify-
ing the hardware or even just upgrading its firmware, it enables the addition of security modules at the
controller platform.

Automatic Traffic Rerouting

Packet is a form of transporting data for communication. Openflow protocol along with queue stat helps
us ensure the suitable data is transferred,i.e the detection of packet loss. To counter this situation, the
re-routing module of SDN came into play which perceives the bypass and applies to flow tables which
comprises data flow and their matching with to-and-fro communication. This packet loss increases
vividly because of the TCP/IP network suite Internet which contains a large amount of data traffic. As
a large network is not manageable efficiently SDN uses centralized management. By using automatic
traffic rerouting features, routing of data can become efficient when it comes to load balancing and loss
reduction. In this feature, we assume packet drop only because of congestion. Basically, when the service
rate is lower than the arrival rate for each queue, congestion arises. Rerouting finds an alternative way
with the suitable topology to avoid packet loss at a minimal level. Although measuring delay is not done
owing to the poor temporal realism of the mininet emulation, the average loss rate is decreased, and this
may result in a drop in the average latency of each flow. The main aim being minimizing loss rate. In
conclusion, automatic traffic rerouting disperses traffic over the network, resulting in a normalized loss
rate. But a hindrance to its efficiency is that it is actually not reflected on real world problems as it was
tested on only a small number of nodes.

Maximum delay − Minimum delay

Change Rate = X 100 (1)
Average delay

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Device Reconfiguration

IoT reconfiguration may be described as (re)programming system modules or an IoT device’s full op-
erating system at the system level. The two methods that are most often used in this field of study are
full-image replacement and modular programming. Application-aware routing is made possible for the
Internet of Things (IoT) thanks to SDN-based network reconfiguration. The SDN controllers present in
there execute both way coordination to optimize and divide the computational power and maintain the
routing patterns to IoT devices. Reconfiguring an IoT-based system at the application level is referred
to as a parameter setting strategy, which attempts to enhance the deployed system’s dynamic flexibility.
In this study field, several current solutions have been put forth already by many researchers. The main
advantage of SDN based reconfiguration technology is to provide good management, maintaining and
updating activities. Practical implementation is a hurdle when creating an IoT-based system that is
programmable.

Complexity of Device + Amount of Data to Transfer

Time to Reconfigure Device = (2)
Efficiency of Reconfiguration Process

Bandwidth Allocation

With the increase in the number of IoT devices a very highly effective bandwidth allocation framework
is much needed for the existing SDN architecture. It should be able to optimize bandwidth on both
internal and external traffic. With a proper bandwidth allocation Quality and User experience will be
at a greater level. The technologie’s application is that an ISP would support thousands of IoT-enabled
smart homes. Since every application needs to have a specific amount of bandwidth provided in advance,
allocation of internet or network bandwidth can be a significant issue. Additionally, because this alloca-
tion does not alter dynamically, this bandwidth can be left unused when an application is not running
but is still assigned to it. To address this issue, it is possible to use SDN’s intelligence to make sure that
network or internet capacity is dynamically assigned to applications that require it. Instead of doing this
in hardware like switches and routers, SDN moves network management tasks from the network devices
to an application that can be used to intelligently modify & control the network. This capability allows
for the optimization of network or internet capacity so that it is dynamically distributed to the apps that
use it the most.

Total Network Bandwidth X Percentage of Bandwidth Allocated

Bandwidth Allocation =
Number of Users
(3)

Security Flaws and Vulnerabilities

Smart homes, autonomous vehicles, security systems, smart cities, and remote healthcare are just a
few examples of IoT use cases that greatly improve the quality of our everyday lives. Future networks

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using software-defined networking for resource management, such as 5G and beyond, will be a crucial
enabler for the pervasive IoT. Due to IoT’s low computing power, short battery life, and lack of security
standards, many IoT devices are unable to implement even the most basic security measures, such as
encryption. This has already resulted in a significant attack surface. New use cases, protocols, and tech-
nologies increase the number of attack surfaces already present. To ensure the smooth running of these
systems, it is crucial to create intrusion detection and prevention solutions for IoT networks that address
both new and current risks. In order to provide prompt detection and mitigation of threats, as well as a
swift reconfiguration of the networks to minimize quality deterioration and failures, it is also crucial to
ensure that the established security solutions are compliant with SDN-based network topologies.

SECURITY MEASURE

There are many dangers associated with actual applications of these new integrated technologies. The
older generations 4G, 3G posed serious threats which are still existent in 5G networks. With the SDN
coming into play there are many other security issues which came into picture.

Security Issues

• Older Technologies:

Although 5G basically has a stronger enhanced security setup, it should be compatible with devices
with older standards. The ability to communicate with devices that use the previous standards must still
be supported by 5G, for this purpose they will have to use older protocols utilized by 2G–4G networks
might still cause problems for newly installed 5G-based networks.

• Latest Vulnerabilities:

Although consumer adoption of 5G is still in its infancy, experts and hackers have had years to examine
the technology. At least six significant security weaknesses, including holes in 5G’s identification and
authentication processes, have been found during that time.

• IP Attacks:

The majority of the heavy lifting for 5G is handled by the software-defined networking (SDN) layer,
as opposed to earlier 2G, 3G, and 4G protocols that rely on proprietary hardware. While SDN increases
the 5G network’s flexibility and extensibility, it also leaves the network vulnerable to IP (Internet Pro-
tocol) assaults like DDoS. (Distributed Denial of Service).

• Man in the middle

The vulnerability of 5G to a Man-in-the-Middle assault (MiTM). In a MiTM attack, hackers imper-

sonate the genuine mobile network operator to eavesdrop on signals delivered through the internet or
cell phones, collect the information, and enter their orders. MiTM attacks are frequently carried out by

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attackers who pose as a legitimate network to the target device by use of a malicious fake cell tower.
Verifying a network’s identification tries to guarantee connectivity to a reliable network. Malicious IP
addresses can be returned in response to valid DNS requests, which can be used by the attacker to launch
remote malware assaults, steal passwords, and conduct MITM attacks.

• Number of connected devices

Millions of gadgets, such as household appliances, industrial automation controls, televisions, auto-
mobiles, smartphones, sensors for weather monitoring, next-generation tablets, and other diverse ranges,
are anticipated to be connected to 5G, increasing the attack surface. Consumer phones and PCs won’t
make up the majority of user equipment on 5G networks; instead, IoT devices will. There will be around
20 billion of these gadgets by 2020. Attacks against the IoT are becoming more frequent. Malware dis-
semination is easily scalable, yet device security is subpar.

Possible Solutions to Security Threats

To counteract vulnerable attacks on the network, monitoring and detection mechanisms for network
devices can be helpful. Specialized software can be designed to enforce network security control regu-
lations, such as ensuring or restricting specified network accesses or taking measures to stop malicious
data transmission. A potential neutralizing element is the adoption of software attestation techniques,
such as autonomic trust management solutions for software components (Kreutz et al., 2013, pp. 55-60).
Fault and intrusion tolerance is one of the essential components to ensure a highly robust system from a
security and reliability standpoint. Utilizing intrusion detection systems with runtime root-cause analysis
assistance may be able to detect irregular flows. For the purpose of ensuring confidence between the
control plane and data plane devices, the usage of dynamic, automated, and ensured device association
techniques may be taken into consideration. To avoid creation and deployment of malicious program
on controllers, additional tools for network device monitoring and anomalous activity detection may be
useful. It is possible to employ oligarchic trust models with numerous certifying authorities for trust-
anchors (e.g., one for each sub-domain or controller instance). Another is using threshold cryptography
to secure communication between controller replicas (where the switch needs at least n shares to receive
a legitimate controller message).

DIFFERENT USE CASES OF 5G ENHANCED IOT

In this section various use cased of 5G have discussed.

Automobile

Automotive IoT focuses on integrating IoT technology into automotive systems to develop newer solu-
tions and applications that make cars smarter and more intelligent so that drivers can travel efficiently,
safely, and comfortably (Mishra et al., 2023, pp. 9000-9013). Autonomous cars rely highly on real time
data from the proximity sensors and accordingly alter the speed and steering of the vehicle unlike profes-
sional licensed drivers who are accustomed to driving. This fast exchange of data through sensors can be

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facilitated by 5G networks. Autonomous vehicles can connect through a 5G network and communicate
with each other. This communication can be between two vehicles, between vehicle and pedestrians or
vehicles and the network. It creates a unified communicative vehicle in traffic management. Various
applications of IoT and 5G are shown in Figure 2.

Manufacturing

On 5G networks, industrial equipment such as autonomous guided vehicles (AGVs) are employed. 5G
networks’ mobility management coverage and Quality of Service Assurance ensure dependable connec-
tivity for a variety of guided vehicles, including tractors and forklifts. 5G can assist forklifts in moving
more effectively and automatically on the floor (Millman, 2020). 5G and the Internet of Things will be
critical in strengthening and enabling these manufacturing advancements. Manufacturers and telecom
operators may employ 5G networks and Internet of Things (IoT) to build smart factories that incorporate
technologies such as automation, artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR) for fine-tuning to
collect information on real-time applications (Mishra et al., 2019, pp. 41-55).

Health Systems

The one industry where the use of IoT technology completely transformed treatment techniques and
patient outcomes is the health care sector. Future 5G developments will be available to everyone in the
nation, bringing cutting-edge technology to every home. In the healthcare industry, advancements in-
clude remote robot surgery and the provision of personalized medications based on data from wearable
hospital health monitors for each individual. This technology will make it possible to get there and keep
track of the other health issues.
High-quality video conversations via the 5g network enable remote doctor-patient contact. Wearable
gadgets that monitor, diagnose, and treat illnesses are known as personal health systems (Land Mill-
man, 2020). These gadgets will become more and more connected to the 5G network in order to moni-
tor and analyze data in real time. This allows healthcare to transition from a treatment-based approach
to a prevention-based one. The introduction of 5G in smart healthcare networks is thus a boon for IoT
devices, since it improves network speed and expands cellular coverage, resulting in better patient care
in the future.

Transport and Infrastructure

Fast mobility connectivity - 5G’s signal strength allows for more mobility, allowing data to be sent
through a device moving at high speeds. These can be employed in high-speed rail data transmission
and autonomous drone data transfer (Mishra et al., 2023, pp. 9000-9013). Train sensors can detect un-
occupied cabins and communicate the information to the station/platform, directing passengers to the
empty compartments.
Thousands of IoT-based sensors can also be deployed over 5G networks across infrastructure such
as large bridges. These sensors can also continuously measure the vibrations created by the automobiles
and trains that pass beneath those bridges on a daily basis. Vibrations that are judged odd could be the
first clue that the bridge isn’t working properly. Actions may be made in response to the notification.
Intelligent transport solutions to control the traffic flow, such as streetlights with cameras embedded in

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to monitor foot activity and divert vehicles during rush hours to prevent pedestrian accidents and ease
traffic can be implemented. In this sector Mobility-as-a-service(MaaS) will be a key weapon.
It ensures that there is an integrated journey plan by minimizing the transportation industry. Govern-
ment, private industries dealing with real estate or building managers all over the world can integrate
IoT solutions and devices into their infrastructures in order to cut costs and enhance the quality of their
buildings.

Figure 2. Various applications of IoT and 5G

Oil Rig Production Analytics

The installation of IoT sensors in oil wells allows for production analysis on the rig. They are linked to
5G networks, which allow data to be sent and received in real time. This real-time sensor data from oil
wells can be used to discover signals in the data and anticipate when the wells are not producing at their
maximum capacity (Park et al. 2014). To achieve the size and speed required for future digital oilfield
operations, upstream O&G players will require 5G network connectivity solutions to move enormous
amounts of data in near real time with minimal latency.

Public Safety

In public safety, surveillance cameras, especially body worn cameras, broadcast real-time ultra-high
resolution and 360-degree video feeds through 5g networks. These video feeds are relayed to a control
room, which may monitor congested public spaces and critical infrastructure. The public-safety com-
munity will benefit greatly from the coming of 5G. 5G will enable widespread adoption of new public
safety applications due to its faster speeds, increased capacity, ultra-low latencies, and advanced IoT
compatibility. Remote-controlled gadgets, telemedicine in the field, increased situational awareness with

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drones, and video analytics to supplement mission-critical networks will be among them. Violence detec-
tion and crowd management are potential areas where we can see huge amount of 5G Iot applications.

CONCLUSION

5G will help unleash the full potential of IOT. The Interactions between IOT devices and humans will
go to another level. On the way to reaching the IoT’s promise, 5G will give a slew of advantages. The
benefit of using a single 5G network is that it will be more efficient, cost-effective, and deliver econo-
mies of scale across a wide range of IoT use cases. 5G is expected to offer greater speeds of up to 10
Gbps, shorter latency, and more comprehensive coverage, as well as better data traffic security. There
are several benefits to 5G that aren’t accessible with earlier technology. One of them is 5G’s potential
to support a huge number of static and mobile IoT devices with a wide variety of speed, bandwidth, and
service quality requirements.
A significant worldwide revolution is driving cellular technology into every area of our life, from
electricity meters to car fleet tracking. This includes 5G rollout and the Internet of Things. It’s crucial
to incorporate security into each 5G network architecture from the point of design to installation and
maintenance as 5G becomes a crucial component of the infrastructure regulating our everyday lives.
Few applications of IOT which when used with 5G will show a considerable improvement like
automobiles, manufacturing, health system, transport and infrastructure. 5G’s ultra-reliability and low
latency might aid self-driving cars, smart energy grids, greater factory automation, and other sophisticated
applications. 5G networks are also capable of securely handling large amounts of data. IoT devices will
generate a lot of data. The Internet of Things will create vast volumes of data, which will require cloud
computing, artificial intelligence, and edge computing to handle.
The necessity and need for safe, reliable, adaptable, and well-managed networks has been met by the
development of the software-defined network. SDN is more open to attack than conventional networks,
nevertheless, because of the separation of the two planes. This implies that network and control traffic’s
availability, consistency, authenticity, secrecy, and integrity may be severely compromised. To adapt to
shifting corporate demands, server virtualization, mobility, and cloud computing are emerging as the new
standard. The traditional network design is beginning to struggle to keep up with the growing needs of
the network as new technologies developed. With the help of the SDN architecture, the current network
may be virtualized to create platforms that are adaptable and programmable. Software-defined network-
ing (SDN) will become the new standard for networks since networking depends more and more on it
in the future. However, before the SDN can be implemented safely, a significant security risk involving
the SDN controller and applications has to be addressed.
5G is embraced over the next several decades. We will benefit from smart cities that reduce waste,
manage traffic data, and improve public transit and utilities. To administer treatments remotely, medical
specialists will use very accurate augmented reality technology. Smart grids will improve energy produc-
tion, tracking, and monitoring efficiency while also helping to protect the environment. All industries
would be affected, from agriculture to retail. While at one hand we see all the applications of 5G Iot in
various fields, we need to keep in mind the challenges they bring when it comes to implementation of
the same.

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Chapter 9
Traffic Management of SDN/
NFV-Based Smart 5G Networks
Using Time Series Analysis
Deva Priya Isravel
Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India

Salaja Silas
Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India

Elijah Blessing Rajsingh

Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, India

ABSTRACT
Traffic in the 5G network is growing exponentially and is predictable to grow in the future. Providing
a high quality of service with ever-increasing traffic volumes is challenging in 5G networks. Software
defined networking (SDN) along with emerging cloud technologies plays a significant responsibility in
enhancing the performance of 5G networks. The 5G SDN paradigm is designed to support real-time
and latency-sensitive applications. This chapter aims to summarize the existing technologies, benefits,
and challenges of the 5G network. Also, a novel multivariate traffic analysis framework using time series
analysis is proposed to enhance traffic management and its performance. Evaluation is performed on
open traffic flow datasets and the analysis results show that the proposed framework performs better
despite the inherent uncertainty in terms of classification and forecast accuracy.

INTRODUCTION

Technology has changed the way devices are connected and communicate with each other. The rapidly
evolving Internet and extensively used cloud services have caused an increase in wireless data traffic
(Ghafoor et al., 2022). A new network technology called 5G has the potential to provide ultra-high speeds,
low latency, and high-reliable smart services. 5G technology has increased bandwidth, allowing it to
seamlessly transfer data, thus improving the connectivity among devices and overall user experience

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch009

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Traffic Management of SDN/NFV-Based Smart 5G Networks

(El-Shorbagy, 2021), (Mendonça et al., 2022). For years, Internet service providers, cellular operators
and global telecom operators have been planning to implement and use 5G technologies to have easy ac-
cessibility and feasible operations. 5G technology works faster on cellular devices than 4G and 4G LTE.
5G technology is the best option for connecting a wide range of gadgets, including drones and sensors.
There are numerous opportunities as 5G can facilitate the adoption of IoT in industries, helping
them improve their productivity, streamline operations and other factors. As there is a wide range of
user preferences with customers, the applications of 5G networks require services to be offered on
demand in real-time. Handling emergencies and managing network traffic during peak hours is highly
challenging and demanding due to the need for multiple services. High demand for services can lead
to heavy traffic and restrict access to facilities owned by service providers. As 5G support multiple use
cases with various integrated network applications, such as e-health, autonomous driving, the delivery
of multimedia content, the Internet of Things (IoT), or machine-to-machine communication, generates
a variety of needs that are difficult for a single technology to satisfy.
Therefore, the successful implementation of 5G networks depends on the architecture that can offer
flexibility, automation, reconfigurability, and programmability to serve, with fine granularity, a broad
and heterogeneous collection of 5G use cases. The key component to designing an efficient 5G network
is to incorporate Software defined networking (SDN) (Silva et al., 2021). SDN aims to increase the
flexibility and agility of networks by allowing network control to be programmed and abstraction of
the underlying infrastructure for applications and network services (Hussain et al., 2021). The software
defined infrastructure may boost the flexibility and responsiveness of service providers to user needs by
enabling intelligent network services. A smart architecture for network programmability and the con-
struction of different network hierarchies, in particular, will be made available by 5G SDN (Blanco et
al., 2017). SDN based 5G networks support the necessary adaptability to change and adapt in response
to the constantly shifting network situation.
The separation of the control plane from the data forwarding plane has been successfully implemented
with Network Function Virtualization (NFV) by efficient isolation of the abstraction of capabilities from
the hardware. NFV effectively extracts network activities and implements them in software. Hence NFV
is a highly complementary technology to SDN. NFV enables network operations, such as routing choices,
upgrades, resource allocation, etc. to be carried out in the cloud or remote servers and isolated from local
devices. 5G networks have to manage dynamic traffic patterns, multi-tenancy, and heterogeneous and
strict traffic needs. Network operators must manage Virtual Network Functions in 5G networks, which
have different requirements and must dynamically adapt/ reconfigure in response to demand. SDN al-
lows the network operators to handle all networking processes through reprogramming with increased
flexibility and reduced deployment and operational costs.
As traffic management tasks are influenced heavily by information about the network traffic flow, there
is growing interest in using time series data with multivariate analysis. Multivariate analysis analyses the
traffic flow in 5G networks to optimize the performance of the network since traffic learning and predic-
tion produce many useful results that aid in strategizing traffic management policies. The multivariate
analysis enables a detailed study of the data by taking into account all potential parameters. Network
operators can obtain new insights, increase efficiency, decide on policies and procedures, fix errors, and
forecast future results with the aid of multivariate analysis. Multivariate analysis has the benefit of provid-
ing a more accurate forecast than univariate analysis by comparing the statistical correlations between
various parameters and taking advantage of past traffic patterns by predicting the type and frequency of
future traffic. The proposed technique aims to better comprehend the traffic’s nature and the intensity

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of packet arrivals and discover the hidden traffic pattern in traffic traces of 5G networks. This chapter
highlights a novel traffic forecasting framework to broaden the potential of SDN based 5G networks
for varied applications. The prior knowledge of traffic flow features can be exploited to design a flow
analyzer that can efficiently classify flows and provide multi-step forecasts by achieving low forecast
errors. Moreover, the chapter presents a multivariate framework for handling dynamic flows in real time.
The capabilities of SDN are incorporated for enhanced traffic management in 5G networks. Finally, it
is demonstrated that the multivariate model is reliable due to the choice of flow features selected by the
SVD of the MSSA forecast. The contribution of this chapter is as follows

• To present a systematic analysis of the existing techniques for efficient traffic management in 5G
networks.
• To investigate network softwarization technologies that support quality of experience in real-life
5G networks.
• To analyze 5G application use cases to derive and classify the requirements to design traffic man-
agement of 5G networks.
• To propose and design a novel multivariate traffic analysis framework for SDN/NFV based 5G
networks to handle massive traffic flows.
• To evaluate the different time series analysis techniques to monitor for significant traffic variations
and provide fast and reliable analysis of 5G network traffic.
• Further, the chapter highlights the potential research challenges in 5G networks.

The rest of the chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 details the SDN/NFV technologies and SDN
based 5G applications and highlights the benefits and challenges in 5G networks. Section 3 presents
the related works on network softwarization technologies and traffic management techniques. Section
4 includes the system overview of the proposed multivariate traffic analysis framework and elaborates
on the flow analyzer. The result analysis of the proposed framework is presented in section 5. Section
6 concludes the chapter.

SDN/NFV ENABLED 5G APPLICATIONS

The development and deployment of 5G networks have been revolutionized by advanced technologies
such as cloud computing, IoT and AI/ML. The growth of smart 5G networks has been made possible
through these advanced technologies. 5G is a major change in today’s world and is beneficial in all
industries, with smart grids, autonomous vehicles, AI-enabled smart homes and smart healthcare sys-
tems. With its high bandwidth capabilities, dependability, secure connectivity and correct trade-offs, 5G
will launch a new, enormous IoT ecosystem where the network can support billions of linked devices.
This high-bandwidth cellular technology is ready to have an impact as 5G is deployed globally. Several
5G-based SDN architectures have been proposed in the existing literature to support a wide variety of
applications. Figure 1 depicts the most common application of SDN based 5G. The following are a few
of the most prevalent application areas that have adopted the SDN/NFV for 5G networks.

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5G in Agriculture

SDN/NFV-based smart 5G networks have the potential to significantly affect agricultural output since it
allows for faster data transmission between sensors, machines, and people. The management of enormous
volumes of data in real-time is the primary prerequisite for smart agricultural applications. Also, wireless
communication systems with IoT devices for precision agriculture should have low power requirements,
extended ranges, high-density connections and inexpensive costs (Y. Tang et al., 2021). 5G ecosystem
facilitates by providing farmers with the information they need to make smart business decisions, increase
food production and reduce the use of resources, such as water, grain, fertilizer, and pesticides to reduce
runoff and soil erosion, increase operational efficiency, and improve product distribution (Van Hilten &
Wolfert, 2022), (Lin, 2020). IoT sensors and devices are deployed for multiple purposes ranging from
irrigation systems to soil and livestock production. Farmers can better measure things daily with the help
of agricultural IoT devices. Some of the operations include sensors reporting the present and expected
weather patterns, moisture, fertilization, and nutrition levels of the crops, animal analyses by observing
the nutritional status and maturity of cattle, etc.
The technologies used for data communication include RFID, Bluetooth, Ultrawideband, ZigBee
and Wi-Fi. To cover long distances, technologies such as 2G/3G/4G/5G, LoRa and NB-IoT. As Low
Power Wide Area (LPWA) technologies such as LoRa and NB-IoT are capable to cover wide distances
with fewer data transfers and low energy consumption, it is widely used in smart agriculture (Feng et
al., 2019). Open field sensors with minimal power requirements, extensive coverage, and low to medium
data transfers are well suited for LPWA technology. Therefore, extending 5G improves IoT systems
based on SDN and NFV. The 5G-enabled edge computing improves smart farming by providing access
to real-time data on weather, crops, irrigation, animals, etc. It also aids in improving the monitoring of
agricultural activities, food quality control, and waste management and assists in the establishment of a
fully functional autonomous farm.

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Figure 1. Real-World Applications of SDN based 5G

5G in Industrial IoT (IIoT)

Modern Industrial production and manufacturing systems have been driven by digital connectivity,
self-automated devices and decentralized resources. IIoT is a subset of IoT that demands higher levels
of safety, security, and dependable connectivity without interfering with real-time industrial activities.
Due to high maintenance costs and lack of flexibility in mobility, wired connections are not widely
preferred. Also, wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, RFID, IR, NFC, ZigBee, and Wi-Fi cannot
satisfy the requirements of timely delivery, mobility, availability and scalability. To provide the desired
flexibility, connectivity, and simple reconfigurability, Ethernet and other wired technologies must be
replaced with wireless (Longo et al., 2021). Therefore, the 5G cellular system is the most appropriate
technology for an Industrial network. 5G technology engineered by extremely low latency, faster speeds,
and high reliability is a huge transition for Industry 4.0. To build a robust, reliable and flexible IIoT
system, SDN based 5G network can obtain tremendous improvements in performance and tap into edge
computing. Research focuses on the fields of IIoT designs and frameworks, communication protocols,
and data management techniques
A SELFNET architecture enabled by SDN/NFV was proposed to support self-manageable 5G net-
works and achieve the quality of service and user experience (Neves et al., 2017a). A framework with
self-optimization, self-healing and self-protection was developed. SDN has the potential for significantly
improved security, simpler mobility, streamlined cross-organizational collaboration, and relatively
straightforward support for existing assets and systems. To give clients access to remote resources, like
computing and storage activities in the IIoT, cloud infrastructure exchanges confidential information.

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For smart IIoT applications, a distributed structure will increase the speed and reliability of physical
and logical data on cloud infrastructure. To increase the security, solitude, and secrecy of the current
architecture, a distributed SDN-BC method with the benefit of smart IIoT was proposed (Rahman et
al., 2022). It used a distributed SDN-BC approach to enhance the security, privacy, and secrecy of the
provided architecture using the resource of smart IIoT. To build a secure 5G-driven network and provide
security solutions, several machine learning and deep learning approaches are used in industrial IoT
(Sharma et al., 2021).

5G in Transportation System

The next generation of connected vehicles is supported by 5G cellular networks. Cities with 5G con-
nectivity will have automated, intelligent transportation systems that are safe and more efficient. This
addresses the major transportation issues in big cities, such as traffic congestion, pollution, tracking
parking availability, long commutes and outrageous accidents. Multiple challenges exist in vehicular
applications to meet the application needs of intelligent traffic management, spatial information net-
works in terms of coverage, space-time reference, and situational awareness (Ji et al., 2020). Assessing
5G capabilities with the impact of roaming/handover events on the provision of timely, continuous, and
seamless services in cross-border contexts, is still a challenging task (Santa et al., 2022). By enabling a
fully intelligent transportation system, 5G can solve these problems. Several performance problems and
difficulties in the vehicular environment can be resolved with SDN and 5G mobile communications.
Demand for 5G mobile communications, cloud computing, and SDN technologies for vehicular networks
has arisen with the advent of driverless cars (Din et al., 2019).
The transportation system connected with the cloud collects and analyses real-time data from linked
devices, infrastructure and vehicles. From the analysis, enhanced decision-making, improved naviga-
tion, fuel efficiency maximization and time resources can be accomplished. Significant changes such
as traffic information, automated driving, improved traffic flow, road safety and intelligent navigation
can be achieved.
Modern automobiles have recently evolved into a sensor platform that broadcasts and receives infor-
mation from their environment. Advanced safety applications focus to provide easy access to emergency
vehicles, higher traffic efficiency and decreasing human error leading to reduced traffic accidents. These
applications need a coordinated framework, nevertheless, with capabilities that allow extremely low
latency for alert signals, increased data rates for sensor data exchange between cars and infrastructure,
high mobility, high dependability, and scalability. An efficient and integrated transportation system is
created with advanced transmission and sensing technology. To process and control smart transporta-
tion accurately and in real-time, advanced electronic control, and computer processing technology is
essential. The traffic management center can implement automated vehicle detection, remote command
and vehicle dispatch.

Smart Home

A smart home refers to a place of living with smart technology that offers residents cutting-edge ameni-
ties. To make life easier and more simple for homeowners, smart home gadgets including smart TVs,
lighting systems, smart security locks and surveillance cameras, household appliances, and home medi-
cal devices are connected to the internet (Ben Azzouz & Jamai, 2019), (Isravel et al., 2020). The home

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area network is faced with several difficulties due to the exponential increase of divergent connected
devices and the rise in home user application needs like gaming, video streaming, e-health, etc. Several
studies suggested diversifying the home area network design by including techniques like network func-
tion virtualization and network slicing. The diversity of the home application makes management and
control complex. Therefore, incorporating these techniques have additional advantages, such as raising
the quality of service quality, network control and management.
Smart home applications are increasingly becoming complex with heterogeneous types of device
connections with huge traffic volumes. Residential IoT devices demand different communication tech-
nologies for data transmission. To offer multiple services to customer premises, SDN/NFV capabilities
are incorporated in the IoT gateway to manage the hardware from different vendors (Garcia Hernando
et al., 2017). To handle the voluminous data generated from the IoT devices, a three-level architecture
was proposed with the Hadoop ecosystem (Khan et al., 2018). The proposed architecture gathers data
from the attached sensors and the load was balanced with the Hadoop ecosystem. To support a complex
IoT system with self-powered sensors, and wearable devices with multifunctionality, an IoT system was
proposed using 5G communication with AI technologies (Dong et al., 2021) and ensures high perfor-
mances in terms of data acquisition, analysis and transmission. The architecture explores the 5G smart
home with AI was able to improve the performance and sustainability of the system.

Smart Healthcare

The traditional fixed physician-focused approach to healthcare is being drastically replaced by a dynamic
and distributed patient-focused approach. This quick transition in the healthcare industry is being driven
by the emergence of various emerging technologies, such IoT and 5G, which efficiently and accurately
deliver individualized and remote medical services. Pervasive healthcare applications are made possible
by the dynamic nature of wireless communications and the mobility of IoT-connected devices via 5G
networks.
It is essential to secure the IoT-5G devices and make confidential information inaccessible to snoop-
ers and other unauthorized parties. Because existing cryptographic methods are not reliable, the attack-
ers can compromise the authenticity of lightweight wearable and medical devices. The heterogeneous
technologies that are used, their poor time efficiency and excessive computing complexity (Sodhro et
al., 2022) make the systems weaker and more vulnerable. An SDN based multi-RANs architecture (Fu
et al., 2017) was proposed to increase the packet transmission rate and achieve parallel utilization of
RAN channels. The proposed method performed manual authentication and encrypted key transmission
across RAN devices.
An SDN/NFV-enabled architecture for eHealth scenarios was proposed (Celdrán et al., 2019) to sup-
port multimedia services for remote healthcare assistance. The proposed policy-based system defines the
policies to control the network and orchestrates the resources dynamically. To monitor the health-related
information of patients from wireless body area networks, a novel SDWAN framework was developed
(Hasan et al., 2020). The framework included a Sector-based distance (SBD) routing function to pri-
oritize the emergency data using a classification algorithm and routes them with reduced latency and
improved packet delivery ratio.

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Benefits and Challenges in 5G Networks

The advent of 5G networks plays a crucial role in many applications. With 5G a huge number of het-
erogeneous devices can operate autonomously and intelligently with seamless connections. Wireless
networks of 5G are anticipated to manage a significant amount of data generated by a variety of devices,
including smartphones, autonomous vehicles, smart cities, smart buildings, and infrastructure. People
increasingly rely on a variety of access points to use network-based services and applications, and their
sensitive personal data is kept on servers spread across the network. As 5G provides numerous benefits,
the functioning of critical future technologies related to national security and public safety, such as
driverless vehicles, smart grids, and emergency systems relies on network-based processing and data
management. Figure 2 summarizes the various benefits of 5G networks.

Figure 2. Benefits of 5G technology

There are several challenges faced by 5G networks concerning security, reliability, latency, hetero-
geneity, etc (Velasquez et al., 2022). The major challenges are listed below.

• As the devices are diverse in nature, with various traffic and mobility patterns, energy needs, and
computing capabilities, the management of these devices is difficult in heterogeneous situations.
• Infrastructure updates enable high speeds connectivity with low latency. But deploying high-qual-
ity 5G networks and upgrading end-user devices requires additional investment and is expensive.
• The planning of network resources and customer services have been made more difficult neces-
sitating more distributed and AI-driven autonomous management and orchestration.

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• The density of the devices in 5G has increased tremendously. The rise in device-to-device con-
nections and mesh networks enables attackers to have a greater chance to engage in malicious
behavior when there are more vulnerable devices.
• To guarantee security, technologies such as intrusion detection and blockchain are integrated into
the 5G network. Despite these measures, attackers take advantage of their decentralized nature
and interdependencies.
• Service isolation and automated deployment are the advantages of Network slices. However,
to meet appropriate Service Level Agreement (SLA) and performance requirements, VNF and
Physical Network Function (PNF) must be tailored to share among different users.

RELATED WORKS

In this section, the most relevant approaches that have focussed on (1) network softwarization technolo-
gies available for 5G networks and (2) state-of-the-art traffic management techniques are presented in
detail to provide insight into how SDN based 5G networks are adopted to achieve flexibility and pro-
grammability is discussed.

Network Softwarization Technologies

First, the approaches available for 5G networks from the literature are elucidated. Technology advance-
ments that will change the foundation of mobile communication networks underpin the 5G network
(Mitra & Agrawal, 2015). By offering an entirely new network architecture, 5G will make it possible
for a variety of application scenarios.
The industry anticipates that 5G will be the network where various applications and services will
be automatically serviced by a highly integrated and configurable network (Neves et al., 2017b). New
technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Cloud Computing, Multi-Access Edge Computing
(MEC), and softwarization technologies like Software Defined Networking (SDN), Network Function
Virtualization (NFV), Virtual Network Function (VNF) and Network slicing are crucial in enabling and
popularising immersive solutions (Gohar & Nencioni, 2021), (Golkarifard et al., 2021). MEC is an essential
architecture for applications that require decision-making and performance enhancement to be available
at the edge of the network in real-time. Network latency can be decreased by processing data locally by
using MEC. NFV employs virtualization technologies to implement various network functions, whereas
SDN is a networking architecture that allows networks to be programmed. The SDN-based system is
centrally controlled with open interfaces between each layer allow for programmability, which enhances
the system’s flexibility and efficiency. Flexibility in smart 5G networks can be achieved through the two
complementary technologies such as softwarization and virtualization (Condoluci & Mahmoodi, 2018).
The software-based implementation of network functions, known as VNF, may include one or more
virtual machines. Infrastructure for network function virtualization covers all the hardware and software
elements that go into creating the setting in which VNFs are used. Networks should be able to take ad-
vantage of the combined advantages of SDN networking and network virtualization once SDN networks
are virtualized. An SDN hypervisor, which isolates the underlying physical SDN network into numerous
conceptually independent virtual SDN (vSDNs), is a crucial component for virtualizing SDN networks
(Blenk et al., 2016) with its controller. Running and adding on-demand VNFs is possible with cloud-

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based environments. SDN controller can dynamically change the network topology as per the load and
service requirements.
Users will just need to request the services they require in the 5G era, and the information will be
sent to the location and device of their choice. Application providers that do not have physical network
infrastructure can apply network slicing (Barakabitze et al., 2020). The 5G network slicing can provide
radio, cloud, and networking services. Automation enables dynamic management of network slices
throughout their lifecycle resource optimization for networks as well as a dynamic interaction between
the management and data planes. Using SDN, which separates the data and control planes, slice cus-
tomization is made possible at all layers of the abstracted network topology. Network slicing ensures
performance guarantees and security.
5G networks are key in enabling multimedia services and applications with high data rates, minimal
latency and high-density connectivity (Barakabitze & Walshe, 2022). To manage emerging multime-
dia services and to address the QoE application requirements in 5G networks, QoE-aware SDN/NFV
architecture was proposed in (Barakabitze et al., 2019). The softwarized architecture was responsible
for the orchestration and communication of devices across the cloud and user-mobile terminals. The
architecture aimed to speed up the delivery of multimedia services with optimized and improved QoE.

Traffic Management Techniques

A surge of new applications with mobile connectivity and a consequent exponential increase in network
traffic has been produced by the extensive of mobile communication networks and new types of mobile
devices such as smartphones and tablets. Over the next few decades, the volume of mobile and wireless
traffic is predicted to expand driven by the anticipated billions of connected devices that will be con-
nected to the cloud (Gupta & Jha, 2015).
It is essential to manage network traffic flow while upholding a high degree of user experience given
the growing variety of 5G networks, including the usage of diverse devices with dynamic traffic flow
behaviors. On the other hand, managing traffic and preserving QoS performance in 5G networks is more
difficult than ever due to the constantly growing data traffic in those networks. Traffic flow manage-
ment becomes complex and challenging due to the dynamic nature of heterogeneous traffic flows. The
explosion of global internet 5G data traffic demands more effective traffic management to address the
backhaul congestion and ensure QoS for consumers.
Real-time and non-real-time traffic are the two categories of traffic kinds at the application level.
These two forms of traffic differ in their flow characteristics, including packet arrival rate, service time,
and other factors. There is an unregulated increase in traffic flows due to real-time and non-real-time
applications operating in extremely dense 5G networks (Özçevik et al., 2017). As a result, forwarding
device queues take a longer time to process and route the traffic. Additionally, in this situation, the traf-
fic type heterogeneity rate has a considerable impact on the waiting time for each packet to transmit
and significantly affects end-to-end latency. To address this latency an e2edelay framework with an
optimization algorithm based on SDN was proposed.
A new SDN architecture named SoftAir was proposed for wireless 5G cellular networks (Akyildiz et
al., 2015) to support increasing traffic and varying traffic patterns and to maximize the network capacity
and coverage. SoftAir provided a robust SD controller that supported mobility-aware traffic engineering
for balancing traffic. The adaptive controller placement and optimal path computation was performed.

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The 5G networks have been greatly improved by network data analytics. This aids in supporting the
high data rates, it is an important component of the 5G network. Network operators have been evaluating
the network data effectively using machine learning and deep learning techniques in the 5G service-
based architecture (Haider et al., 2023; Pradhan et al., 2022). To understand and analyze the behavior
of traffic, a network data analytics function (NWDAF) was proposed for 5G networks (Sevgican et al.,
2020). NWDAF employed any ML models and network load measurements that are essential for network
quality and sustainability are predicted.
A QoS flow model that provides a QoS MAC scheduler that can categorize eXtended Reality appli-
cations traffic of 5G New Radio based on QoS indicators was proposed (Koutlia et al., 2023). Various
traffic flows are classified based on QoS profiles and resources are assigned accordingly to each type
of traffic. Based on the QoS indicators, the scheduler was able to classify the traffic flows.
As large-scale networks might have traffic variations that directly translate into varying traffic quanti-
ties that must be handled by various controllers in the control plane, response time is increased affecting
flows of the data plane (Hussain et al., 2022). To address this, a forecast model using multi-step ARIMA
was proposed to guarantee load balancing between controllers (Filali et al., 2019). Based on the load
anticipated, migration is scheduled in advance. The forecast model was enabled to reduce congestion and
controller response time. Since the ARIMA model analysis is based on a single parameter of the time
series data, the more complex and intricate behavior cannot be understood. However, as the multivariate
analysis considers more than one flow feature, the forecast is accurate with less error.

PROPOSED FRAMEWORK

System Overview

The proposed multivariate analysis for flow classification and forecasting is configured on the SDN
controller. The framework of the proposed SDN based architecture for 5G networks is shown in Figure
3. The proposed architecture has two main functions. The flow analyzer module of the controller has
the classifier and forecasting model for predicting future flows. The SDN based framework provides
statistics on the traffic flows using multivariate analysis. The SDN controller makes routing decisions
and schedules traffic upon the forecast made from the flow information. The control plane configures
the infrastructure plane devices.
The controller application is run by an SDN controller that is logically centralized and has a global
perspective. The control plane prepares the critical calculations of the pathways traveled by the packets
and schedules the flows optimally. The source sends a flow request with the destination details and a
time stamp indicating when it is transmitting and when a new flow has to be scheduled. The controller
modifies the switch’s flow table to route the flow based on the forecast information received from the
flow analyzer. The flow analyzer aid in detecting massive flows and thereby balance the load on multiple
paths that has sufficient bandwidth resources. The massive flows are long-lived flows that have a high
traffic volume greater than 1Gbps/10 seconds. These flows fill the network buffers and contribute to
queuing delay and latency. The forwarding device determines the size of a packet when it receives one
as part of a data flow. If the packet size exceeds a threshold size, the forwarding device then identifies
that the packet’s data flow is an elephant flow as its size is higher. If the size is not bigger, the packet is
processed and routed by the forward devices normally without requiring any additional processing (F.

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Tang et al., 2019). In certain forwarding device implementations, the packet sizes connected to one or
more flow entries in its flow table are examined to identify as long or short-lived flows. Some imple-
mentations treat the identified long flows differently from the normal flows.

Figure 3. SDN based architecture for 5G networks

The flow-based dataset is created using the application layer payload data. Each application’s payload
data from the application layer includes a random selection of the flow-based learning dataset. The first
N packets in the relevant flow make up a sequence of one chosen flow-based data. Path change forecast-
ing helps enhance local node routing.

Flow Analyzer Algorithm

The two main functions of the flow analyzer are flow classification and forecasting. Multivariate net-
work and flow features are taken as input by the analyzer module. The steps of the flow analyzer are
summarized in Table 1. The multivariate classification takes multiple data attributes to understand the
relationship between the variables. The feature selector and data processing in the classifier generates
the training dataset. The multi-layer model learning process and parameter tuning of the models both
use the generated dataset. The flow classifier uses the trained model to categorize network traffic. The
performance of the classifier is measured in terms of accuracy metrics and error estimations. The cat-
egorization result is used by the SDN controller to construct the proper flow rules by following each
application’s QoS or scheduling policy.

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To predict future flows, a Multivariate Singular Spectrum Analysis (MSSA) is used. The goal of
MSSA is to break down the original series into a handful of distinct, comprehensible elements, such as
a slowly changing trend, oscillatory elements, and random noise (Hassani et al., 2013), (Isravel et al.,
2022). MSSA is a very helpful tool to address issues such as finding structure from time series, identify-
ing change points and extracting seasonality components. MSSA assists in extracting complicated trends
and periodicities simultaneously. In the embedding step all the original time series D = {ft1,ft2,…,ftN}
is mapped onto a multidimensional matrix called trajectory matrix Y. Assume an integer number called
window length L, such that K=N–L+1 and 2<L<N/2. The value of L should not exceed N/2. It is also
called embedding dimensions. The trajectory matrix Y is computed by decomposing ftN into lagged vectors.

 
 ft1 … ftK 
Y =  
 
 ftL … ftN 

The columns of the trajectory matrix is a transposed lagged vectors whose elements along the di-
agonal are equal. The resultant matrix has a Hankel structure. Singular Value Decomposition is com-
puted from the trajectory matrix by computing Y=UDV T, where U and V are left and right singular
matrices respectively are orthogonal and D represents a diagonal matrix with singular eigenvalues. Y=
Em1+Em2+…+Emr are the elementary matrices of Yi constructed from SVD such that r= max(i|𝜆i>0)
and Emi λiU iViT . The elementary matrices of Yi are partitioned into Y1,Y2,…,Ym into m disjoint subset
with indices {1,…,r}.
In the grouping stage, the matrices in each group are summed such that time series components are
YI1,YI2,…,YIm. The diagonal averaging reconstructs the time series by performing de-hankelization. The
L −1

reconstructed trajectory matrix Y ′ = ∑Y 'i . From the reconstructed time series linear recurrent fore-
i =0
casting is evaluated. The linear combination of L–1 are values of reconstructed time series Y ′ are
considered for the forecast future flows. The suitable values of the two parameters window length L and
reconstruction component r are selected to achieve improved results.

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Table 1. Steps of flow analyzer algorithm

Flow Analyzer Algorithm

Input:
• D = {ft1,ft2,…,ftN} //N time series length
Output:
• Classified flows
• Multi-step forecast
Setups:
1. Prepare the captured flow traces for analysis by data preprocessing.
2. Identify the important flow features.
3. Choose the time series data samples to avoid processing overhead.
4. Create the training and testing sets from the time series samples.
5. Train the classifier networks with the training dataset.
6. Assess the classifier results with a 10-fold cross-validation strategy.
7. Error estimates and classification accuracy results are analyzed.
8. Classification outcome is used to make routing decisions by the SDN controller.
9. Apply MSSA forecasting
i. Use the embedding process to construct the trajectory matrix Y.
ii. Specify the window length L and define the trajectory matrix Y.
iii. Compute SVD Y=UDV T to represent the dataset matrix with a smaller dimension matrix
Y= Em1+Em2+…+Emr.
iv. Define the separable groups of matrices YI1,YI2,…,YIm.
L −1

v. Reconstruct the matrix using diagonal averaging Y ′ = ∑Y 'i .

i =0
vi. From the resultant matrix, the linear recurrent forecasting is measured for multistep ahead.
vii. Forecast performance and forecast errors are estimated.
10. Forecast information is used to allocate resources to future flows by the SDN controller.

The forecast data is used by the controller to load balance the traffic dynamically and find an optimal
path with sufficient bandwidth for routing the traffic during network congestion. Knowing the flow
forecast and its characteristics enable the controller to efficiently utilize the bandwidth.

RESULT ANALYSIS

The proposed framework for 5G traffic flow analysis is tested and validated with the data taken from
the 5G trace production dataset collected from the mobile operator. The dataset contains samples from
two mobility patterns namely static and driving (Raca et al., 2020). The dataset collected from static
and mobile networks is analyzed to understand flow pattern behavior. The features of the dataset include
context-related, channel-related, cell-related and throughput information. In each time series data, flow
features are selected in the pre-processing phase and then the classification of the flows is evaluated. To
enhance the forecast accuracy, the window length and grouping components are varied. As it is customary
in forecasting literature to estimate the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) of forecasts to compare the accuracy of the methodologies
under analysis. The observations into split into training and testing sets to determine accurate RMSE
values. Due to the size of the time series data, the first 200 data samples from every trace are taken to
produce the findings using multiple segmentation methods. This enables the reduction of processing
overhead of the validation of the proposed framework.

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Classification Results

The classifiers selected by the proposed framework are Support Vector Machine, Naïve Bayes, CS Forest,
Decision Tree and Random Forest (Samrat Kumar Dey, Md. Mahbubur Rahman, 2018), (Latah & Toker,
2018). The performance of the classifier is directly impacted by the number of features extracted during
the training process. Furthermore, an excessive number of features may increase training complexity.
Therefore, it is crucial to select the right features for training the model.

Figure 4. Classification accuracy

Classification accuracy was evaluated by varying the number of flow features in the training process.
The classifier accuracy is shown in Figure 4. It is found that the classification accuracy was improved
with 70% of the flow features. The random forest classifier obtained 98% accuracy when compared
with other classical algorithms. The Errors estimation of the classifier algorithms is present in Table 2.
The accuracy of the classifier is measured in terms of True Positive (TP), False Positive (FP), Recall,
Mathew Correlation Coefficient (MCC), Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Area, and Precision
Recall Curve (PRC) Area. The weighted average of the accuracy is summarized and presented in Table 3.

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Table 2. Error estimation of the classifier models

Mean Absolute Root Mean Squared Relative Absolute Root Relative

Classifier
Error Error Error Squared Error
Support Vector Machine 0.2246 0.3142 80.87% 84.31%
Naïve Bayes 0.0274 0.1412 9.85% 37.89%
CS Forest 0.0274 0.0941 9.86% 25.24%
Decision Tree 0.0105 0.0813 3.78% 21.82%
Random Forest 0.1396 0.1992 50.24% 53.45%

From the experimental and statistical studies, it is found that the random forest classifier obtains high
accuracy results but is slow in terms of performance. However, the Support Vector Machine algorithm
is much faster yet gives less accurate results than the Random forest.

Table 3. Summary of weighted average of classification accuracy

ROC
Classifier TP Rate FP Rate Recall F-Measure MCC PRC Area
Area
Support Vector Machine 0.893 0.021 0.893 0.893 0.872 0.975 0.855
Naïve Bayes 0.923 0.015 0.923 0.923 0.909 0.992 0.957
CS Forest 0.973 0.006 0.973 0.972 0.968 0.999 0.994
Decision Tree 0.979 0.004 0.979 0.979 0.975 0.994 0.973
Random Forest 0.986 0.003 0.986 0.986 0.983 0.991 0.998

Multivariate Forecasting Results

To further analyze the traffic flow prediction, a forecast is estimated from the time series data captured
from the static and mobile 5G network. Using the MSSA forecasting method, the download bitrate speed
is analyzed and future download speed is forecasted. The multivariate forecast result of download bitrate
is presented in Figure 5 for the mobile 5G network. It can be understood the peak download bitrate is
above 250MB. Otherwise, it is mostly around 50MB download. The upload bitrate is shown in Figure
6 for mobile 5G network. The forecast is predicted for 50 steps ahead by varying the window length L
and grouping components r. The comparison of the proposed multivariate model with LSTM (Lazaris
& Prasanna, 2019) is carried out to understand the forecast accuracy.

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Figure 5. Download bitrate forecast of mobile 5G network

Figure 6. Upload bitrate forecast of mobile 5G network

Figure 7 shows the download bitrate and Figure 8 depicts the upload bitrate forecasts of static 5G
network. To estimate the multivariate forecasts, the MSSA method is used. Most of the taken samples
have a download bitrate of less than 50MB of files except at a certain time duration the download bitrate
is around 200MB. Also, the upload bitrate speed is around 1MB or less.

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Figure 7. Download bitrate forecast of static 5G network

Figure 8. Upload bitrate forecast of static 5G network

The forecast accuracy result is represented as Mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and it is shown
in Table 4. The average forecasting accuracy over all the window lengths L ranging from 10 to 50 is con-
sidered for the analysis. The MAPE obtained by varying window length L and grouping components r is

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presented. Table 4 shows that the MAPE is reduced with increased r and smaller L. Increasing L results
in a larger matrix. As a result, the computation overhead is high. Therefore, to reduce the computation
overhead smaller window length is taken. The MAPE is 13% with a window length L of 30 and r=25.
Table 5 shows the comparison of the forecast errors estimation of the proposed multivariate model with
the LSTM model. From the error metrics, it is evident that the proposed model obtained an error that
is smaller than the LSTM model.

Table 4. Error estimation of forecast accuracy

MAPE %
Window length L
r=5 r=10 r=15 r=20 r=25
10 28.65 23.63 - - -
20 44.48 31.27 24.24 13.09 -
30 58.29 42.41 36.57 23.94 13.05
40 68.03 52.31 41.14 26.94 16.49
50 65.41 53.95 43.31 32.11 21.06

Table 5. Comparison between forecast errors

Error Metrics Proposed Multivariate forecast LSTM forecast

MAPE % 13.09 24.83
MAE 69.52 74.82
RMSE 84.51 97.34

CONCLUSION

Smart 5G technology has introduced several features that run on several infrastructures and adopted in
many industries and businesses. Human lifestyle has altered as a result of these wireless technologies.
In this chapter, an extensive overview of the SDN/NFV capabilities incorporated with 5G is presented.
Several use cases and emerging applications of SDN based 5G is detailed. In addition, the benefits and
challenges of 5G are highlighted. The chapter proposes a multivariate traffic analysis framework to clas-
sify and forecast flows for a 5G network. To evaluate the proposed technique, the study is conducted on a
time series dataset. The findings show the classification accuracy of 98.6% is attained by a random forest
classifier and the forecast error estimation of MAPE is around 13% for both static and mobile 5G data.
The accuracy and error estimation proves the efficiency of the proposed multivariate analysis technique.

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Chapter 10
Intelligent Infrastructure
of Route Scheduling for
Smart Transportation
Systems in Smart Cities
Shiplu Das Bishwanath Jana
Brainware University, India Brainware University, India

Buddhadeb Pradhan Gobinda Das

University of Engineering and Management, Brainware University, India
India
Prasit Chakraborty
Shivam Sharma Brainware University, India
Brainware University, India

ABSTRACT
With the increment in population, the problems of big cities regarding highly congested traffic are gain-
ing more and more attention, with a goal of making them efficient and environmentally friendly. Most
contain rich information and complex techniques that oppose ongoing optimization procedures. As
security threats continue to grow, Vehicles are subject to various service attacks that can compromise
security. To address these concerns, the US and European Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) stan-
dards select elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) algorithms for safe vehicle interactions. They introduced
a two-layer taxonomy to Evolutionary computation for intelligent check transportation in smart cities is
studied. This chapter will analyze the security architecture of the ETSI ITS standard. The results show
that the existing security solution is better than the achieved level/quality of service (quality of service)
and vehicular application performance regarding rising inter-arrival packet delay, packet and crypto
loss, and reduced security awareness in security applications.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch010

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems in Smart Cities

INTRODUCTION

The continued population development in large cities has resulted in hefty traffic, which has become an
essential concern regarding efficiency and environmental friendliness. Smart cities have gained popular-
ity as a means of addressing these difficulties. An intelligent city employs cutting-edge technology to
improve the quality of life for its residents by fostering a more efficient and sustainable environment. It
is critical to deploy an Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) capable of efficiently controlling traffic
flow and enhancing the overall transportation system. However, as the use of technology grows, so does
the possibility of security risks, particularly in the case of ITS. Vehicles are vulnerable to various service
assaults that might jeopardize security, posing a substantial barrier to the safe running of transporta-
tion networks. To overcome these problems, ITS standards like those developed in the United States
and Europe have chosen Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) methods for secure vehicle interactions.
Evolutionary computation has also created a two-layer taxonomy for intelligent check transportation
in smart cities. Despite efforts to increase ITS security, benchmark research on continuing security re-
quirements in real-world contexts still needs to be conducted. This article provides an intelligent route
scheduling infrastructure for the smart city’s innovative transportation system that uses ECC algorithms
for safe vehicle interactions. The methodology that is being proposed has four main parts: intelligent
metro transportation and intelligent route scheduling, intelligent car service and intelligent city com-
munications architecture, intelligent infrastructure for electric vehicles and traffic lights, and EC for
intelligent vehicle network and intelligent land transportation. Smart algorithms are used in intelligent
metro transportation and route scheduling components to optimize the transportation system by deter-
mining the most effective routes for cars. This would make the transportation system more effective by
reducing traffic and travel time. Modern communication technologies, intelligent car service, and smart
city communications architecture enable cars to connect with the transportation network. By doing this,
the transportation system would be able to acquire real-time data on vehicle movement and traffic flow,
improving its ability to estimate travel times and congestion levels. Creating an infrastructure designed
to assist electric cars is a part of the intelligent infrastructure for electric vehicles and traffic light com-
ponents. This would include setting up charging stations and creating a smart grid system that would
make it possible for cars to capture in a more effective and environmentally friendly way. The need of
application of Artificial Intelligence System in Smart Cities in Table 1.

Table 1. Need of application of artificial intelligence system

Need for Application of Artificial Intelligence System

1 Need to develop multi-modal integrated public transport system
2 Need to develop intelligent traffic control and management system to reduce congestion.
3 Need to develop smart traffic information system
4 Need to develop economical public transport system
5 Need to develop smart pavement management system
6 Need to develop of smart parking management system
7 Need to develop intelligent traffic control and management system
8 Need to development safety management and emergency system
9 Need to develop electronic pricing system
10 Need to develop user friendly & comfortable public transport system

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Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems in Smart Cities

The component would also incorporate intelligent traffic signals with timing capabilities to ensure a
steady traffic flow. Elliptic curve cryptography methods are used in the EC for smart vehicle networks
and intelligent land transportation components to offer secure communication between cars and the trans-
portation system. This would ensure the safe running of the transportation system and aid in preventing
cyberattacks. The findings demonstrate that, in terms of increasing inter-arrival packet latency, packet
and crypto loss, and decreased security awareness in security applications, the current security solution
performs better than the level/quality of service (QoS) attained and vehicle application performance. It
implies a direct effect on how people perceive security. The ETSI-ITS standard and the two-tier taxonomy
are the foundation for a detailed evaluation of relevant studies. In conclusion, the suggested technique
offers a thorough strategy for creating a smart city’s intelligent transportation system. The transporta-
tion system could function more effectively and safely if ECC algorithms were used for secure vehicle
interactions combined with contemporary communication technologies and intelligent algorithms. Ex-
amining the ETSI ITS standard using the suggested technique would yield insightful findings helpful in
creating safe transportation systems in smart cities. The Figure 1 describes the EC’s twofold Taxonomy
for Intelligent Transportation.

Figure 1. EC’s twofold Taxonomy for intelligent transportation

This chapter is organized as follows. In section 2, the authors have presented a review of the related
works done in this area. In this section, a citation has been given regarding the way of different Infra-
structures of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems. Section 3 illustrates the Intelligent
Transportation System. In section 4, the authors contributed the proposed system of EC for Intelligent
Vehicle Networks and Intelligent Land Transportation, Intelligent infrastructure for electric vehicles
and traffic lights, and Intelligent Car Service and Smart Cities communications architecture. The next

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Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems in Smart Cities

section presents a simulation of Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation
Systems in a Smart City. Finally, the chapter ends with a brief conclusion.

RELATED WORKS

Constructing effective and ecologically friendly transportation systems is crucial because of the intense
traffic congestion brought on by the increasing urban population expansion. Yet, since more cars are on
the road, security risks have also increased. As a result, automobiles are more vulnerable to numerous
service assaults that might jeopardize their security. They have also established a two-layer taxonomy
for evolutionary computation to create intelligent transportation systems in smart cities. This article
intends to investigate the security model of the ETSI ITS standard and assess the quality of service and
performance of the current security solution for vehicles. The US and European ITS standards have
chosen ECC algorithms for secure vehicle interactions. ECC has several benefits over classical cryp-
tography, including a minor key size and quicker calculation times. ECC is a public-key cryptography
method for digital signatures, critical formation, and secure communication. The drawbacks of ECC
algorithms include the requirement for specialized gear and software for effective processing. Two-Layer
Taxonomy for Evolutionary Computation: A two-layer taxonomy for evolutionary computation has been
established to construct intelligent transportation systems in smart cities. The higher layer deals with the
system’s security, while the bottom layer optimizes traffic flow. This taxonomy tries to increase system
security while maximizing transportation efficiency. Techniques like evolutionary algorithms and fuzzy
logic are used at the bottom layer, while encryption, authentication, and access control are used in the
higher layer. The ETSI ITS standard offers a thorough security architecture for vehicle communication.
Security architecture includes many security services, including secure communication, authentication,
authorization, and privacy protection. The critical public infrastructure (PKI), certificate revocation lists
(CRL), and secure message exchange are just a few security mechanisms that are part of the security
architecture. The security architecture is designed to defend against several threats, including message
replay, eavesdropping, and spoofing.
Many studies have been carried out to assess the quality of service and vehicular application per-
formance of the current security solution. Studies have demonstrated that the version of the vehicular
application and obtained level/quality of service outperform the existing security solution. The research
has, however, also brought to light several problems that may jeopardize the system’s security. Increasing
inter-arrival packet delays, packet and crypto loss, and a lack of security awareness in security applica-
tions are some of these problems. These problems raise the possibility of a security breach in the system
and point to a direct influence on security perception.
For instance, the ETSI ITS standard’s security and privacy protection was assessed by (Xia et al.,
2021). According to the research, the security architecture offers sufficient security and privacy protec-
tion. Nevertheless, the study also identified several flaws, including the security architecture’s lack of
scalability and adaptability.
(Wang et al., 2020) studied the effects of packet loss on the safety of vehicle communication in an-
other research. The study discovered that packet loss might jeopardize the system’s security and offered
several solutions to lessen its effects.
Several research has also assessed the effectiveness of the security architecture in-vehicle communi-
cation. For instance, (Lin et al., 2019) evaluated the ETSI ITS security architecture’s performance in a

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Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems in Smart Cities

vehicular network. According to the analysis, the security architecture performed satisfactorily regarding
communication effectiveness and security. The research did, however, also draw attention to the need for
intelligent transportation systems (ITS), which are transforming how people commute and travel by using
the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing. With fewer accidents, traffic jams,
and pollution, these solutions make transportation more cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and
safe. But, because of our growing reliance on these networks, we must now worry about their security.
Building underground networks is becoming more common in big cities since they provide a quick
and convenient alternative means of transit that also relieves traffic congestion. A researcher’s area of
interest is intelligent metro transportation, emphasizing schedule design and speed management to reduce
the cost of underground firms and improve the convenience of public mobility. To reduce waiting times
for transit users, timetable planning entails figuring out the arrival and departure times of trains at each
station by (R. Liu. et al., 2020). Whereas (Hassannayebi et al., 2018) employed PSO and an adaptive
parameter management mechanism to increase search effectiveness, Medium (J. Zhong et al., 2013)
offered a dual-population DE approach.
(Nitisiri et al. 2019) suggested a multi-target parallel GA strategy to optimize two objectives while
also taking metro company running expenses into account in addition to passenger waiting time. To ef-
fectively reuse regenerative braking energy utilizing GA, energy reuse roadmaps are also being developed,
such as calculating the dwell time of trains at each station (F. Lin et al., 2016).
(Liu et al.2019) suggested an artificial bee colony-based method to optimize railway travel and dwell
durations for the utilization of renewable energy. (Whereas Cao et al. 2019) employed GA to maximize
punctuality, passenger comfort, and energy consumption by optimizing train taxi times, (Fernandez-
Rodriguez et al. 2015) developed a multi-purpose PSO strategy that reduces railway travel time and
energy consumption (Hussain et al., 2020) . Vehicles are assigned to specific locations, and driving
routes are planned for each car. The Vehicle Routing Problem (VRP) is a well-known route design issue,
and research on it has prioritized carrier profitability and service quality (G. Kim et al. 2015). Urban
logistics, which divides the delivery process into several parts, use multi-step VRP, and new VRPs are
being created for smart cities (R. Cuda.et al. 2015).
(Kings et al. 2015) created a hybrid method combining PSO and GA to reduce the overall cost of
multilevel logistic networks, while (Yan et al. 2020) suggested a graph-based evolutionary approach to
optimize the base cost. (Poonthalir, et al. 2018) proposed a PSO-based algorithm to optimize path cost
and fuel usage for lower greenhouse gas emissions as part of the Green VRP, which aims to minimize
pollution. Also, using electric cars for transportation lowers automobile emissions and enhances air qual-
ity. EVs are included in VRPs. (Yang et al.2015) suggested a GA-based algorithm to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, whereas (Miao et al. 2020) discussed a carbon price. Optimizing charging fees, EV and
staff payments, service quality, EV charging delays, and carbon tax expenses have all been suggested
using ACO-based algorithms (Y. Li et al. 2019).

INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM

Threats to cyber security can seriously jeopardize the dependability, security, and safety of ITS. These
dangers include ransomware and packet-injection attacks, denial-of-service, and man-in-the-middle
assaults. Attackers may interfere with how cars and infrastructure communicate, change or manipulate
traffic statistics, steal confidential information, or seize control of vehicles. Many steps may be taken

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to enhance ITS security to reduce these threats. One of the most important precautions is using robust
encryption solutions to safeguard the integrity and confidentiality of data transmitted between cars and
infrastructure. Advanced cryptographic techniques can be used, such as Elliptic Curve Cryptography
(ECC), which offers high-security levels with smaller key sizes and quicker calculation times than clas-
sical encryption. Implementing secure authentication and access control techniques is another crucial
step in preventing illegal access and identity theft. To achieve this, it is possible to employ critical public
infrastructure (PKI) and digital certificates to confirm the reliability and legality of communication part-
ners. In addition, installing intrusion detection and prevention systems (IDPS) can aid in the real-time
detection and prevention of cyberattacks. These programs may look at network traffic, spot trends, and
anomalies, and either notify the system administrators or immediately stop suspicious activity. Addition-
ally, the dependability and resilience of ITS against cyber-attacks may be guaranteed by using secure
software development techniques and thorough testing. This involves routine vulnerability assessments,
security patches, and security upgrades to find and remedy any possible flaws in the system. Moreover,
user education and awareness may be critical in boosting ITS security. Users must be informed about
safe and secure behaviors, such as staying away from public Wi-Fi networks, updating their hardware
and software, and creating strong passwords. In conclusion, ITS security is a crucial issue that needs
ongoing monitoring, assessment, and development. The security of ITS may be improved by using
modern encryption, authentication, access control, intrusion detection and prevention, and software
development processes. Moreover, user education and awareness are essential for stopping cyberattacks
and defending user security and privacy. We can ensure that intelligent transportation systems continue
offering everyone safe, effective, and sustainable transportation by putting these safeguards into place.
Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are one of the most prominent developments in today’s smart
cities, which are continually changing. ITS is anticipated to improve mobility in metropolitan areas and
address transportation issues. Unfortunately, this technology has unique difficulties, including security
risks. Cyberattacks are one of the most severe security risks to ITS. Malware, ransomware, and denial-
of-service assaults are just a few ways cyberattacks may be launched. These assaults have the potential
to seriously disrupt transportation networks, with severe repercussions for the populace, the government,
and the economy. Security experts have advised adopting several security measures to reduce the danger
of cyber-attacks on ITS. The usage of intrusion detection systems is one such measure (IDS).
IDS is software that monitors network traffic for unusual activity and notifies administrators when
security breaches are identified. Wide-ranging security violations, such as unauthorized access, network
scanning, and other malicious behaviour, can be found with IDS. Access control system implementa-
tion is another security measure. Only authorized workers can access sensitive information and systems
thanks to access control mechanisms. Passwords, smart cards, and biometric identification are just a
few techniques that access control systems utilize to confirm the identity of those trying to enter re-
stricted areas. Another essential security precaution for ITS is encryption. Data is transformed into a
secret code through encryption to prevent unwanted access. To safeguard sensitive data sent between
cars and the infrastructure, encryption is frequently employed in ITS. Another crucial element of ITS
security firewall. Network security is provided by firewalls, hardware, or software programs that filter
incoming and outgoing traffic by pre-established security criteria. Firewalls are used to stop harmful
traffic from entering the network and control unauthorized access to sensitive data. The installation of
security policies and procedures has been advised by ITS security specialists in addition to these security
measures. Employees and system administrators can refer to security policies and procedures for guid-
ance on managing sensitive data, access control, and security issues. Security policies and procedures

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ensure that everyone in the company knows their responsibilities for upholding the system’s security
and what to do during a security breach. Applying security measures and rules alone cannot guarantee
the security of ITS. The security system must be continuously monitored and assessed to identify and
respond to emerging security risks. Security professionals advise doing routine security audits to find
possible system vulnerabilities and create mitigation plans.
In conclusion, the use of ITS in intelligent cities has transformed the way that transportation sys-
tems operate while simultaneously posing new security risks. Cyber-attack risk in ITS is a serious issue
that might seriously disrupt transportation systems. Security experts advise reducing these threats by
implementing various security solutions, such as IDS, access control systems, encryption, firewalls, and
security rules and procedures. The security system must also be continuously monitored and assessed
to find and address new security risks. By putting these security measures in place, intelligent cities’
transportation systems will be safer and ITS will be more secure.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

EC for Intelligent Vehicle Network and Intelligent Land Transportation

Let’s now talk about several algorithms and strategies for routing problems in wireless sensor and vehicle
networks. The mobility of the nodes in these networks poses several difficulties, including the potential
for unstable and transient routing pathways. Security issues may also arise, such as malicious nodes
disrupting the network or broadcasting false data. Researchers have recommended using Ant Colony
Optimization (ACO) techniques to overcome these issues. ACO is a metaheuristic algorithm success-
fully used to address discrete optimization issues, including those in network routing (Gao et al., 2021),
(Nalluri et al., 2020). In wireless sensor networks, (Eiza et al. 2016) suggest utilizing an ACO-based
routing algorithm that optimizes the placement of sensors and RSUs to achieve total coverage while
reducing network traffic interference. They have also proposed an ACO-based routing algorithm for
vehicle networks to address the issues posed by mobility and the possibility of malicious nodes. This
method incorporates a plausibility check to guarantee consistency in the routing of control messages.
In other research, (Safavat et al. 2021) implemented an effective way of identifying malicious nodes
before using ACO to achieve low-latency, short-distance, malicious-vehicle-free routing. This research
has shown how well ACO solves discrete optimization issues like routing difficulties in wireless sensor
and vehicle networks. The figure 2 presents A vehicle network featuring V2I and V2V communications
as an example.

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Intelligent Infrastructure of Route Scheduling for Smart Transportation Systems in Smart Cities

Figure 2. A vehicle network featuring V2I and V2V communications as an example

Intelligent Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles and Traffic Lights

Due to economic expansion and technological developments in the automobile industry, there is a sig-
nificant demand for the transportation system and increased traffic in metropolitan areas. A realistic
answer to this problem, combined with infrastructural improvements like building new highways and
enlarging old ones, is traffic signal optimization. A vehicle network may be used to monitor traffic flow
on roads in real time, and machine learning methods like the EC approach have been used to estimate
short-term traffic patterns (X. Feng et al. 2019) (D. Chen 2017) (Pradhan et al., 2022). The traffic light
patterns can then be intelligently adjusted using this information. The City Council is responsible for
arranging traffic signals, and the government will consider this proposal. The sequence and duration of
each signal phase are the deciding factors at a junction, and they define the length of each traffic light at
the intersection. An efficient traffic network is often created by concurrently considering many corners.
According to (Sanchez-Medina et al. 2010), one of the optimization goals for traffic signal design is to
reduce the average travel time of vehicles to their destinations. Cellular automata technology simulates
traffic flow and calculates a solution’s fitness, which is the average journey time. Binary encoding is
employed to encode signal phase duration. The same optimization goal and integer encoding were em-
ployed by (Li et al. 2017) while using GA. A modified traffic signal scheduling strategy was suggested
by (Ferrer et al. 2019) to address traffic flow uncertainty. (Bi et al. 2014) introduced a multi-agent type
2 fuzzy logic control system to improve system parameter settings. Using GA to plan traffic signals and
bus speeds, (Bid et al. 2020) studied traffic light timing for controlling bus separation. While examin-
ing signal transitions, studies often consider the vehicle and pedestrian traffic flow for optimizing the
weighted sum of a pedestrian. To reduce costs and enhance service quality, the government and EV
manufacturers must install charging stations for electric vehicles (EVs) in parking lots. Infrastructure
for EVs must be developed and maintained by energy suppliers. Citizens want to utilize sophisticated
EV infrastructure for comfortable travel, companies want to be lucrative, and governments build and
administer EV infrastructure. Using GA in all three studies, (Sadeghi Barzani et al.2021) (P. Sadeghi

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et al.2014) modified fast-charging stations’ placement and charging capacity to save construction costs
and improve service quality. Ko et al. thought of a novel charging system for electric city buses. The
figure 3 defines an illustration of two phases of a traffic light signal which shows the left-to-right direc-
tion signal phase.

Figure 3. An illustration of two phases of a traffic light signal

Intelligent Car Service and Smart Cities Communications Architecture

Taxi, carpooling, and parking are the three services included in intelligent city car services. Although
the main objective of these services is to make money, they are also used from the point of view of the
general public. Dispatching cabs to customers are a frequent difficulty in the taxi industry. Usually, taxi
drivers need help finding their passengers, which causes some to have long waits and others to lose out
on possibilities. Yet since the advent of taxi booking applications like Uber, the industry has transformed
due to the effective matching of customers and cabs made possible by the data collected from both parties.
One suggested remedy for this dispatch issue is an ACO-based algorithm that develops a taxi-passenger
matching strategy to optimize revenues. With this strategy, the territory is divided into smaller areas to
accommodate a high volume of travellers and taxis, and allocation is handled concurrently in each site
(X. Situ et al. 2017) Taxi dispatching is another idea that considers income and service quality. Accord-
ing to revenue and service quality, possible taxi-passenger pairings are assessed utilizing a fuzzy logic
control system in this method. Using DE (Y. Gong,2021), the membership functions and fuzzy rules are
optimized. The figure 4 presents the example of carpooling system.

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Figure 4. Example of carpooling

EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT

This study utilized network and traffic simulations, and the following subsections offer specific simu-
lation parameters and findings. The ITS communication architecture was modelled using the NS-3
network simulator. Infrastructure devices will be erected on the roadside every 500m to support V2I
communication. Table 2 displays the simulation parameters. We have created two apps to simulate the
ITS application for smart cities. The first application is a safety one that calls for the routine transmis-
sion of safety messages (also known as CAMs) between vehicles (v2V), and the second use is between
cars and the local infrastructure (V2I)—query tools like between. The payload size for a security ap-
plication was 100 bytes. When digital signatures are added to each CAM packet, the security overhead
is 106 without certificates and 288 with credentials, respectively. According to the ETSI standard, the
certificate is only delivered once during this period because the CAM production rate is ten packets per
second. Security processing employing Intel Xeon and Intel i7 processors is referred to in this section as
medium and rapid security, respectively. Due to its sluggish processing performance, the Cubie Board
processor is not preferred for simulation and is inappropriate for ITS applications. The security applica-
tion signing and verification intervals for medium and high-speed security. With a 200-byte packet size
and additional protection, the infrastructure manages the service and returns to the vehicle (downlink).
For query service applications, use the ECIES-NISTP 256-AES-CCM-128 encryption technique.

Simulations Results

Simulation results are shown in this part, separated into safety and query applications. Figure 5 depicts
the ITS secure communications process. Before being sent to lower tiers, the sender signs and encrypts
each ITS packet. Using the wireless channel, packets are transmitted to the receiver. At the receiver,
packets are verified and decrypted. Finally, the application layer receives validated packets to assess the
local dynamic map.

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Figure 5. ITS secure communications process

The chapter focused on the AES-CCM algorithm with a 128-bit key here. A lower-weight encryption
technique is implied by using NISTP and SHA values below, which results in a shorter ENCAP delay.
For NISTP values of 221, 287, and 424, respectively, the ENCAP delays needed for encryption without
certificate processing and signature are 1.13, 1.5ms 4ms, and 6.12 ms for Intel Xeon processors.

Table 2. ENCAP delays for various ECDSA and ECIES schemes according to ETSI, IEEE WAVE, and NIST

NISTP384-SHA256 NISTP384-SHA384
Security Level
CB Xn i7 CB Xn i7
Sign w/o Certificate a 6.31 0.84 0.37 6.2 0.84 0.4
Sign with Certificate a 6.38 0.85 0.43 6.3 0.85 0.39
Encrypt w/o Certificate b 42.87 5.24 1.8 42.81 5.28 1.8
Encrypt with Certificate b 42.92 5.28 1.79 42.86 5.2 1.93
Sign w/o Certificate b 7.81 0.93 0.39 8.5 0.94 0.8
Sign with Certificate b 8.32 0.95 0.65 7.38 0.88 0.63
Encrypt w/o Certificate a 48.67 8.34 2.2 44.72 6.38 2.5
Encrypt with Certificate a 43.78 6.76 2.26 44.96 6.82 2.76

Table 2 shows that the ITS standard provides the DECAP delays for various ciphers. The Intel i7,
Intel Xeon, and Cubie Board CPUs are listed from lowest to most significant in DECAP latency. On
Intel Xeon processors, the DECAP latency values for validating and decrypting using the certificate
technique are specifically 1.95 milliseconds, 2.69 milliseconds, and 10.99 milliseconds for NISTP values
192, 224, and 384, respectively. ECDSA is used to sign messages digitally; ECIES and A.E.S. encrypt
messages. The effect of security on safety messaging. It takes longer to send a packet because security
measures increase packet overhead, which increases channel occupancy time. Additionally, depending

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on the processor speed, validating the box takes a certain amount of time. Because of this, the safety
messages must wait in line to be checked. Cryptographic loss refers to the dropping from the queue of
C.A.M.s that could not be confirmed within a timeout of 100ms. The Crypto Loss Ratio (C.L.R.) is
the proportion of packets arriving in the line due to validation to packets being dropped due to timeout.
According to the Tx-Rx separation distance, the CAM CLR is 0.33. Safe speed is inversely related to
C.L.R., according to intuition. Safety awareness level introduced in prior work to evaluate vehicle safety
awareness as part of a safety application. The suggested action determines a vehicle’s level of safety
awareness by dividing the amount of information received by the L.D.M. by its accuracy. The resultant
metric ranges from 0 to 1, representing the vehicle’s application dependability or L.D.M. accuracy. The
S.A. L metric according to the chosen security level. The S.A. L measure is 0.72 inside 300 meters
without safety systems. The graph also displays the two CPUs’ security awareness during the exercise.
Within a 300m radius, medium-speed safety produces a safety awareness of 0.4; high-speed protection
creates a safety awareness of 0.62. The monitoring of drivers is less about where each driver should be
documented when they received training, when they completed their tasks, disciplinary measures, how
frequently they violated traffic laws, etc., as it is about various other factors. Not crucial. One of the es-
sential functions of an intelligent transportation system is driver supervision, which is useless in the case
of a subpar vehicle. An operator, such as a driver, realizes the intelligent transportation system (ITS).
The introduction of a smart transportation system will undoubtedly improve travel. Information services
enhance passenger happiness, encourage public transportation use, and lower private automobile usage.
This significantly helps reduce city traffic and protect the environment from high automobile pollution.
I.T.S. ultimately has much to offer you regarding a pleasant and secure experience.

CONCLUSION

The findings from this study may help create safe transportation systems in the future. Overall, the sug-
gested technique gives a thorough approach to tackling the difficulties faced by transportation systems
in smart cities. Large cities’ ongoing population development has led to congested transportation, raising
questions about the effectiveness and environmental friendliness. Smart cities, which employ cutting-edge
technology to provide more sustainable and effective transportation systems, have emerged as a viable
remedy. However, as technology is used more often, security problems arise, especially with Intelligent
Transportation Systems. (ITS). Standards like Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) techniques have been
created to improve the security of vehicle interactions to mitigate these threats. This study proposes a
methodology for the intelligent architecture of route routing in innovative transportation systems. It in-
cludes intelligent algorithms, modern communication technologies, and ECC algorithms for safe vehicle
interactions. The paper analyses the ETSI ITS standard’s security architecture and demonstrates that
the recommended methodology produces promising outcomes for building safer transportation systems
in smart cities.

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Chapter 11
An Alert and Detection
System for Cyber-
Attacks on IoT Devices
Arun Raj V.
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India

Mohamed Arshad M.
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India

F. Mathew
Mepco Schlenk Engineering College (Autonomous), Sivakasi, India

ABSTRACT
The internet of things (IoT) is still in its early stages, but it has sparked interest in a wide range of in-
dustries, including healthcare, logistics tracking, smart cities, and transportation. However, it is also
vulnerable to a variety of serious network infiltration concerns. This chapter contributes to attack de-
tection and alert system for IoT networks. This system provides alert and detection of cyber-attacks at
the router level by configuring Rpi as a wireless router for IoT network. For the detection method, the
authors used an anomaly-based approach that learns the packets in the network using deep learning.
IoTID20 dataset is used for training the deep learning model. This model detects four kinds of attack:
DoS, MITM, port scan, and scan. When the attack is detected, the user is alerted via e-mail and SMS.

INTRODUCTION

The Internet of Things has become more popular and used in a wide range of industries and the increase
in IoT devices made our day-to-day life easier. Nowadays there is a huge development in developing IoT
devices and innovations in the field IoT made the usage and adoption of IoT in different industries and
sectors such as healthcare, agriculture, transportation and used in modern applications such as smart
city, home automation and smart cars etc. Even Though IoT provides various benefits it is extremely

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch011

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An Alert and Detection System for Cyber-Attacks on IoT Devices

vulnerable to cyber-attacks such as data theft, Botnet attacks, DDOS attacks etc. As IoT devices are
used in our day-to-day life in our homes, workplaces, and hospitals, if the IoT devices are not secured
properly it can affect the user in various ways such as invading the user’s privacy, user’s safety and in
extreme cases impact the human’s health as IoT is used in healthcare. So, it is important for us to make
our IoT Network secure. Much research and development is done on Securing IoT devices and networks
used for commercial purposes using an Intrusion detection system in recent years, but the security of
IoT devices in the home-based networks is not given importance. So, it is important to create a system
which provides adequate security to these IoT Networks. Network intrusion detection system is used as
a security measure to IoT networks. This system continuously monitors the packets exchanged by the
devices in the IoT Network and searches for malicious activity and labels it as an attack. The goal of
our project is to detect the attacks or malicious activity in the IoT network and alert the user about the
attack which makes the user aware of the attack and respond to the malicious activity happening in the
IoT Network.
The motivation behind the research and development of intrusion detection systems for IoT networks
is the increasing popularity and usage of IoT devices in various industries and sectors. The ease of use
and benefits provided by IoT devices have led to their adoption in smart cities, home automation, health-
care, and transportation, among others. However, these devices are vulnerable to cyber-attacks, which
can compromise user privacy, safety, and even health. While there have been significant developments
in securing commercial IoT networks, home-based networks are often overlooked. Therefore, there is
a need for a system that can provide adequate security to these networks. The proposed system aims to
continuously monitor the IoT network for malicious activity using a network intrusion detection system
and alert the user about the attack to enable timely response and prevent damage.
The chapter begins with the section 1, which establishes the background and significance of IoT,
highlighting the vulnerabilities and risks present in IoT networks. It emphasizes the importance of
securing IoT networks and presents the goal of the project: to detect and alert attacks in IoT networks.
The section 2 examines the advances in IoT network security, existing intrusion detection systems for
IoT networks, and the datasets used for intrusion detection in IoT networks. It also identifies the limita-
tions and gaps in current approaches, paving the way for the proposed methodology. Section 3 provides
an overview of deep learning and introduces the CNN-LSTM architecture for attack detection. It also
discusses the dataset used for training and testing, specifically the IoTID20 dataset. Section 4 presents
the system design and architecture, hardware details of the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B, implementation of
IoT nodes, packet capturing, and CSV file creation. It also covers the configuration of the Raspberry Pi
as a wireless router and access point and introduces the CNN-LSTM detection model for attack clas-
sification. Section 5 brings out the further details the hardware details of the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B,
implementation of IoT nodes, packet capturing, CSV file creation, and the configuration of the Raspberry
Pi as a wireless router. It also explains the implementation of the CNN-LSTM detection model for attack
classification. Results and Evaluation section 6 focuses on performance evaluation metrics and presents
the experimental results on the IoTID20 dataset. It includes a comparative analysis with existing methods
to highlight the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Finally, section 7 summarizes the contributions
of the study and outlines future research directions in the field of securing IoT networks.

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LITERATURE SURVEY

The field of IoT network security has witnessed significant advancements in recent years. Researchers
have explored various approaches to enhance intrusion detection systems and secure IoT devices. de
Almeida Florencio et al. (2018) proposed an intrusion detection system based on an MLP neural network
implemented on an Arduino embedded system. They demonstrated the feasibility of using this approach
for effective intrusion detection. Hyunjae et al. (2019) contributed to the field by creating a comprehen-
sive IoT network intrusion dataset, which serves as a valuable resource for evaluating intrusion detection
algorithms. Ullah and Mahmoud (2020) addressed the challenge of generating a dataset for anomalous
activity detection in IoT networks. Their scheme offers insights into effectively creating datasets that
capture diverse IoT network behaviors. Nagy and Coleşa (2019) proposed a router-based IoT security
system using Raspberry Pi. This system not only provides affordable security but also enables the de-
tection of malicious attacks and alerts users accordingly. Chen et al. (2020) introduced a novel network
intrusion detection system based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs). Their approach leverages
the capabilities of CNNs to detect and classify network intrusions accurately. Injadat, Moubayed, and
Shami (2020) presented an optimized machine learning framework for detecting botnet attacks in IoT
environments. Their approach demonstrates improved accuracy in identifying botnet activities. Upasani
and Om (2019) contributed to real-time intrusion detection with their modified neuro-fuzzy classifier,
implemented on modern GPUs. Their parallel implementation on GPUs enables efficient real-time intru-
sion detection. Moustafa and Slay (2015) developed the UNSW-NB15 dataset, a comprehensive dataset
for network intrusion detection systems. This dataset has been widely used by researchers in the field.
Hattarki, Houji, and Dhage (2021) proposed a real-time intrusion detection system specifically designed
for IoT networks. Their system addresses the need for timely detection and response to intrusions in IoT
environments. Babu, Karthika, and Rajan (2020) explored the use of Raspberry Pi, machine learning,
and artificial intelligence techniques to develop secure IoT systems. Vinayakumar et al. (2019) intro-
duced a deep learning approach for intelligent intrusion detection systems, which leverages the power
of deep neural networks in identifying network intrusions. Al-Emadi, Al-Mohannadi, and Al-Senaid
(2020) investigated the application of deep learning techniques in network intrusion detection, show-
casing the potential of deep learning for improved detection accuracy. Thaseen, Poorva, and Ushasree
(2020) evaluated various machine learning techniques for network intrusion detection and highlighted
their effectiveness in detecting intrusions. Visoottiviseth et al. (2020) proposed a signature-based and
behavior-based attack detection approach for home IoT devices, utilizing machine learning algorithms to
detect and mitigate attacks effectively. Simadiputra and Surantha (2021) introduced Rasefiberry, a secure
and efficient Raspberry Pi-based gateway for smarthome IoT architecture. Their system offers enhanced
security measures for IoT devices in a home environment. These studies collectively contribute to the
advancements in IoT network security, offering valuable insights and techniques for effective intrusion
detection, dataset generation, and securing IoT devices.
The reviewed papers are tabulated as Table 1 for better comparison.

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Table 1. Comparison of existing methods

Real-Time
Authors/Research Proposed Method Dataset Used Alert System Accuracy
Detection
Nagy and Coleşa Router with malicious
N/A Yes Yes N/A
(2019) attack detection
IoT node with Arduino Yes (via
Hattarki, Houji, and Machine learning model
Uno, Node MCU, and Yes desktop 91.18%
Dhage (2021) with packet capturing tool
Ultrasonic Sensor notification)
Wireshark captured
Thaseen, Poorva, and Comparison of machine packets with 24 different
N/A N/A 99.81%
Ushasree (2020) learning algorithms attributes and 1130
instances
Parallel implementation KDD dataset (not
Upasani and Om
of modified neuro-fuzzy generated from IoT Yes N/A N/A
(2019)
classifier on GPUs Network)
IDS system using
de Almeida Florencio
Multilayer perceptron NSL_KDD dataset No No N/A
et al. (2018)
Neural Network
Optimized machine learning No (requires time-
Injadat, Moubayed, and
framework for detecting Bot-IoT dataset consuming feature N/A N/A
Shami (2020)
botnet attacks extraction)

Survey Conclusion

Most of the research and proposed methods to detect cyber-attacks in IoT are using Intrusion Detection
System and most of the Intrusion detection used datasets are not recent datasets and those datasets are
not generated from IoT Networks. Some of the IDS systems use IoT specific datasets such as BoT-IoT
and few create their own dataset in their IoT environment to train the model used for IDS. There is a
lack of focus on alerting the user about the attack performed on IoT devices. Based on the literature
survey we have performed we found that there is a lack of ways to alert the user about the detection of
alert and implement the proposed intrusion detection system in Real time continuously. Continuously
monitoring the IoT Network in real time and alerting the user about the detected attack happening in
IoT Network should be concentrated.

DEEP LEARNING

Deep learning is the process of providing a computer model with the ability to make the computer learn
and perform prediction, classification, and analysis of data from images, text, or sound. Its goal is to
make the computer learn and perform like the human brain. Deep learning models use neural networks
for training (Nalluri et al., 2017). In some cases, the accuracy attained by deep learning models exceeds
the performance of the human. We have used Deep learning to detect the malicious activity present in
the IoT Network. A cyber-attack detection system is proposed based on the CNN-LSTM architecture
concept, major deep neural network architecture. CNN-LSTM is an abbreviation of CNN Long short-
term memory used in the prediction of sequence data. CNN-LSTM is a hybrid model which involves

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convolutional neural network and LSTM where convolutional neural network is used for extracting
features from the data and LSTM is used for performing predictions on sequence data.

Figure 1. Architecture of CNN_LSTM

Dataset

To train the CNN_LSTM deep learning model we have used the IoTID20 Dataset. It is a well-structured
dataset for Intrusion in IoT Networks. From our literature survey we can infer that most used standard
and common datasets such as CICIDS2017, UNSW-NB15, NSL-KDD. These datasets are not specific
for IoT Networks, so we used the IoTID20 dataset as its generated from IoT Network Intrusion dataset
which consists of 42 raw packet capture files of IoT Network with normal flow and attacks such as DOS,
Mirai, Scan, MITM. The IoTID20 has 83 features in which there are labels classifying it into binary,
category, and subcategory the remaining 80 features can be which can be extracted from pcap files using
CICflowmeter. There are 623873 instances. So this dataset is used in our model. The dataset is prepro-
cessed and split into training and testing data. 80% of this dataset is used for training the CNN_LSTM
model and 20% for testing the CNN_LSTM model.

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

The model diagram represents the demonstration of a proposed system where the Raspberry pi is act-
ing as an access point for the IoT Nodes and detecting the cyber attacks performed in the IoT Network.
Initially the raspberry pi was configured as Wireless Router / Access Point for the IoT Network with the
SSID and password protected with WPA-2 security and the bandwidth chosen is 2.4 Ghz,as the Node
MCU supports 2.4 Ghz wifi band. The IoT Node 1 consists of a Node MCU interfacing with DHT11
sensor and hosts a web server to display the room temperature and humidity to the user and similarly
in IoT Node 2, Node MCU is interfaced with servo motor and hosts a web server to control the servo
motor remotely by the user. Now these Node MCUs are connected to the wireless Network created by
raspberry pi by providing the ssid and password of Raspberry pi access point to the Node MCU and the
user is also connected to the network. Thus results in the formation of the IoT Network.

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Figure 2. Proposed model diagram

As raspberry pi entirely manages this Network, CICflowmeter tool running in the raspberry pi
captures the packets transmitted in the network and extracts features from the pcap file and logs it in a
CSV file. The python script running in the Raspberry preprocess the CSV file and feeds the CSV file
displayed in the Figure 3 to the trained deep learning model and the deep learning model used here is
CNN_LSTM, and we have used binary classification, so this model classifies the packets as Attack or
Normal by giving 0 and 1 as predicted output. 0 represents the normal label and 1 represents the attack
label. When a deep learning model classifies the packet as Attack then the user is alerted via Email and
SMS using SMTP python library and Fast2SMS API.

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An Alert and Detection System for Cyber-Attacks on IoT Devices

Figure 3. Workflow

Our proposed system continuously captures the packet exchanged in the IoT Network and extracts

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An Alert and Detection System for Cyber-Attacks on IoT Devices

features from the packets and analyzes the packets using a Deep learning model. If any anomaly or at-
tack is detected then the user is alerted via Email and SMS.

SYSTEM DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Hardware Details

The main hardware we have used for this project was the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B. Raspberry pi is a credit
card sized single board computer with High performance. The technical features are mentioned below:

• Rpi has Broadcom BCM2711 which is a Quad core Cortex-A72 (ARM v8) 64-bit processor with
SoC @ 1.5GHz.
• Ram: 4GB LPDDR4-3200 SDRAM.
• 2.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz IEEE 802.11ac wireless.
• Bluetooth 5.0, BLE Gigabit Ethernet.

A wireless router connected to a network via Ethernet is considered in this project as a way of creat-
ing a safe subnet for devices in the Internet of Things. An attack on the IoT network is not possible from
outside, as its IP address scope is local only. An attacker can only act from a compromised device if they
are connected to WiFi and gaining internet access through it.

IoT Module

We have implemented two IoT Nodes.In IoT Node 1, DHT11 temperature and humidity sensor is interfaced
with Node MCU. ESP8266 is uploaded with code to host a webserver which updates the temperature
and humidity readings for every ten seconds. Similarly, in IoT Node 2, Servo motor SG90 is interfaced
with Node MCU, and a web server is hosted by ESP8266 to control the servo motor which can be used
in the application of closing and opening doors in the home environment.

Packet Capturing and Creation of CSV File

The packets in the IoT Network are captured and required features to classify the packet attack or normal
is extracted using CICflowmeter (a packet capturing tool). The CICflowmeter tool is deployed in rasp-
berry pi. Raspberry pi is programmed to run the CICflowmeter tool at the startup, the CICflowmeter
tool captures the packets in the network and extracts the packet’s features and logs it into a CSV file.

Figure 4. Block diagram of process performed using CICflowmeter

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An Alert and Detection System for Cyber-Attacks on IoT Devices

Raspberry Pi as Wireless Router

At the hardware level, we have used a Raspberry Pi. and configured it to act as a Wireless Router. A
Raspberry Pi can be used as an access point with only a few requirements: the device has to be connected
to an Ethernet cable, and some configurations need to be done. For configuring two software packages
are required. The required software packages are Hostapd and Dnsmasq. Hostapd is used for raspberry
pi as an access point and dnsmasq for network management. Hostapd is used to change the raspberry pi
network interface card into access point and The DHCP server is made to run and the DNS services in
the rpi by dnsmasq software installed rpi then a static IP 192.168.4.1 is assigned to the wlan0 interface
of raspberry pi and configured as an access point to the IoT Network.Thus the raspberry pi is configured
as the Wireless Router / Access Point for IoT Network this allows the Raspberry Pi to monitor the IoT
Network.

Figure 5. Block diagram of Rpi as wireless router in the network

Detection Model

A deep learning model is used to detect the attack happening in the IoT Network. Here we used a hybrid
deep learning model. CNN_LSTM model is used to train and test the model. IoTID20 Dataset which
has 83 features and includes four types of attack. This IoTID20 dataset is used to train the CNN_LSTM
model to predict the attacks in IoT Network.80 percent of the data is used for training and 20 percent of
the dataset is used for testing the deep learning model. The packets in the IoT are captured by cic flow-
meter a packet capturing tool which extracts 80 features of IoTid20 dataset and logs it into csv file and
it is preprocessed and given as input file for the deep learning detection program, the detection program
runs a trained CNN_LSTM DL model using IoTId20 dataset, so the given input logs is passed through
the DL model and the classifies it as Normal or Attack.

Alert System

The end user is alerted by e-mail and sms each time an attack is detected in the network. Through this,
the user knows of the attack. Since the API is faster and provides high-level security, Fast2sms api is

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used to send notifications via SMS. For email notification, smtplib python library is used. It can send
and receive messages via email. So when the deep learning model predicts an attack the user is alerted
via SMS and Email through these functions.

ATTACK PHASE

To test our proposed system and to understand how the attack is performed, we performed a few com-
mon and major attacks. Using Kali Linux OS for performing penetration testing in IoT Network, which
has pre-installed network scanning tool and hacking tools such as nmap, hping3 and ettercap, this was
the next step toward research of vulnerabilities.

Man In the Middle Attack

A MITM attack is a type of data eavesdropping in which attackers disguise themselves as legitimate
participants in an existing communication or data transfer. Typically, a MITM attack involves two vic-
tims and an attacker. Through the communication channel, the attacker can manipulate the messages
between the two endpoints. Therefore, malicious attackers may manipulate and perform theft on the data
transmitted over the Nodes and Devices in the Network. Since the victims are unaware of these intruders,
they believe the communication channel is protected. We have performed MITM attack using Ettercap
tool for ARP Spoofing and Burpsuite for data manipulation in Kali Linux, the victim ip address is set
as target 1 and router’s ip address as target 2 and choosing the ARP poisoning in the MITM menu, thus
we have initiated a MITM attack by ARP Spoofing

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Figure 6. Performing MITM-ARP spoofing using Ettercap

Denial of Service

An attempt is made to prevent legitimate users from accessing computer systems, networks, or services
using denial-of-service attacks that exploit vulnerabilities in order to make the server unavailable to use,
shut down and affect its performance. During these types of attacks, the attackers flood the victim’s
equipment with traffic, overloading its resources and making it impossible for anyone else to connect.
Since the attacker has utilized most of the network bandwidth the target continues to function but has
no ability to process legitimate network requests (Pradhan et al, 2022). Here we implemented this at-
tack on the webserver hosted by IoT Node 1’s Nodemcu.The attack is performed using Hping3 tool by
SYN packets flooding to the IoT Node 1 web server by mentioning the Node MCU ip address and port
number 80 as it is HTTP server in the Hping3 command.

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Figure 7. Performing Dos attack to the IoT Node 1 webserver

RESULTS

Python is used for programming as it has many libraries with a variety of functionalities. We used the
CICflowmeter tool to capture the packets and extract the features and log it in a CSV. The CNN _LSTM
model is built using Tensorflow and keras module in python and the model is trained with IoTID20 dataset.
For detecting malicious behavior, the trained model is loaded in the raspberry pi and, the CSV file with
features generated by CICflowmeter is given as input to the DL model and it provides the classification
it Attack or Normal. This trained CNN LSTM model is tested with test data to obtain the accuracy and
confusion matrix results. When the CNN_LSTM model is tested with a testing dataset. The model gives
an accuracy of 99.09% which is better when compared with the literature of recent works and in Figure 8
the confusion matrix of the model is presented. The generated CSV file with features of packets captured
is fed into the trained deep learning model and this model classifies each packet in the CSV file as 0 and
1 where 0 represents normal packet and 1 represents attack packet. The predicted output for each packet
is logged into a text file. This text file is analyzed and when the instances of 1 is found the user is alerted
via Email and SMS. For alerting the user via email using python program by importing smtplib python
library and the results of alerting the user via Email are obtained and presented in Figure 9.

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Figure 8. Confusion matrix

Figure 9. Email alert received by the user

Similarly, when the attack instances are found the user is alerted via SMS using python through
FasT2SMS API service. To perform this user is made to register in the Fast2SMS API and the authori-

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zation key is obtained. Using the requests module in python and including the user’s authorization key,
text message to be sent and the receiver’s mobile number in the python program the user is alerted via
SMS. The results of alerting the user via SMS are obtained and presented in Figure 10.

Figure 10. SMS alert received by the user

CONCLUSION

It was found that components of IoT systems were built without considering security schemas or responses
to common vulnerability. In this work, we developed a methodology for detecting malicious network
activity in a IoT environment using deep learning techniques deployed on a Raspberry Pi 4 which also
act as router and by leveraging Cicflowmeter to generate logs as input, it was found that trained models
can detect malicious activity with high accuracy based on the data extracted. In addition, we were able
to learn which features were significant enough to identify common IoT attacks such as DOS and MITM
attacks. Given these results, we can conclude that real-time detection and alerting of cyber-attack can
be performed in an IoT Network using a low-cost solution, in a limited resource environment with a
Raspberry Pi. Although deep learning techniques may also help improve the solution, further research is
needed to develop and integrate an effective solution into the data pipeline. This is one of several areas
which can be used to pursue as a future direction for this work. Some other areas include collecting data
and training models for additional attacks, self-learning by introducing a feedback loop, and performing
cyber-attack prevention.

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FUTURE WORK

One possible future direction for this work is to collect data and train models for additional types of at-
tacks beyond the ones identified in this study, such as botnet attacks or ransomware attacks. This would
help improve the accuracy of the detection system and make it more robust against a wider range of
threats. Another potential future direction is to introduce a feedback loop into the system, allowing it to
self-learn and improve over time. This would enable the system to adapt to new and emerging threats and
stay up to date with the latest attack techniques. Finally, there is a need to explore methods for preventing
cyber-attacks from occurring in the first place. This could involve implementing stronger authentica-
tion and access control mechanisms, as well as incorporating intrusion prevention capabilities into the
system. Overall, the development of more effective and robust security solutions for IoT networks will
be critical in ensuring the safety and privacy of users in the future.

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Chapter 12
Blockchain-Enabled Secured
Smart City Services
Vrinda Gupta
National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India

Vamsi Reddy Punugoti

National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India

Sanath Kalyan Veereju

National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India

ABSTRACT
Smart city incorporates multiple living methods for the sustainability of resources. As the number of
interconnected devices is expanding day by day, we need to secure the transmission of data. Blockchain
is seen as a way to eliminate tampering and reduce the risks of malware threats with IoT devices and
data. In smart cities, blockchain-based IoT applications can be used for a wide variety of services in
a secure and decentralized way. This chapter introduces blockchain technology and how it secures the
data and then explores the integration of blockchain technology in smart city services like healthcare,
transportation, supply chain management, smart grid, and banking.

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the rise of smart cities has gained significant attention globally, integrating advanced
technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), Blockchain Technology
(BCT), and data analytics (S. Rani et al., 2021). Smart cities aim to provide citizens with efficient and
sustainable services that enhance their quality of life while reducing costs and environmental impact.
Blockchain technology, in particular, has emerged as a promising tool to enable secure, transparent, and
decentralized systems for innovative city services.
This chapter comprehensively studies blockchain-based secured intelligent city services in different
domains. The motive behind exploring blockchain-enabled smart city services is to address the current

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch012

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Blockchain-Enabled Secured Smart City Services

challenges traditional centralized systems face, such as data privacy, security, transparency, and account-
ability (C. Shen et al., 2018). By leveraging blockchain technology, cities can create tamper-proof and
immutable records of transactions and data, enabling citizens to have greater trust and control over their
data while reducing the risk of fraud and cyber-attacks. In traditional centralized systems, personal data
is often stored in a single location, making it vulnerable to cyber-attacks and data breaches. Blockchain
technology provides a decentralized solution where data is stored across a network of nodes, making
it more secure and less susceptible to hacks or breaches. Blockchain-enabled smart city services can
also increase transparency and accountability, as every transaction is recorded on a public ledger that
authorized parties can access. This can lead to greater trust between citizens and government agencies,
and different stakeholders in a smart city ecosystem.
Another key advantage of blockchain-enabled smart city services is the potential for increased ef-
ficiency and cost savings. By automating processes and improving interoperability between different
systems and stakeholders, blockchain technology can help reduce administrative costs and improve
service delivery. Blockchain applications include energy management, waste management, public safety,
construction, transportation, traffic management, power plants, water and gas supply management,
healthcare, information systems, government services, and other community services (S. Ahmed et al.,
2020; Makani et al., 2022; J. Xie et al., 2019).
Overall, the integration of blockchain technology in smart city services has the potential to transfig-
ure the way cities are designed, managed, and experienced by citizens. By addressing key challenges
such as data privacy, security, transparency, and accountability, blockchain-enabled smart city services
can help create more sustainable and efficient urban environments that enhance the quality of life for
citizens while reducing costs and environmental impact. The emergence of blockchain technology has
opened up new possibilities for smart city services. As the adoption of blockchain technology continues
to grow, safer smart city services are expected to develop.
The rest of the chapter is structured as follows. The literature review is specified in Section 2. Section
3 provides an overview of the working, advantages, features, and applications of blockchain. Section
4 details the discussion of emerging smart cities along with their features and challenges of smart city
development. Section 5 discusses integrating BCT with various smart city services in the health sector,
transportation, smart grid, supply chain management (SCM), and banking sector. Finally, the limitations,
further scope, and conclusions are discussed in Section 6.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Background

The study and evolution of smart cities have expanded quickly over the past years. A smart city, accord-
ing to some experts, uses information and communication technology (ICT) to improve its infrastructure
and services (S. Rani et al., 2021). Others describe it as a city that makes decisions based on data to
enrich the living standards of its citizens. ICT infrastructure, sensors and data gathering equipment,
data analytics platforms, and citizen interaction tools are the elements that make up a smart city. The
effectiveness, sustainability, and livability of metropolitan areas, as well as public safety, transportation,
and energy consumption, can all be improved through smart cities.

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Numerous cities across the world are working to become smart cities. According to IMD Smart
City Index 2023, Zurich (Switzerland) has taken the lead, with Oslo (Norway) in second place and
Canberra (Australia) in third. Along with these cities, Singapore, London, New York, Tokyo, Dubai,
Helsinki, Amsterdam, Seoul, and Barcelona are also the leading smart cities in the world. For instance,
Zurich has implemented smart city technologies, Namely IoT, AI, and cloud computing to enhance the
efficiency and effectiveness of urban systems. And also particularly focus on smart city services like
smart streetlights, smart parking, smart waste management, smart mobility, smart water management,
and open data platform.
In the literature, several research works are available which discuss the role of technology like IoT,
cloud computing, blockchain, etc. The integration of blockchain technology in smart cities provides an
opportunity to improve the efficiency, security, and transparency of various services and systems. It
includes technical aspects, impact on different industries, and potential future developments (Majeed et
al., 2021). In the technical aspect, research focuses on the underlying blockchain algorithms and their
performance, security, and scalability. In terms of industry-specific applications, BCT has been studied
in various domains such as healthcare, SCM, energy, and finance.
However, there are also challenges and limitations in the blockchain and its integration in smart cit-
ies (J. Xie et al., 2019; Majeed et al., 2021; J. Leng et al., 2020; J. Bernal Bernabe et al., 2019). These
challenges include privacy and security concerns, data management issues, and the digital divide.

Related Work

The creation of smart cities requires a multidisciplinary and trans-disciplinary approach rather than a
one-dimensional one. Numerous cutting-edge technologies, including IoT, AI, BCT, big data, and cloud
computing, might contribute to the sustainable growth of various smart city functional sectors. Cyber-
Physical Systems (CPS) will improve sustainable growth in smart cities (S. Rani et al., 2021; Hussain
et al, 2021). Through legislative initiatives and extensive pilot programs in both the public and private
sectors, several cities throughout the globe have previously begun the race for the blockchain future (C.
Shen et al., 2018). Blockchain will initially require a lot of resources, even though it will reduce the cost
and time of transaction processing (S. Ahmed et al., 2020; Makani et al., 2022). In terms of challenges,
several studies have explored the potential challenges associated with the implementation of blockchain
technology in smart cities (J. Xie et al., 2019; Majeed et al., 2021; J. Leng et al., 2020; J. Bernal Bernabe
et al., 2019). Three stages, referred to as the PDI model of blockchain privacy, are used to categorize the
security of the blockchain: process, data, and infrastructure level (J. Leng et al., 2020).
Blockchain technology can be applied in various areas like medical care, transportation, smart grid,
SCM, finance systems, energy trading, waste management, governance, and so on (J. Xie et al., 2019).
Internet of Things (IoHT) frameworks for the healthcare industry can be secured and made more effective
with the help of BCT (E. M. Abou-Nassar et al., 2020). To assist cut costs and improve communication
between patients and healthcare providers, more healthcare organizations have started implementing
IoMT in the age of the Internet of Things. To address the cyber-terrorist issue, a trust management
system based on blockchain technology is implemented to detect rogue nodes (W. Meng et al., 2020).
Several systems are implemented to assist in reducing the spread of contagious diseases generally and
the COVID-19 disease specifically (H. R. Hasan et al., 2020). A blockchain-based architecture for the
pharmaceutical supply chain is proposed to produce shielded logs of events within the logistics (A.
Musamih et al., 2021; Haleem et al., 2021).

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Blockchain technology has the potential to transform transportation systems in smart cities by enabling
secure, transparent, and efficient transactions. There are several issues, including communication band-
width, energy effectiveness, centralization, privacy, security, and integrity, present difficulties for smart
parking and suggested a Blockchain-enabled Secure substructure for Energy-Efficient Smart Parking in
a feasible City Environment, which was inspired by AI and blockchain technologies (Singh et al., 2022).
For managing EV charging in the IoE, a segregated security model known as LNSC is developed and
achieved a 97.78% success rate (X. Huang et al., 2018). A blockchain-based, budgeted reverse auction
mechanism-based system for traffic monitoring by providing a simple information trading architecture
employing asymmetric encryption to increase the system’s security and dependability (J. Guo et al., 2022).
In the context of the smart grid ecosystem, a blockchain-based method for safe demand response
management is provided (A. Jindal et al., 2020). And the benefit is that since a transaction is only put to
the blockchain once it has been approved by all miner nodes, even an adversary engaging in the energy
transfer would not be able to tamper with it. Smart contracts are used to carry out transactions, and the
network serves as a transaction verifier. The immutability of the transactions offered by the blockchain
guarantees that every transaction between consumers and generators will always be carried out (Agung
et al., 2022). There is a necessity for a green component in blockchain-based energy auctions before
outlining some design considerations that must be taken into account when creating such auction tech-
niques (M. U. Hassan et al., 2022).
A unique blockchain-based POMS for the supply chain is presented, which renders counterfeiters’
efforts to copy real tags pointless. Customers may refuse to buy counterfeit goods even if they have a
valid EPC, as long as the seller has no proof of ownership (K. Toyoda et al., 2017). A general architecture
utilizing Ethereum blockchain and smart contracts are offered to monitor, track, and carry out business
transactions while removing middlemen and a centralized point of processing for soybean traceability
along the agricultural supply chain (K. Salah et al., 2019). The usage of blockchain-based platforms with
integrated smart contracts might improve information sharing across reputable and illegitimate entities
with fewer security risks (P. K. Wan et al., 2020). There are two blockchain-based scenarios, namely
the financing of warehouse receipts and the financing of accounts receivable to address how the use of
the blockchain changed the business model and process (M. Du et al., 2020; P. K. Sharma et al., 2019).
Blockchain technology has the potential to upgrade and reinvent banks’ credit information and pay-
ment clearing systems by revolutionizing their underlying technology. The Chinese banking sector faces
some issues, namely interest rate liberalization, fall in profits brought on by the interest-rate spreads,
financial breakthroughs, Internet expansion, and economic change. and the government of China devel-
oped a “regulatory sandbox” immediately and created industry norms (Guo et al., 2016). Implementing
a hybrid blockchain system for CBDC, which is novel on three levels: the technical framework, network
design, and consensus mechanism will improve the processing speed, transaction speed, and consensus
speed (J. Zhang et al., 2021).
An energy trading system for residential dwellings that are built on a secure blockchain and for the
system’s choice of miners and block construction, a novel proof-of-computational closeness (PoCC)
consensus mechanism is suggested (Samuel O et al., 2022). The use of blockchain in a voting system
for smart cities can improve the transparency and accountability of the voting process, as well as reduce
fraud and manipulation risks (Rathee et al., 2021). A blockchain-based solution for secure and efficient
data transferring in smart cities is proposed. The solution employs a consensus algorithm called Improved
Byzantine Fault Tolerance (IBFT) to ensure efficient transaction processing and secure data storage
(Li et al., 2021). A thorough analysis of blockchain’s potential for data promulgation in smart cities is

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provided, with a particular emphasis on the elements of smart cities’ healthcare, transportation, energy,
education, and building sectors (Shari et al., 2022). And also Energy efficient operation for Software
Defined Networks (SDN) for resource management and requirement of Quality of Service (QoS) is pre-
sented (Reddy et al., 2022; Hussain et al., 2022). Overall, the literature covers various aspects of smart
cities, blockchain technology, blockchain implementation in potential smart city applications, and the
challenges and opportunities associated with it.

OVERVIEW OF BLOCKCHAIN

About Blockchain

Blockchain has emerged in recent years as the cutting-edge remedy for many IT industry issues. Block-
chain is one of the quickest-growing and most dynamic technologies available right now, even though
it was initially created to account for the well-known cryptocurrency Bitcoin. Blockchain facilitates a
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) connection to build a decentralized database. This implies that the database won’t be
managed by a single entity. A public register of who owns what and who transacts with whom is essen-
tially what a blockchain is. It offers a productive technique to collaborate with multiple parties without
having mutual trust. Blockchain technology, known as Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), enables
financial institutions to control data-sharing governance (S. Ahmed et al., 2020).
Additionally, blockchain’s decentralized ledgers are unchangeable. Each transaction is saved by the
network as history information. It supports a ledger of records that can only be appended to later be
added to the chain. Therefore, sharing information between parties is made simpler and safer by keeping
track of consumer information and transaction records on a decentralized network.

1. Structure of the Blockchain: A linear chain of blocks makes up a blockchain. A collection of trans-
actions, as well as other crucial information, are contained in each block. Blocks are secured by
cryptography and are connected linearly. The structure of the Block in a Blockchain is shown in
Figure 1.

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Figure 1. Structure of a blockchain

Source: Majeed et al. (2021)

The following are the key components of a block:

a. Block Height: It is the block’s position in the chain of blocks or its sequence number. The genesis
block is Block Height: 1.
b. Block Length: The block size is stored in a 4-byte field that is 32 bits wide. Size is increased in
bytes, for example, 216 bytes.
c. Block Reward: The payment given to the miner for including a block of transactions is shown in
this field.
d. Text Count: The block’s total number of transactions is indicated by the transaction counter. The
field can only be as large as 9 bytes.
e. Block Header: The metadata information about the block is contained in the block header, an
80-byte field. The block header consists of the preceding block hash, time, version, bits, nonce &
Merkle root (S. Ahmed et al., 2020).
2. Functioning of the Blockchain: The functioning of a blockchain is illustrated in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. Functioning of blockchain technology

Source: Makani et al. (2022)

The steps for using a blockchain are as follows:

• The sender starts a transaction and signs the block using the unique key assigned to them.
• The transaction pool receives the transaction request.
• Transactions are selected by miners from the transaction pool and verified.
• The minor creates a block of chosen and validated transactions.
• The block is included in the blockchain network only after validating the user and measuring the
hash value calculated from the previous blocks.
• The recorded transaction is permanently saved in the chain network and cannot be interfered with.
• In exchange for using his computing power, the miner receives the mining reward.
3. The characteristics of blockchain technology:
• Digital signature and cryptography-based advanced security.
• Immutability - Records are unchangeable.
• Permanently stores historical records.
• Accountability and transparency.
• More rapid settlement.

Types of Blockchain

Based on accessing and monitoring the network blockchain is classified into the following types:

1. Public Blockchain: This blockchain is like an open network. It is available to everyone, so any-
one can enter the chain network and use it. Since everyone can join, the system lacks security and
privacy and requires immense computational power. If blockchains are being used for business,
there are a lot of crucial factors that need to be considered. Ex: Litecoin, Ethereum, Bitcoin, etc.

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2. Private Blockchain: It is a distributed P2P network, and both private and public blockchains are
similar. However, the whole network is monitored and organized by a sole firm. This firm controls
the ledger’s sharing. By controlling access to others, the trust and confidentiality of the chain net-
work can increase. Ex: Ripple, Corda, Hyperledger, etc.
3. Consortium Blockchains: A blockchain can be maintained by several organizations. A pre-selected
group of organizations determines who can review transactions or access the data in the network.
The consortium blockchain is the most viable option when a business transaction requires every-
one’s approval to distribute possession of the blockchain.

Use Cases and Applications of Blockchain

A few key use cases of blockchain and several applications are discussed below:

1. Cryptocurrencies: A decentralized virtual currency called cryptocurrency is created to serve as a

medium of exchange for online commerce. Payments can be sent and received by anybody, anywhere,
using a P2P system. Individual cryptocurrency transactions are recorded in an online database as
digital inputs, unlike traditional physical money transactions. When transferring cryptocurrency,
the transactions are secured by cryptography and recorded in a public ledger using blockchain
technology.
2. Smart Contracts: An automatically executable software with the aforementioned business logic
or requirement is included in a smart contract. It comes after if-then clauses. Perform a certain
action if a specific condition is true. The Ethereum Virtual Machine executes the smart contract
code (EVM). As soon as the software is run, the action will be conducted automatically by the
contract’s specifications.
3. Decentralized Applications (DApps): One way to reclaim the freedom of users’ data from cen-
tralized control is through decentralized applications (dApps). As a result, one’s requests contact
the Blockchain for information rather than a centralized server. dApps are simply apps with no
centralized management.

App = Frontend + Backend, hosted on centralized network servers.

DApp = Frontend+ Backend+ Smart Contracts, hosted on Blockchain.
The rules and conditions of the decentralized application are assisted by smart contracts. It functions
in tandem with the application’s backend.

4. Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): A non-fungible token, often known as an NFT, is a distinct and non-
transferable data unit. It is a digital ledger connected to digital media items like audio, video, and
pictures. A certificate of ownership for the digital file is provided by an NFT. Utilizing blockchain
technology, NFTs are produced. These will be present on that blockchain and serve as verification
of the purchase’s validity. The blockchain does not save the file.

Some other applications where blockchain technology can be used are Web 3.0, Metaverse, Finance and
Banking, Data Retention, Real estate, Healthcare, Insurance, Voting, Identification, Transportation, and
distribution. Integration of some of these applications with blockchain is discussed in upcoming sections.

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Blockchain’s Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits and drawbacks of BCT are as follows:

1. Benefits:
◦◦ Decentralized management of the network.
◦◦ Since each node has its corresponding copy of the updated records, decentralization makes
the system impenetrable to tampering.
◦◦ Increases accuracy by reducing human involvement and increasing algorithm.
◦◦ The system becomes synchronized and effective when consensus techniques are used for
network agreement.
◦◦ Encourages transaction traceability, security, and transparency.
2. Drawbacks:
◦◦ Setup costs for technology infrastructure.
◦◦ Mining challenges like putting together highly computational hardware.
◦◦ Concern over hackers’ potential use in criminal activity.
◦◦ Regulations and awareness of blockchain must be established.

OVERVIEW OF SMART CITIES

About Smart Cities

ICT (S. Rani et al., 2021) is utilized in smart cities to partake information, enhance citizen services,
and increase functional effectiveness. An ideal smart city maximizes city services and fosters profit-
able development while enhancing its resident’s quality of life. Ultimately, it is less critical how vital
technology is accessible than how it is being used. Several factors are considered when calculating a
city’s smartness, including

• A structure grounded in technology.

• Environmental protection enterprise.
• Efficient and essentially practical public conveyance.
• Create cities with assurance and development.
• Making use of city coffers for both work and living.

Because original governments typically do not bear the bulk of the burden in creating and upholding
a data-driven society, a smart city’s success depends on cooperation between the public and private sec-
tors. To identify and correct any problems, data judges are also required to evaluate the data generated
by smart cities. For example, numerous businesses can be required to provide technology and input for
smart security cameras.

1. History of Smart Cities: The US Community Analysis Bureau collected data, disseminated resources,
and published findings using databases, aerial photography, and cluster analysis for directing
services, averting disasters, and reducing poverty, initially presenting the hypothesis of a smart

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city during1960s and 1970s. The first smart cities were created as a result. Technology companies
created the first wave of smart cities to more clearly illustrate how technology affects daily liv-
ing. Second-generation smart cities seek to achieve integrated external results through the use of
cutting-edge technology and other innovations. The public is directly involved and engaged in the
third generation of smart cities rather than relying on technology providers or pioneers. Vienna
espoused the third-generation conception with the aid of the Wien Energy company. This helped to
address enterprises with gender equivalency and affordable casing while enabling locals to invest
in near solar power installations. Through its 10000 citizen-created 2020 action plan, Vancouver
was named the greenest city in the world.
2. Need for Smart Cities: A smart city should provide its residents with a high standard of living while
simultaneously encouraging successful development. This includes providing inhabitants with a
range of related services while spending less on the building itself. Given the anticipated popula-
tion growth in urban areas, which would necessitate a more effective use of infrastructure and
resources, this assumes increasing importance. These developments will be made feasible by smart
city applications and services, which will improve people’s quality of life. In addition to creating
new revenue streams and valuable savings, smart city innovations also contribute new value to the
city’s existing structure, which benefits the administration and its citizens’ ability to save plutocrats.
3. Features of Smart Cities: It is possible to do away with smart city technologies by fusing Automa-
tion, Blockchain Technology, Machine Learning, and IoT.
◦◦ Smart parking, for example, can facilitate online payments and assist vehicles in finding
parking spaces.
◦◦ Smart traffic management is another illustration of reducing traffic by optimizing traffic sig-
nals and examiner flows.
◦◦ A smart city infrastructure potentially controls services for sharing rides in elevators.
◦◦ Basic energy- and environment-saving features can be added to smart cities, such as lights
that power off when the roads are vacant.
◦◦ Smart grid technology, among other things, can enhance operations, conservation, planning,
and electricity inventories.
◦◦ Smart city projects can be used to address concerns like garbage management, air pollution,
and climate change by utilizing internet-connected trash pickup, lockers, and line operating
systems.
◦◦ In addition to providing amenities, smart cities make it possible to provide preventative
cautions like watching over high-malfeasance areas or employing detectors to enable early
notice for events like cataracts, rockfalls, squalls, or famines.
◦◦ Other advantages that smart buildings can offer include input on the structural health of a
structure and real-time space management. Although detectors may pick up on infrastructure
concerns like water pipe breaks, the public can also breach this system to alert police to any
difficulties, like potholes.
◦◦ Aside from that, smart city technology can boost the effectiveness of several processes, in-
cluding manufacturing, energy consumption, and community stewardship. To provide inhab-
itants with comprehensive results, all services can be connected in smart cities.

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Smart City Services

1. Smart City Technologies: Smart cities utilize software, stoner interfaces, communication networks,
and the IoT to provide the general public with integrated solutions (IoT). One of these that is most
well-known is the IoT. The employment of various detectors, including those in buses, home ap-
pliances, and on-road technology, is possible. The information gleaned from these biases is kept
on servers or in the cloud to boost public and private sector productivity, enhance citizen quality
of life, and generate profit. A few of the smart city services can be seen in below Figure 3.

Figure 3. Smart city services

Source: Makani et al. (2022)

2. Working of Smart Cities: Four steps are taken in the deployment of a network of interconnected IoT
devices and other technology in smart cities to improve living standards and promote economic
growth. They are:

a. Real-Time Data Gathering: Smart detectors gather information instantly.

b. Analysis: The data is examined to discover more about the city’s operations and services.
c. Information Exchange: Decision-makers are made aware of the findings of the data analysis.
d. Taking Charge: Efforts are made to improve operations, manage resources, and improve the
standard of living for residents of the municipality.

To facilitate decision-making, the ICT substructure collects real-time data from connected devices,
equipment, and assets. However, new opportunities for residents to interact with and engage with smart
city ecosystems are provided by mobile devices, connected cars, and connected buildings. It is possible
to save costs, boost feasibility, optimize processes like waste management and energy allocations, and
provide better air quality and less traffic congestion by fusing devices, data, and city planning.

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Issues With Smart Cities

1. Sustainability in Smart Cities: Sustainability is a key component of smart cities’ efforts to improve
citizen welfare and efficiency in urban areas. Cities have numerous advantages for the environment,
such as fewer environmental remnants, but they can have drawbacks, such as using fossil fuels as
a source of energy. However, these negative consequences might be lessened by smart city tech-
nologies, such as requiring an electric transportation system to lower emigration. The frequency
of the electrical grid may be regulated by electric vehicles even when they are not in use. Because
autonomous vehicles are expected to make owning a car less necessary for the general public, there
should be fewer cars in urban areas as a result of these environmentally friendly transportation
options. Such long-term effects might benefit the environment and society.
2. Security in Smart Cities: The benefits that smart cities offer to improve citizen safety are as follows.
Intelligent highways, networked surveillance systems, and monitoring of public safety. The ques-
tion is, how can the smart cities themselves be secured? The reported data must be safeguarded
against hacking, cyberattacks, and data theft, and so must smart cities. To maintain the security
of smart cities, physical data vaults, reliable authentication, and ID results must be implemented.
The public and marketable sectors, as well as software and gadget producers, energy providers,
and network service directors, must cooperate to produce integrated results that meet abecedarian
security pretensions. Citizens must believe in the security of smart cities for this to happen. The
following categories can be used to categorize these fundamental security concerns:
a. Vacuity: To track the many aspects of smart city architecture, data has to be readily accessible
and in real-time.
b. Integrity: Detail accuracy must be maintained as well as fluid accessibility. Additionally,
this involves taking preventive measures against external tampering.
c. Confidentiality: Maintaining privacy and protecting sensitive information is crucial. The use
of firewalls or anonymization of data could be examples of this.
d. Accountability: Users must be responsible for their guests and their interactions with systems
containing sensitive information.

To establish responsibility in the event of issues, users’ logs should keep track of who accesses the data.
Laws are currently being implemented in several nations to aid in the creation of basic security rules for
connected devices in smart cities.

3. Challenges in Smart Cities: Smart cities have many advantages, but some problems need to be resolved.
Public figures that promote widespread citizen participation are among them. Moreover, residents
must be involved in both the public and private sectors for everyone to impact the neighborhood
positively. Every enterprise in a smart city must have an open data point or mobile app that the
general public can access. In this approach, residents can interact with the data and carry out private
duties like bill-paying, arranging their mobility, and evaluating their home’s energy efficiency. To
avoid hacking or misuse, everything needs a dependable and secure method of data gathering and
storage. To allay worries about sequestration, data from smart cities must likewise be anonymized.
Because millions or even thousands of IoT devices may need to cooperate and communicate with
one another, connectivity is possibly the biggest obstacle. This will allow for the integration of
services and continuous service enhancement as demand rises. Smart cities must consider social

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factors that contribute to the cultural fabric that draws residents and gives them a sense of place in
addition to technology. It is essential that newly constructed cities that must draw citizens.
The main topics covered in this chapter include smart healthcare, smart transportation, smart grid, SCM,
and smart finance.

INTEGRATION OF BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY IN SMART CITY SERVICES

This section explores the integration of BCT in smart city services such as healthcare, transportation,
smart grid, SCM, and banking.

Smart Healthcare

Generally, a group of hospitals is monitored by a single organization, which monopolizes the data. The
traditional healthcare systems cannot keep up with the rapid population increase in everyday life and
limited resources. As these factors are constantly contradicting, a new efficient system is needed and
can be implemented using blockchain. The usage of blockchain technology creates a smart and secure
healthcare system that efficiently shares information, such as medical records, between doctors, patients,
and healthcare providers like insurance and medical practitioners (E. M. Abou-Nassar et al., 2020).
Everyone can access the information simultaneously.
Smart healthcare implementation can be done in several stages by responsive devices, emergency
response systems, and smart ambulance responsive systems. Medical records are vital for the effective
diagnosis of a patient, and instant decisions can be made by transferring data even at remote locations
using blockchain. The patient can also have a quick overview of their condition. The architecture of
blockchain maintains the anonymity of the patient, which is helpful for research purposes.

2. Steps to Integrate Blockchain Technology With Healthcare: Patient’s health information is col-
lected by IoT sensors and monitors such as blood sugar level, blood pressure, body temperature,
pulse rate, respiratory rate, etc.

◦◦ The patient report is generated from the data collected by the administrators.
◦◦ Doctors analyze the report generated by the administrators and recommend an accurate
diagnosis.
◦◦ For further analysis, the reports can be shared with other doctors or Healthcare centers.
◦◦ The report is shared in an encrypted format with a specific encryption key generated by the
blockchain.
◦◦ Patients can access their medical records from the cloud server.
◦◦ The encrypted medical records file is only received after the validation of the patient.
◦◦ The file can be decrypted only by using the patient’s private key to access their medical
records.

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Figure 4. Framework for smart healthcare systems

Source: Haleem et al. (2021)

2. IoT Module: The IoT module collects the patient’s data through the sensors present in the environment
and the biosensors attached to the patient or by some wearable gadgets. If a patient is in a critical
stage of diagnosis, then monitoring of the patient needs to be continuous, and data is needed to be
processed quickly. So, wearable gadgets are preferred. The wearable gadgets can monitor Heart
Rate, Blood glucose level, oxygen level, and sleep time by using various sensors and devices like
pacemakers. By using these wearable gadgets, the data can be sensed remotely by an IOT module.
If the patient is incapacitated or paralyzed, many sensors are required to monitor the patient and
his/her environment.
3. Transfer and Access of Data Using Blockchain: The data that is recorded from observing the patient
need to be organized and analyzed securely. Multiple patient data are recorded at the same time. So,
management is needed to organize the data and access the information that can be implemented by
blockchain technology. In this chapter, two blockchain networks are proposed Record Management
Blockchain (RMB) and Personal Health Care Blockchain (PHCB).

The Record Management Blockchain is used for organizing and transferring data to doctors, Insur-
ance organizations, and others. The RMB generally stores the data obtained from the hospitals, phar-
maceutical reports, medical transaction bills, and medication required. The data that is appended to the
blockchain is based upon the agreement of all the members in the blockchain on the “Proof of Stake”
algorithm. In RMB, the central part of the chain consists of doctors and hospitals, as all the stakehold-

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ers are a cumulative holding of them. The RMB also allows others, such as insurance agencies, based
on requests to verify the data.
The Personal Healthcare Blockchain is usually operated by the patient as it obtains the data from the
patient’s wearable gadgets. The access to data can be further provided to the doctors for proper recogni-
tion and diagnosis of the patient’s sickness. The physiological data obtained from wearable gadgets can
be stored externally in a database that is monitored by the blockchain.
Integrating blockchain into the healthcare industry to enable smart healthcare systems presents several
challenges (A. Musamih et al., 2021), including:

1. Data Privacy: Healthcare data is highly sensitive and must be kept secure and private. While
blockchain technology is inherently secure, it’s important to ensure that only authorized personnel
have access to the data stored on the blockchain.
2. Interoperability: The healthcare industry uses multiple systems and platforms, making interoper-
ability a significant challenge. Interoperability ensures that different systems can communicate and
share data effectively. Integrating blockchain technology into these systems requires a high level
of standardization and compatibility.
3. Scalability: The blockchain is a distributed ledger that records transactions on a decentralized
network. However, the blockchain’s scalability is still an issue, as it can become slow and costly
when handling large volumes of data.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Healthcare is a highly regulated industry, and integrating blockchain
technology must comply with regulatory frameworks, such as HIPAA in the US. This requires
a thorough understanding of the legal and regulatory requirements to ensure that the system is
compliant.
5. Adoption: Finally, adoption is a significant challenge. While blockchain technology offers significant
benefits, healthcare providers may be reluctant to adopt it due to the high cost and time required
for implementation, lack of expertise, and the risk of disrupting existing systems and processes.

Overcoming these challenges requires a collaborative effort between healthcare providers, technol-
ogy vendors, and regulators to ensure that the benefits of blockchain technology are maximized while
addressing the challenges.

Smart Transportation

Due to the evolution of ICT, Smart vehicles are increasing now. The implementation of smart transporta-
tion is to improve vehicle road safety and enhance travel efficiency. Smart transportation is implemented
by the integration of many advanced technologies like wireless sensor networks and cloud computing
devices with efficient traffic management strategies. Smart transportation system involves smart park-
ing, automatic number plate recognition, traffic signal controls according to congestion, speed detection
through cameras, and ticket & toll management. These techniques can make transportation systems safe,
fast, and connected.
Traffic is one of the main issues in the current civilization. Traffic congestion can be mostly avoided if
most of the vehicular data on the roads are available to everyone; this can be achieved using blockchain.
The government, private organizations, and individuals can easily access the available transportation
data. Digital twins can be created and further used for payments such as taxes and parking (Singh et

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al., 2022). By using blockchain, we can improve road safety, increasing the efficiency of the current
transportation system by reducing the processing time for clearances and synchronizing the required
documents. Communication of automobiles with devices along the path and smartphones can be done by
using the Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT) (Li et al., 2021) feature of blockchain. The monetary transac-
tions can be done by the “double spending” resistance of blockchain and can avoid intermediaries. By
using blockchain, we can create a shared transport system that will have peer-to-peer communication,
thus reducing the monopoly of corporate transportation systems.

1. Smart Taxis: Smart Taxis can be implemented by sharing the ride. Blockchain already has a sharing
network, and the issues can be eliminated in the current transportation system. Private car owners
can also use this system by using their cars. The peer is recognized as a node in the network. The
details of the owner are stored in the ledger after validation. The whole process is done in the digital
layer of the architecture. All nodes are connected using a peer-to-peer network in the network layer
of the architecture. Smart taxis’ availability and usage are accessed by the users from the cloud,
which is maintained in the application layer of the architecture. This smart taxi implementation is
one of the many possibilities made by the integration of IoT with blockchain. This transportation
system requires real-time data collection, transmission, and analysis of the data.
2. Electric Vehicles: Electric vehicles have improved a lot and are being used numerously now. Electric
vehicles are battery-powered and have an inbuilt communication infrastructure that shares informa-
tion with peers. Which future is going to lead to remote power charging stations everywhere and
increases the payments for portable, rechargeable batteries (X. Huang et al., 2018). The vehicles
need to be charged at regular intervals, and many transactions need to be done for them. Blockchains
ensure the safety of these transactions using smart contracts.
3. VANETs: Among a few upcoming technologies, Vehicular Adhoc Networks (J. Guo et al., 2022)
are present, in which the vehicles can communicate with stationary units and other vehicles to
gather information. In such an environment, attacks are unavoidable. To secure the transmission
of data, we utilize blockchain. Blockchain authenticates the vehicle and secures the exchange of
data between the vehicles.

There are several challenges in integrating BCT for smart transportation. Here are some of them:

1. Security: Security is another significant challenge in integrating blockchain technology for smart
transportation. The security of the system must be ensured to prevent hacking and ensure the
integrity of the data. Additionally, there must be a way to recover lost or stolen data in case of a
security breach.
2. Regulation: Blockchain technology is still a relatively new technology, and there is a lack of a
regulatory framework to govern its use in the transportation sector. This creates uncertainty and
makes it difficult to implement blockchain-based solutions.
3. Privacy: Smart transportation systems collect a lot of data about users, including their travel pat-
terns and personal information. This data must be protected to ensure privacy and prevent misuse.

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Smart Grid

Electrical grids with the intelligence to communicate and analyze data are called smart grids. These grids
can be structured efficiently by these enhancements and will be able to respond quickly to changes in
electrical demand. Incorporating renewable energy sources into the grid and utilizing electric vehicles as
a grid source are ways to achieve more efficient use of resources. The smart grid encourages peer-to-peer
transactions directly between customers and service providers (Agung et al., 2022). So, a need secure
transaction network arises. Although BCT is still in its infancy, it may find use in a variety of smart grid
applications, such as change management and renewable energy credit tracking for electric vehicles.
Every country tries to supply grid connectivity for each corner of their country, but due to precari-
ousness and insufficiency, most people are not satisfied with rural grid connections. The solution to an
uncertain power supply is microgrids. If the renewable energy harnessed within the microgrid is stored
in a capable storage system, it is sufficient to supply reliable energy to the area under the microgrid.
Since the distance is less, the power loss during transmission can be minimized. Micro-grids are ef-
ficient in diverse terrains, but macro-grids can’t provide reliable supply in those terrains. The usage of
both macro-grids and micro-grids produces energy efficiently. If the microgrid users use the energy
efficiently and conserve it enough to supply it to the main grid, the microgrid can generate additional
revenue. However, the interoperability of the macro and microgrids is an issue. Blockchain can be used
to resolve this issue. The expenses to set up the microgrids can be compensated by the revenue generated
from trading energy over a few years.

1. Decentralized Energy Marketplace: Huge dynamic loads cannot be handled by the conventional
grid. Production and consumption of energy should be balanced. Due to this purpose, energy trading
has increased widely. Generating revenue through energy trading by selling the energy generated
by their microgrids and solar panels is another reason for the increase. Blockchain enables P2P
energy trade-offs for Digital Energy Resources (DERs) owners. The smart grid infrastructure needs
to be changed to distributed & decentralized from the existing centralized networking. Blockchain
is transparent in nature and reliable, which helps in securing energy trading by enabling smart
contracts. Practical smart contracts involve the best profit possible for seller algorithms (A. Jindal
et al., 2020), making them more complex to implement.
2. Billing Efficiency: At places where there are high unmonitored connections, the billing is done every
month. This kind of system only benefits the users with high consumption of electricity, whereas
poor people who use electricity only for basic needs have to pay a high amount. Many complaints
arise daily regarding the consumption of electricity and the billing amount not being in propor-
tion. The cause may be due to the error in reading meters or using different and inaccurate billing
methods, such as those stated above. Therefore connections should be established even in the most
remote/rural areas and eradicate third parties involved in billing systems. So, the billing is done
accurately according to the energy consumed by the household. By using blockchain technology,
these transactions can be done authentically, transparently, easily & securely without any third
parties involved. The payments can be made only for the energy consumed, which can also be
monitored using blockchain. Blockchain-enabled smart meters can calculate the number of bills
by analyzing the energy consumed. Such is the virtue of smart contracts in blockchain, as all the
transactions are recorded so the users can track their daily usage and control it according to their
economic standards. This type of system makes electricity affordable to everyone.

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3. Balancing of Energy Distribution: The increase or dropdown in demand for energy can be predicted
by load estimation if the prediction shows a quick rise in demand at the macro-grid for a few hours.
If there are no microgrids present, the organizations that supply power have to buy them from other
organizations or energy exchange markets. Suppose the microgrids are present and connected with
blockchain technology. In that case, the macro-grid can alert the users from micro-grids who are
consuming less amount of energy by coordinating all the micro-grids and transferring them to the
macro-grids. The system that interconnects all these and the energy collectors from microgrids
will play a crucial role in this. The capital allotted to the microgrids is proportional to the energy
supplied to the macro grids. This will also increase the chances of adapting to blockchain-based
smart grids everywhere.

There are several challenges associated with integrating blockchain technology into smart grids.
Some of these challenges are:

1. Energy Efficiency: Blockchain technology requires a considerable amount of computational power

and energy to maintain its network. Integrating blockchain technology into smart grids can lead to
significant energy consumption, which may not be sustainable in the long run.
2. Cost: The cost of implementing blockchain technology can be significant, and it may not be eco-
nomically feasible for small-scale smart grid projects.

Supply Chain Management

Many organizations are experimenting with blockchain technology to improve transparency and ac-
countability in supply chains. Blockchain can provide all the transactions, from raw material purchas-
ing to delivering the product, in the form of a digital ledger. This would allow transparency to all the
shareholders associated with the organization and can quickly rectify the issues in the management and
keep track of areas of inefficiency. As it develops, blockchain can also be used to automatically trig-
ger the payments in the supply chain by analyzing the received data. There are still various challenges
before adopting it into real-time applications, like interoperability between various divisions of various
organizations (P. K. Wan et al., 2020). By adding the customers as part of a chain, they can also know
about the production cycle. Blockchain can enhance SCM in the following ways.

• Transparency Enhancement: Tracking a product across the chain can disclose the location of
the origin and destination, which helps in enhancing the trust of the product and reduces the
chances of tampering with the product.
• Scalability: Everyone in the chain can access from anywhere; many transactions are possible in
seconds.

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Figure 5. SCM services

Source: M. Du et al. (2020)

Figure 5 shows the general services of SCM provided by the logistic services. In the early stages
of development, the logistics provided minimal services like transportation and warehousing (M. Du
et al., 2020). However, as technology advances, the services provided by logistics have also increased,
which reduces the lack of communication between the user and the service provider. The blockchain
can provide the following services:

• Transport Preference: Depending on the product type, blockchain assists in preferring the type
of transportation so that the product can be transported with no damage.
• Distribution Plan: Blockchain devises the distribution plan to transport the product in minimal
time to different locations. So the products can reach everywhere across the area.
• Auditing and Payments: Blockchain increases the transaction speed for transportation bills pro-
vided by logistics. In this way, the provider can utilize their time efficiently for planning services.
• Quick Returns: If users need to return the commodity to the provider, blockchain makes the
transactions fast to reduce the amount of time it takes to return the product, and the user can decide
if they need a refund or a new commodity.
• Dispatch Condensation: Blockchain tracks and analyzes similar types of goods and dispatches
them using the same method and transports as one to ensure quick delivery services.
• Goods Identification: As the blockchain recognizes each transaction and each user with a unique
ID, labeling goods at the time of packaging can be skipped.
• Path Reduction: Blockchain identifies the package delivery locations and finds the best and most
efficient route by considering the costs and delivery time.

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However, several challenges need to be addressed to effectively integrate these two technologies.
Some of the main challenges include:

1. Standardization: One of the biggest challenges is the lack of standardization in the blockchain
industry. Different blockchain platforms have different protocols, which makes it difficult for sup-
ply chain stakeholders to agree on a common standard. This can lead to interoperability issues and
slow down the adoption of blockchain in SCM.
2. Integration With Legacy Systems: SCM systems often rely on legacy systems that may not be
compatible with blockchain technology. This can make it difficult to integrate blockchain into
existing supply chain workflows and processes.

Smart Banking

In conventional financial systems, customers, investors, lenders, and borrowers exchange funds. Thus,
maintaining the anonymity of the customer and safeguarding transaction data are a few critical chal-
lenges. Changing consumer spending patterns have led to the usage of digital banking, which raises the
need to secure data and transactions. By using blockchain, we can guarantee the security of transactions
and data in the financial sector. In recent years many banking-blockchain based are increasing. These
include Santander, HSBC, and ING, trying to accomplish blockchain-based foreign payments and let-
ter of credit processes. Currently, cross-border payments take multiple days to complete, with several
associates needing to process and approve the transactions. Blockchain creates a record of transactions
shared with everyone and is immutable. Transactions have become faster since they no longer require
going through every minute legal system (J. Zhang et al., 2021). The area of trade finance can also be
improved by blockchain technology. Currently, international financial trades are paper-based and can
cause errors. Blockchain can eliminate these following errors and speed up the process by creating a
ledger of trade transactions and can avoid any fraudulent transactions. Blockchain-based banking solu-
tions will likely increase in the upcoming years to improve efficiency and security.
Using blockchain, IPFS (InterPlanetary File System), which is a P2P connection protocol for file shar-
ing among devices, can be implemented in the banks to validate a client’s details, such as KYC (Know
Your Client). The following illustrates the implementation of smart banking through IFPS and blockchain.

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Figure 6. Implementation of smart banking systems

Source: Guo et al. (2016)

The scenario involves a client visiting two distinct banks. The client went to Bank A in the initial
stage to present the bank with his KYC document for verification. After going over our suggested system
design, Bank A gives the client a hash value and a proprietary decryption key. With these two keys, the
client will also visit Bank B and Bank C, and each bank will swear the KYC document at a bank. The
system uploaded and downloaded KYC documents from the banks’ end using the IPFS network. How-
ever, it thought of encrypting the file for added protection and compressing the file size before sending
out KYC documents to the IPFS network. Since anyone with knowledge of the KYC documents’ hash
values can access them from the IPFS network, utilizing the case of a consumer going to two conven-
tional banks. The model considered a scenario in which a client visited Bank A to open an account in
the first stage. The client provided the Bank with the account information and the KYC documents. The
bank then reviewed all of the data, which, if configured properly, would be encrypted using the system’s
functionality, making it possible for all banks to share documents and maintain copies of original data-
bases. Bank A would then store the encrypted file in its IPFS network. Later, the bank will upload an
extremely modest in-memory hash value from IPFS to the Blockchain network.
Additionally, Bank A maintains a copy of the client’s KYC and the original database. At some point,
Bank A will share the client’s IPFS and Blockchain hash value. Later, the client can grant access to the
KYC documentation package to any other institution he intends to do business with by simply sharing
the hash value. The customer can now create a new account at a different bank. The client will transfer
his IPFS and Blockchain hash value to Bank B. Since the client will allow Bank B access to the docu-
ment package’s hash value, the Bank will have access to the Blockchain network for the required hash
value. Using the hash value recovered from Blockchain, the bank will later download the encrypted KYC
documents via the IPFS network. Initial KYC will be recovered by the bank with the client’s private key,
and a duplicate of the KYC will be kept in the bank’s original database. The system attempted to use
the IPFS and Blockchain networks to implement the KYC document verification and availability to a

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financial institution. It displayed the scenario where a customer visited a bank to open an account. The
bank uploads the encrypted KYC documents to the IPFS network after validating them.
Integrating smart banking and blockchain presents several challenges, including:

1. Regulatory and Legal Challenges: Blockchain technology is relatively new, and there is no global
regulatory framework to govern its use. Additionally, regulations surrounding the use of blockchain
technology for financial services are evolving, making it challenging for financial institutions to
adopt this technology while remaining compliant with applicable laws and regulations.
2. Lack of Standardization: There is a lack of standardization in the blockchain industry, which
makes it challenging to develop interoperable smart banking systems. Different blockchain plat-
forms have different protocols, consensus algorithms, and governance structures, which can hinder
integration.
3. Resistance to Change: Traditional financial institutions may be resistant to adopting blockchain
technology due to the perceived risk associated with new and untested technology. This can make
it challenging to get buy-in from stakeholders, particularly if they are risk-averse.

CONCLUSION

This chapter discussed how blockchain technology could be integrated with smart city services to improve
the quality of life and briefly explains the limitations and challenges of integrating blockchain technol-
ogy with smart city services. However, blockchain is not tamper-proof. The limitation of blockchain
technology is the information database. If data on 51% of the blockchain is altered, the information on
the blockchain can be manipulated.

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Chapter 13
Blockchain in the
Healthcare Sector
Zeid Saad Hamzeh
Jinan University, Lebanon

Ghalia Nassreddine
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9434-2914
Jinan University, Lebanon

Joumana Younis
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0576-4264
CNAM, France

ABSTRACT
After the COVID-19 pandemic, the healthcare sector has faced many challenges as telehealth increased
and the need for a secure and efficient healthcare record system became essential. Nowadays, the
healthcare sector suffers from many problems, such as security, trust, availability of data, and drug
traceability. Blockchain technology is a recent technology that has proven its efficiency in many sectors,
such as finance, banking, bitcoin, and healthcare sectors. This chapter describes blockchain integra-
tion in the healthcare sector to cover these problems. The authors will start by introducing blockchain
technology. After that, they will present the healthcare sector challenges. Then, they focus on advantages
of blockchain usage to resolve existing problems in the healthcare sector, especially in the electronic
health record and drug traceability.

INTRODUCTION

Health is the key to an active and happy life. Modern society has benefited from enormous technologi-
cal development in improving healthcare. With each new technology, more solutions to existing health
problems become feasible (Bartoletti, 2019). Indeed, some recent technologies, inclusing the Internet
of things, machine learning, image processing, big data, and blockchain, allow researchers to resolve
previously unreachable health problems. However, the massive data collected in healthcare may produce

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch013

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Blockchain in the Healthcare Sector

serious problems. The enormous amount of data is circulated with limited access and cannot be easily
used for computational methods. In addition, some records still need to be completed. Therefore, it is
impossible to perform the complex data analysis needed to get the appropriate solutions (Tortorella,
2020). To address these fundamental challenges in the healthcare sector, researchers are focusing on the
following main parts (Thapa & Camtepe, 2021):

• Data Integrity (Pandey et al., 2020; Zarour et al., 2021): It is a persistent challenge in today’s
healthcare sector. Data integrity ensures that available data is correct, and his data cannot be im-
properly changed. Incorrect data can pose serious health risks to patients and impose enormous
responsibility on clinicians. It can lead to a variety of issues, including misconduct and poor treat-
ment. This type of risky scenario makes handling healthcare data extremely difficult.
• Data security and Privacy (Dasgupta et al., 2016): The last years have witnessed an enormous
appearance of stubbornly developed threats and targeted attacks against information systems. The
main goal of these attacks was to export recoverable data by the attacker. Thus, data protection
is considered a growing problem in the healthcare sector. This problem challenges the healthcare
industry to address these various complementary and critical issues (Abouelmehdi, et al., 2017):
◦◦ Data security governs data access during the lifecycle of data.
◦◦ Data privacy determines who has access to data according to specific privacy policies. This
data may include personal, medical or professional information. A major part of these infor-
mation can be classified as confidential information.

Blockchain is a new data storage technique that makes the modification, hacking, and defrauding of
data within the system very difficult or impossible. A blockchain can be considered as a set of digital
transactions that have been reproduced and spread on the whole associated network of computer systems
(Zheng et al., 2017). The chain contains several blocks. Each block may include several transactions.
When a new transaction appears on the chain, a new block associated with this transaction will be created
and added to the chain. The distributed ledger technology is used in the decentralized database operated
by multiple participants (DLT). Blockchain technology belongs to distributed ledger technology. Each
transaction in the blockchain has an immutable cryptographic signature called a hash (Yli-Humo et al.,
2016).
Blockchain has recently been used to create valuable solutions in a variety of industries. Recently,
it has been integrated into the healthcare sector in many countries. The objective of using blockchain is
to maintain and share patient data between different stakeholders such as doctors, insurance companies,
hospitals, clinics, and laboratories. Blockchain technology may aid in solving serious challenges in the
healthcare field. As a result, it can improve the precision, safety, and transparency of health informa-
tion distributed and communicated within the network associated with the healthcare system (Haleem
et al., 2021).
As a result, this chapter aims to overview and analyze the role of Blockchain technology in the
healthcare sector. The following is how this chapter will be organized: First, a summary of blockchain
technology will be provided. The major challenges of the healthcare sector will then be addressed.
Following that, the responsibility of blockchain in the healthcare domain will be discussed in terms of
data integrity, privacy, and security. This chapter will conclude with a conclusion and recommendation
regarding blockchain’s role in the healthcare domain.

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BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

The Blockchain consists of a digital database – also known as ledger - broadcasted on nodes (see Figure
1), called blocks. These blocks “are connected by cryptography. Indeed, each block must include cryp-
tographic hash that denotes the previous block, timestamp, and transaction data (Gorkhali et al., 2020).

Figure 1. Blockchain blocks

A blockchain is a separated, distributed, and general digital block that can document transactions over
many computers. These records cannot be changed without modifying all other connected blocks on the
same network. According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the blockchain
can be defined as “tamper evident” and “tamper resistant” digital blocks connected in a broadcasted
manner, without a primary or central depository. Thereby, there is no central authority in Blockchain
technology. At the basic level, blockchain allows users to send transactions as blocks in shared nodes
via the network. Therefore, without a blockchain network, no transaction can be sent or published (Xu
et al., 2019).
In this section, The Blockchain technology will be presented. First, the types of blockchain will be
represented. After that, the structure of the Blockchain will be described in detail.

Blockchain Types

According to the type of data accessibility, Lin and Liao (2017) classified Blockchain in:

1. Public Blockchain: Any user can access, read, and submit transactions on the blockchain.
2. Private Blockchain: Only members of a specific group of associations have access to, read, select,
and execute transactions.
3. Community/Consortium Blockchain: Users from various organizations can access, read, and
submit transaction data.
4. Hybrid Blockchain: This is a relatively new type of Blockchain. This type integrates the other
other types of Blockchains: public, private, and community/consortium Blockchains to facilitate
transactions. Hybrid Blockchain can define a Blockchain medium in multiple modes.

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According to the permission required to use Blockchain, Michael et al. (2018) classified the Block-
chain in:

1. Permissionless Blockchain: No prior permission is required of the user in this type. Any user can
take part in the confirmation process and enter the Blockchain network using its computational
media.
2. Permissioned Blockchain: Prior permission is required to access and execute block to confirm
transactions in the associated network.
3. Hybrid Blockchain: A node in the chain can have permissionless and Permissioned Blockchain
together to reduce associated communication. The Blockchain platform is configured to sustain a
Permissioned or Permissionless model.

However, based on the functionality and the used intelligent contract support, Blockchain can be
classified (Rauchs & Hileman, 2017) into the bellows groups:

1. Stateless Blockchain: Such a system concentrates only on the optimization of the transaction that
can be verified using transaction by computing hashes. The transaction is separated from the smart
contract logic layer in this type. Therefore, it can not be affected by the smart contract code error
and defenselessness.
2. Stateful Blockchain: In this type, Blockchain delivers transaction computing abilities and the
smart contract. In addition, this type sustains multifaceted business logic. It provides optimization
and maintains logic states.

Blockchain Structure

The Blockchain (distributed ledger technology) is a decentralized data structure where the data is dis-
tributed over all nodes within the network. There is no central repository or database, and the data valid-
ity and integrity are checked by consensus protocol which controls the distributed network. Therefore,
Blockchain can be considered a chain of nodes; each node represents a computer or validator in the
network. Each node in the chain constitutes a set of blocks connected and linked using a cryptographic
signature called a hash signature.
Once a block is mined and appended to a node, it will be synchronized with other nodes as decentral-
ized data storage. So, it is immutable that it cannot be tampered with or altered and visible for all nodes,
ensuring the data integrity and transparency of distributed networks (Zimmerman, 2020).
The block is the fundamental unit of Blockchain. It consists of mixtures of the header and the data,
as illustrated in Figure 2.

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Figure 2. The two parts of a block in blockchain structure

The block generally includes two different parts:

1. The block header usually contains facts like current hash, pre-hash, time, difficulty, and other
metadata (Li et al., 2018).
2. The data in a block may include the total number of transactions and transaction elements such as
sender address, data to be transferred, receiver address, and other elements (Shrivas & Yeboah,
2018).

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The hash value in each block is generated using a cryptographic hash algorithm such as SHA-256
(binti Suhaili & Watanabe, 2017), SHA2-512, SHA-256d, SHA3-512, SHA1-160, and others (Sujatha
et al., 2022). As a result, each block contains only the previous block’s hash value. Each block’s hash
value should be unique. Thus, modifying block data after it has been registered in the Blockchain network
is extremely difficult. Because Blockchain is broadcasted, any user who wishes to modify any block
should change the records anywhere.
Furthermore, a change in one block may produce modification in all forward blocks. It will result
in a different hash, resulting different hash values for all star blocks. To encrypt blockchain data more
efficiently and securely, blockchain employs a hash tree, also known as the Merkle hash tree. A Merkle
tree is a tree with both leaves and nodes that do not have leaves. A leaf node in such a tree is identified
by the cryptographic hash of a data block. A non-leaf node, on the other hand, is identified by the cryp-
tographic hash of the labels of its child nodes. The majority of hash tree implementations are binary.
Therefore, each node has only two children. A Merkle root is an easily structure for verifying the
rules on a Merkle tree. It is commonly used in Blockchain to ensure that data blocks sent over a peer-
to-peer network are complete, unchanged, and unaltered. It is critical in the analysis required to keep
cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin and ether running (Niaz & Saake, 2015). Figure 3 shows a sample of
Merkle tree (Bosamia & Patel, 2018) whereas Table 1 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages
of the Merkle tree.

Figure 3. Sample of a Merkle tree, showing the node levels up to data blocks

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Table 1. Advantages and disadvantages of a Merkle tree

Advantages Disadvantages
• Ensure the data’s integrity
• Need less disk space compared to other data structures.
• Can be broken down into little pieces of data for verification on
networks • Cannot know which part of the file has been damaged.
• Efficient Verification • Cannot predict the depth of the tree.
• Computation verification can be done in a very easy and fast way. • If other participants want to add a node or a tree to an
• Include Simplified Payment Verification (SPV) for clients, existing Merkle tree, they should notify about number of leaves
• blockchain pruning, and smart pool miners. to perform consistency check.
• Exclusively responsible for appending trees as the
• specific system knows the number of leaves in each tree from
which adding a node or tree.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Blockchain

As most of new thechnologies, Blockchain has advantages and disadvantages to be considered (Niran-
janamurthy et al., 2019):

Advantages

Blockchain provides various advantages in an improving digital world (Golosova & Romanovs, 2018):

1. High Security: One of the primary benefits of blockchains is security. Indeed, Blockchain can
provide complete data protection and security during online transactions. The digital signature
component provides fraud-free transactions by making it difficult for other users to modify or
change a user’s data without a specific digital signature.
2. Decentralized System: Transactions should usually be approved by regulatory authorities such as
the government or a bank before they are executed. However, using Blockchain, transactions can
be completed through user agreement. It could make transactions easier, safer, and faster.
3. Automation Capability: When the trigger criteria are met, systematic actions, events, and pay-
ments can be executed automatically using Blockchain..

Disadvantages

Private keys are one of the drawbacks of blockchain and cryptography. The foundation of blockchain
technology is the use of public and private keys. However, there is a fundamental issue with using pri-
vate keys. Indeed, if a user loses their private key, they face significant difficulties, making this a major
disadvantage of blockchain.
Another disadvantage is the limited scalability. The number of transactions allowed per node in a
blockchain is limited. As a result, completing multiple transactions and other tasks can take a significant
amount of time. Furthermore, one disadvantage is the difficulty in modifying or adding information
after it has been recorded.

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CHALLENGES OF HEALTHCARE SECTOR

The healthcare sector includes all businesses that provide health and medicales services like manufacture
medical supplies or drugs, insurance companies, and all systems that connect healthcare providers to
patients. It is one of the world’s most important industries. The COVID pandemic has impacted every
aspect of human life. The healthcare industry is one of the most severely impacted by the COVID pan-
demic. Indeed, the healthcare sector faced many challenges during the COVID pandemic, which pushed
the responsibility for improving this sector by integrating new technologies and tools. The following are
a summary of the challenges confronting the healthcare sector:

Cybersecurity

Even though viruses, ransomware, and other cybersecurity problems are not recent in the healthcare
industry, however, the current growth of digital health industries, such as telehealth doctor visits, cre-
ates a new environment in which patient health information is compassionate. Simultaneously with the
development of more online healthcare functions over the next year, it is extremely necessary to provide
overall protection to ensure that information is safeguarded against outside threats (Tully et al., 2020).

Security and Integrity Challenges

Electronic Health Records (HER) have recently replaced traditional methods of storing patient records
in healthcare services. It is an electronic copy of a patient’s medical history that has been supported over
time by the provider. It may include all key administrative and clinical data pertinent to that patient’s
care under a specific provider. In general, EHR records include the patient’s medical history, personal
information, laboratory test results, X-ray results, prescriptions, treatments, and other information. As a
result, it is critical to ensure the integrity, privacy, and security of these data. Today’s healthcare infor-
mation systems (HIS) face numerous challenges, including a lack of privacy, drug counterfeiting, easy
hacking, and so on (Shi et al., 2020).
The current healthcare system is facing vulnerability in the three pillars. The exfiltration of EHR
patient records represents the confidentiality attack. Moreover, losing access to online patient records are
represented an availability attack. While maliciously manipulating EHRs, causing data damage, covering
up negligence, or committing fraud such as backdating to ensure insurance coverage. At the same time,
the integrity challenge is much more critical because it depends on systems, processes, and operational
integrity. Systems integrity is represented by the existing defender devices, antivirus software, and signa-
ture-based security controls that must be fixed. So, data breaches in healthcare institutions are regularly
increasing. Simultaneously, the weakness in process integrity is the lack of interoperability caused by
the exchange and transfer of data between healthcare institutions, which is expensive and takes a long
time, causing harmful patient treatments. Furthermore, operational integrity is represented by Medicare
fraud through improper payment, which is estimated to be worth $50 billion per year (Guardtime, 2019).

Privacy

Nowadays, most EHR systems have centralized databases and encrypted patient records. Because the
patient has no access to his record, he can not control his medical record and does not know who is using

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his information, why, when, and for what purpose. Some privacy threats are related to illegal hacking
handled by following some security procedures and enforcing laws. However, the central part of privacy
challenges in the healthcare sector is related to data practices that are presently legal (Grande et al., 2020).

Invoicing and Payments

Medical coverage rules are considerably very complicated. Thus, many patients see that insurance de-
scriptions of benefits and their parts of the bills are entirely incoherent. In addition, almost all medical
bill management systems are not aligned with patients’ payment preferences. Below are some suggestions
to resolve this issue (Alderwick & Gottlieb, 2019):

• Align the bill format with patient expectations, beginning with simple medical bills.
• Create a user-friendly online patient system with multiple payment options.
• Make it simple to understand and devise payment plans that are not time consuming.

Big Data

The types of data generated, collected, and stored vary by industry. These data may include images,
sounds, and text (Price & Cohen, 2019). Recently, the healthcare industry has generated a massive
amount of data through various means, such as record keeping and regulatory requirements (Raghupathi
& Raghupathi, 2014). Traditionally, this Big Data was kept on paper. However, because the healthcare
sector is rapidly digitizing, another storage method should be used to handle this massive amount of
data. Big Data in Healthcare refers to electronic health records that are so large and complex that they
cannot be managed using traditional software or hardware (Hussain et al, 2022) . As a result, they should
be managed and stored in Big Data, as represented by their volume, complexity, and variety (Pastorino
et al., 2019; Hussain et al., 2021).
In comparison to other industries, healthcare may generate significantly more data, which is expected
to skyrocket in the coming years. All of these data are related to patient services and health issues. Health-
care providers primarily collect, use, and store them. Doctors, hospitals and private clinics, laboratory
staffs (such as x-ray technicians), and health professionals are all included in this category. A significant
portion of this data is transferred to government agencies. The main characteristics of healthcare data are
their volume, the speed with which they must be handled, and the special formats they contain. Images
are now regarded as one of the more massive sources of Big Data, as many medical images of a single
patient can be collected and stored in his EHR.
Furthermore, medical and biological data are highly heterogeneous information. Typically, data are
stored using a structured format. Based on this structure, a machine can easily hold, modify, recall, ana-
lyze, and manage data. However, the healthcare sector’s big data usually needs to be more structured. It
may contain static-paper files, scripts, and unstructured data in general.
There exist many examples of Big Data categories in the Healthcare industry such as reports and notes
of doctors, laboratory records, x-ray films, and private clinics notes. Big data and digital transformation
are regarded as major revolutions in healthcare. However, one of the main challenges for healthcare
stakeholders who are interetsed in maintaining the precision and trustworthiness of their patient records
is data quality (Lv & Qiao, 2020).

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Information Technology Healthcare Investments

Aside from the push for healthcare pricing transparency, patients want the healthcare industry to reduce
wasteful spending. Indeed, 25% of health-care spending is wasteful. As a result, by removing the source
of wasteful spending, the healthcare industry can significantly reduce patient bills. The healthcare sec-
tor can reduce extra spending at all levels of the healthcare world, including small private practices, by
implementing information technology solutions such as EHR software. Responding to patient requests
necessitates the software’s ability to perform numerous critical day-to-day administration tasks, such as
scheduling, care coordination, and billing (Gopal et al., 2019).

BLOCKCHAIN IN HEALTHCARE SECTOR

Recently, the healthcare sector is fronting various challenges, especially in data security, integrity,
transparency, traceability, availability, and audit. In addition, a considerable part of existing healthcare
methods used for controlling and storing data are centralized. This centralization can produce possible
troubles of a single failure point in natural disasters (Andoni et al., 2019; Arjun et al., 2020; Dashkevich
et al., 2020; Lee, 2019; Yaqoob et al., 2022). In Shahnaz et al. (2022), the authors designed blockchain
technology that can be used in EHR to deliver a safe hold of electronic records by specifying fine entry
restrictions for the users of the suggested framework. In addition, the proposed system examines the
scalability problem fronted by the blockchain for holding the records.
Blockchain is a new decentralized technology that has proven its efficiency in a variety of industries,
including bitcoin, finance, banking, and others. It is a disruptive decentralized technology that must
improve, reshape, and transform the way information is handled and stored (Bodkhe et al., 2020).
This section will discuss the effects of using blockchain technology in the healthcare sector. First,
the use of Blockchain in electronic health records will be described. After that, the role of Blockchain
in the drug traceability problem will be presented.

Blockchain in EHR

The modern healthcare system uses an electronic health record (EHR) that contains the patient’s essential
critical administrative and clinical data, such as meditation, laboratory results, and other reports. The
last years have witnessed serious regulation and official inefficiency that have delayed the invention of
EHRs. However, after the COVID pandemic, the massive increase in telehealth doctors’ visits augments
the necessity of creating and adopting accurate EHRs. Recently, Blockchain technology has been used
to improve EHR performance. Indeed, the healthcare industry contains many parties, such as clinics,
hospitals, and insurance companies. These parties are obligated to share and manage their data. However,
the standard EHR system is labeled with a decentralized design. Therefore, one party only can control
the code command, database, and system results (Arun Kumar, 2022).
Azaria et al. (2016) used blockchain technology to implement MedRec, a new decentralized data
management system for EHRs. This system delivers users a complete, exhaustive, unchangeable log of
their medical data. It is easy to access. Using MedRec, medical information is exchanged easily between
patients, providers, and treatment sites. By adopting blockchain tools, MedRec can handle data sharing,

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security, confidentiality, and sharing sensitive information. The users in the healthcare sector can not be
confident with this decentralized system (Abunadi & Kumar, 2021).
Blockchain technology can now overcome the trust problem associated with a centralized EHR system.
The patient record is stored in a chain using blockchain technology via the meta mas. The Blockchain
stores all patients’ EHR as separate data blocks containing encrypted data. This system can store all
health information for each patient. Patients and other healthcare sector users can easily access these
data on their own. EHR data are frequently encrypted using a specific algorithm to encrypt all patient
data into a single line bit that is then stored in the block (Li et al., 2021).
Therefore, EHR storage using Blockchain technology is reserved suitably and symmetrically, which
enables comfortable accessibility of each record through a specific application or the web. Using this
technology, patients now have full access and control of developing, collecting, and thus sharing their
EHRs with doctors, clinic, family, laboratory staff, and other healthcare providers (See Figure 4).

Figure 4. Access permission example applied by blockchain to potential stakeholders of EHRs

Source: Odeh et al. (2022)

As illustrated in the figure, using blockchain protocol, distinct stakeholders will have different access
permission to EHRs. Patients will have direct access to electronic health records, which will include
individual patient-reported information containing significant data such as personal and demographic
information. Also, they can survey data gathered from the applied instruments. However, medical re-
cords in EHRs can be updated only by specific stakeholders like nurses, doctors, and emergency staff.
Some family members or healthcare providers may be granted access to read and update the patient’s
personal health information.
Bamakan et al. (2021) demonstrated that different stakeholders might present different EHRs contents
like demographic information, laboratory results, and medicament. In addition, the laboratory result

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Blockchain in the Healthcare Sector

encloses different fields (Patient_ID, Patient_name, staff_ID, type_of_test, values, and other results).
Each EHR in the Blockchain is associated with a specific transaction within the ledge and performed
accurately. Therefore, the blockchain authorization has the following data flow diagram (DFD) (see
Figure 5).

Figure 5. DFD blockchain authorization process

The authorization process is the focus of this data flow diagram. Before proceeding with the autho-
rization process, the stakeholder must first be authenticated. Before attempting to use the EHR system,
this model considers a stakeholder with a valid certification. The EHR system connects to the blockchain
client in order to obtain the authorization hold on the network’s peers. The peer system compares the
stakeholder attributes contained in the certificate to the authorization regulation included in the peer
system. The peer then sends the authorization response to the stakeholder (Adlam & Haskins, 2021).
According to Abunadi and Kumar (2021), the main benifit of such a system is security and confi-
dentiality. Researchers believe that a blockchain system is more dependable and secure than other types
of storage, such as paper medical records storage.
Tanwar et al. (2020) also proposed an ACP (Access Control Policy) approach for enhancing the ac-
cessibility of data among healthcare providers. This approach assists in the simulation of domains to
create and share the electronic healthcare record (EHR) via the network. It employs the notion of chain
code. The authors of this study use blockchain networks performance metrics such as latency, throughput,
and Round Trip Time (RTT). The proposed system succeeded in enhancing the efficiency and security
of data compared to others EHR systems that employ client-server architecture.

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Chelladurai et al. (2021) proposed a system, containing the following:

1. Registration agreement for the creation of unchangeable patient logs.

2. Development of Digital Health Records.
3. Merkle Tree data technique for safe storage and fast access to the Health record information.
4. Update the Permission Contract: Access may be given in some emergencies.
5. Data sharing Permission Contract that assists in communicating medical records and information
between different stakeholders like nurses, medical insurance, and doctors.
6. Viewership Permission Contract that allows the access of display health information for home care
and future care.

This approach has been tested on several cases to evaluate its effectiveness. The proposed system’s
qualitative and quantitative metrics are calculated to estimate resource performance, transactions per
second, and transaction latency.

Drug Traceability

Healthcare supply chains are complex systems that span multiple geographies and companies. They
provide critical vital services to everyday human life. Furthermore, they are an important part of the
healthcare sector. Because of the complexity of these systems, inaccurate information, a lack of transpar-
ency, and limited data provenance may result. Furthermore, fake and counterfeit drugs are a major issue
in the healthcare industry. They have a negative impact on human health, and they also cause extreme
economic failure in the healthcare industry. As a result, recent research has highlighted the critical need
for a robust and traceable procedure for pharmaceutical supply chains. Existing trace systems are based
on a centralized structure, which leads to issues with data safety, clarity, and authenticity in healthcare
supply chains (Musamih et al., 2021).
Figure 6 depicts the relationships between the stakeholders in the pharmaceutical supply chain. Pa-
tients, ingredient suppliers, manufacturers, distributors, and pharmacies are all stakeholders in the drug
supply chain. Furthermore, complex packing, unpacking, and repacking processes are required for drug
distribution. This procedure makes drug tracing extremely difficult (Uddin et al., 2021).

Figure 6. Different drug supply chain stakeholders with their relationship

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Blockchain in the Healthcare Sector

Many decentralized approaches have recently been developed to address the issue of drug traceability
(Yaqoob, et al., 2022). To ensure the privacy and validity of trackable data, a blockchain model called
Drugledger has been suggested. Drugledger typically uses Blockchain technology throughout the entire
drug supply chain to efficiently track drugs (Konapure & Nawale, 2022). It primarily contains two distinct
drug flows: information, which contains the drug ledge, and physical, which contains the actual drug.
However, the drug traceability scenario depicted in the Drugledger system appears simple in theory
but is extremely complex in practice (Sohan et al., 2022). An intelligent blockchain-based system for
tracking and tracing the drug supply chain has been introduced in (Liu et al., 2021). This system oper-
ates a supply chain that is transparent, secure, and integrated. It is made up of the following sections:

1. A five-layer blockchain architecture that tracks and traces drug manufacturing, logistics, sales, and
usage.
2. Whether the drug data is stored on-chain or off-chain is determined by an on-chain and off-chain
criterion. This section provides a useful approach for ensuring the performance of the blockchain
network.

Panda and Satapathy (2021) proposed a blockchain-based drug supply chain system. Indeed, blockchain
technology has the potential to solve the traditional dry chain supply efficiency problem. The proposed
platform’s main feature is that it stores all transfer history. To begin, a pharmaceutical company may
register a medicine. The manufacturer should register each new medicine in the proposed system and
upload its details to the network. Furthermore, any network exchange requires the approval of both the
sender and the receiver. Any finished transaction should be saved on the network. This series of steps
eliminates the possibility of third-party fraud.
According to Kamenivskyy et al. (2022), the integration of the Internet of things (IoT) with Blockchain
technology makes the whole drug traceability system more secure. Many drug traceability systems have
been proposed in the healthcare sector in recent years. Ratta et al. (2021) discussed the use of IoT and
Blockchain in three major areas of healthcare: drug traceability, remote patient monitoring, and medical
record management.
The Gcoin Blockchain model (G stands for global governance) is proposed in for the transparent flow
of drugs (Tseng et al., 2018). The primary goal of this model was to improve the efficiency with which
data is exchanged. It shifted the drug supply chain system from regulating to monitoring and inspecting
drugs. It combines the government model with the DAO (Decentralized Autonomous Organization).
Blockchain created an environment in which two parties could trust each other.
A new platform for detecting fake drugs in the supply chain system was proposed in Pandey and
Litoriya (2020). The suggested system is design on the Hyperledger fabric architecture, with a computer
or smart device acting as the client. However, five computers were used to place service orders. This
approach was created entirely with Blockchain technology. It uses Blockchain to track drug distribution
from manufacturing to local pharmaceutical distributors and hospitals/clinics, assisting in the detection
of counterfeit medications. This system was eximaned in a variety of scenarios, including drug theft and
unauthorized drug distribution. The proposed system performed well in many characteristics, including
resistance to a single point of failure and fake medicine detection. However, the proposed system was
unable to detect and eliminate the use of unauthorized medicines.

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FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Blockchain technology plays an important role in the healthcare industry. This technology, however, has
some limitations, including:

1. Interactions between different systems: Because blockchain technology lacks standards, compat-
ibility issues between different systems can pose challenges for storing medical data.
2. Mass medical data collection may slow the exchange rate and limit its scalability.
3. A lack of knowledge about economic viability.
4. The cost of solutions is typically higher for customers.

As a result, more research should be conducted to investigate the aforementioned limitations. Fur-
thermore, the effectiveness of using blockchain should be addressed during the pandemic.

CONCLUSION

The healthcare industry is an essential component of modern society. It is directly linked to people’s
social interests and lives. However, due to the covid pandemic, this sector is plagued by numerous is-
sues, particularly with the massive amount of collected health data. Research and improvement of the
healthcare sector should continue because it will improve human life quality by resolving many health
problems. The huge developments in technology and the creation of new techniques can easily be seen
in the Healthcare sector. By incorporating the latest computer technologies in the Healthcare field, the
competence of the Healthcare and Medical Sector can be enhanced. Many new and revolutionary tech-
nologies are already being successfully integrated into other industries. These technologies include IoT,
Blockchain, Artificial Intelligence, Image Processing, Natural Language Processing, and many others.
Blockchain technology has been described in this chapter. In addition, the major challenges confront-
ing the recent healthcare sector have been presented. Blockchain integration in the healthcare sector
has been investigated. The authors concentrated on the role of Blockchain technique on HER(electronic
health records) and drug traceability. The authors conclude that Blockchain technology improves the
safety, availability, and integrity of electronic health records. Furthermore, it plays an important role in
detecting fake drugs throughout the drug supply chain. Many systems, however, have been developed
to integrate blockchain technology into the healthcare sector. As a result, future comparative studies on
these systems should be conducted. Furthermore, the use of Blockchain with other recent technologies,
such as IoT, in the drug supply chain should be researched and debated.

FUNDING STATEMENT

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sectors.

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ADDITIONAL READING

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97, 101966. PMID:32834254

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Big Data: is a huge set of collected data. These data may contain images, sound, and text information.
Blockchain: Is a chain of blocks linked together, each block has its encrypted address using the cryp-
tographic hash algorithm function which is not reversible, this hashed address using as a block identifier.
Cryptographic Hash Function: It is an algorithm that takes a random value as input and delivers
a fixed-size output of enciphered text called a hash value, or just “hash.”
Electronic Health Record (EHR): Is a set of data that store the patient health information in a
digital format.
Internet of Things: Is an open and broad network of intelligent objects capable of sharing and ar-
ranging information. Then, it acts according to the current situation and status of the environment.
Merkle Tree: Called also hash tree, it is a tree in which every “leaf” (node) is marked by a crypto-
graphic hash.
Stakeholder: It is a person or a group of person that has an interest in an activity, a system, or an
organization.

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Chapter 14
Co-Operation in Wireless
Sensor Networks for
Smart Cities
Abraham George
Alliance University, India

ABSTRACT
Sensor deployment in smart city scenarios introduce multiple challenges such as node capacity manage-
ment, node management, and communication latency. As the size of the sensor network increases, there
must be novel or multiple strategies to improve efficiency of the network. The goal of this chapter is to
explore and highlight research strategies in this area. There has been work in this area, but there are
multiple emerging challenges in this area due to explosion in number of sensor nodes and the function-
alities embedded in these nodes in smart city and healthcare applications. Node co-operation or node
collaboration is a method to localize large-scale sensor networks. This method has been explored in
cellular networks to improve spectrum utilization. There is much interest and scope in node co-operation/
node collaboration in sensor networks as collaboration can be exploited to control the topology, minimize
communication overhead, and conserve energy at the node.

INTRODUCTION

A smart city is a technologically advanced urban area that uses sensors to measure and monitor vari-
ous data to improve quality of life for its citizens and streamline urban services. Large cities across the
world have initiated projects to make their areas more citizen friendly in terms of transportation & util-
ity services, waste management, energy consumption, and hospital services. There have been studies
on the level of intelligence that is to be embodied in urban areas to qualify as a smart city (Halegoua,
2020). From a technological standpoint, the relevant aspect is to create a technological architecture that
can scale to various levels of intelligence. Internet of Things (IoT) is the prime enabler of Smart cit-
ies that enables to acquire various kinds of data and perform an action. Urban areas around the world
have created IoT deployment strategies based on the services it wants to offer to citizens and problems

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch014

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Co-Operation in Wireless Sensor Networks for Smart Cities

it intends to resolve (Alablani & Alenazi, 2020). Internet of Things (IoT) is a group of inter-related or
interconnected computing devices performing a mechanical, electric, or biological function. An IoT
network can also be referred to as a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). WSN can be broadly defined as
embedded devices that communicate wireless in an ad-hoc or infrastructure less network (Forster, 2016).
In WSN the connectivity with the public network is via a gateway node. Therefore, IoT devices can be
termed as devices with direct or in direct connectivity with the public network. Many recent literatures
have proposed the integration of WSNs and IoT for large scale deployments (Rani, et.al, 2020). In this
article we consider WSN as a subset of IoT where all devices are connected to the public network via
single hop or multi-hop.
IoT systems represent the integration of four distinct components, namely:

• Sensors/devices,
• Connectivity,
• Data processing,
• User interface.

Sensor devices perform the function of measurement or monitoring an event. Connectivity component
is responsible for sharing or passing the information to a centralized location or a peer device. In the
case of industrial applications, the temperature or pressure data is transmitted to a centralized process-
ing centre that consolidates data from different locations. There are cases of distributed connectivity
where there are localized master nodes to reduce the data transmission load in the system. Connectivity
is realized through a wireless radio interface that can send data over the air to a peer receiving device.
There are several wireless protocols for sensor devices. The distinguishing aspects of these wireless
protocols are the physical layer media and media communication layer mechanism. The media layer
protocols are responsible for managing the spectrum resources and conserving the energy dissipated in
the device for communication. In turn this implies that the media layer is for conserving the power or
energy of the wireless device. A simple analogy is a human speaker adjusting his volume to reach out to
the audience he is speaking to in a room. If all the audience are in proximity, then the speaker can speak
at relatively lower volumes compared to the scenario where the audience are spread out in distance or
when there are unwanted sound sources. Here the human speaker has the intelligence and information to
make these decisions. The media access layer has a similar role and objective of conserving the power
of the transmitting device and allocating the available resources to serve the maximal number of users.
The third stated function of data processing is an important part of an IoT system where the nodes
perform computations before passing on the data to the master node or perform computations on the
data received from peer nodes. The early generations of WSN nodes did not perform many computations
where they acquired data and relayed the data to a centralized node. Modern IoT systems have grown
considerably in terms of functional complexity and size of the IoT network. The large number of nodes
in the system demand or rather require novel approaches to relay and process data. Take an example of
WSN network in an industrial application where there are 1000’s of WSN nodes acquiring pressure,
temperature, chemical concentration at various points in the system. The purpose of the WSN network
in the factory is to detect anomaly in functioning and suggest/alert preventive steps in quick time to the
supervisor or control centre in the factory. The conventional approach of nodes individually sending
data to a central node and the centralized node computing the data to determine anomaly introduces
much latency in detection of failure. Alternate or better approaches would be to localize the data within

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a region to detect anomaly and provide an alert to the control centre. This would imply that the WSN’s
have much capability and awareness to determine their localized region, perform computation and have
the capability to decide. For this, the WSN nodes need to have a computing engine or a processor. This
would in turn imply that the device requires power source or energy to operate the compute engine
(Hussain et al., 2020). This also adds significant challenge to the WSN as WSN installations may not
have direct access to a power source, where they are mostly powered by a battery. WSN installations
typically have small form factor and cost of maintenance and operation needs to be low to make it a
viable business proposition. In many installations, the WSN nodes are not very easily accessible which
means factory personnel would want the WSN to operate with minimal intervention for a reasonably
long period. The last essential component is the user interface. This is more prevalent or required in
consumer sensor network devices. User Interface refers to the display of data and control interface to
trigger the sensor device. In smart city and industrial application, the device is prevalently a mobile
device that communicates with a cloud storage via message APIs.
This chapter specifically discusses IoT/WSN for smart city applications where large number of nodes
are networked to perform a collective or assistive function. IoT network can be broadly defined as “A
dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities”. In the context of Smart cities,
Internet of Things can be visualized as a group of WSN that can transmit/receive data and can execute an
action. Wireless sensor nodes communicate via their radio modules. Two nodes are directly connected
if they can transmit/receive data to/from each other. A sensor communication model or a transmission
model is a network model that establishes connectivity between sensor nodes to create a network.

Figure 1. Typical WSN network for a smart city scenario

Figure 1 depicts a WSN network where a group of nodes are interconnected and their link to the external
network is via a gateway node. The gateway node may be connected directly to an infrastructure network
such as a cellular network. Alternately every WSN node may be directly connected to the network via a
cellular link. Different connectivity models have been proposed in WSN. Much of the WSN architecture
is influenced by the cellular architecture. In large smart city applications, the concept of IoT and Mobile
Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is merged or integrated. MANET is an independent, decentralized, highly
mobile, self-maintaining, self-repairing, self-configurable wireless network, free to move from one place

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to another place (Zheng & Jamalipour, 2009). These networks do not have any pre-existing infrastructure.
Every node has the freedom to move randomly and change its attachment point to other nodes. Although
in some literature MANETs and IoT are discussed separately, the separation between the two is narrow.
In many of the commercial use cases, the IoT device is directly connected to the public network via a
cellular or WLAN interface. In MANETs, node may nor may not be connected to the public network. If
they are connected to the public network, it is via a gateway node that acts as an intermediary between
the ad hoc network and the gateway as depicted in Figure 1. There are multiple design possibilities for
a IoT application depending on the user scenario. In this chapter, the terms IoT, WSN, and MANET are
used interchangeably as they are all constituents of a smart city network.
The focus of this chapter is explaining the challenges in designing an IoT network for smart city
applications. Smart cities use IoT devices such as sensors, and meters to monitor, collect and analyse
data. The cities then use this data to improve infrastructure, allocate services and offer new services.
There have been numerous literatures on IoT systems and WSN concepts (Elhabyan, et.al, 2019) in
recent years. However, the smart city scenarios introduce or impose multiple challenges in IoT system
design and deployment specifically for smart city scenarios. The complexity of smart city scenarios
can be primarily attributed to the volume of data generated and the localized responses to be initiated
or triggered. An example of this is the surveillance scenarios where the system automatically detects
anomalies and initiates an action (Anagnostopoulos, 2022). In this scenario the challenge is performing
computation on the large volume of generated data to identify an anomaly in a localized region. Cloud
based IoT solutions have been proposed for smart city scenarios considering the scale and variety of
data (Alam, 2021). The limiting factor to cloud based processing solutions is the ability to generate
accurate real time responses in a localized region. (Santi, et.al, 2019) have extensively surveyed on the
deployment and management strategies for smart city deployment. Authors in here detail the various
smart city application and technology layers for smart city application. Smart city deployments are in
development stages, hence there are multiple challenges to be addressed at various levels namely device
communication, data analysis and the response (Ismagilova et al., 2019).
Having broadly defined the IoT scenarios, and elements, the chapter sets stage to focus on an active
research topic that is relevant to smart cities. This chapter narrows down to the topic of node cooperation
for wireless sensor networks. Node cooperation is discussed in cellular networks to improve network
performance where nodes work collectively together to improve spectrum efficiency. While spectrum
availability is a challenge for WSNs as well, there exists larger challenges in node auto configuration,
network communication, real time capability, network management and other areas (Javed et al., 2022).
The goal of this chapter to highlight node cooperation as an effective and efficient method to address
network communication, and network management challenges. The term co-operative communication
implies assistance from peer or neighbouring network nodes or collective intelligence. Collective intel-
ligence implies that a group of nodes share information with each other where the decision making is
based on inputs from all the participating nodes. This is a recent paradigm in computation which will
find high applications in high density sensor networks. The paradigm of co-operation can be extended
beyond the lower layers of channel utilization to increase efficiency, and capacity of the system. This
has implication on node deployment strategies.

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BACKGROUND AND SCENARIO

A smart city IoT application is a dense deployment of WSN nodes (Halegoua, 2020). These nodes may
overlap each other as several WSN networks can be deployed in each region to monitor/perform a task.
For example, consider a scenario where a WSN network is deployed in a specified area in a city to
monitor water pipe leaks in the distribution lines. Each node may individually measure and monitor the
pressure to determine a possible leak. If a leak is suspected, it may send an alarm signal to the control
centre via its network interface which may be directly connected to the public network. This is the sim-
plistic scenario where every network operates independently and reports anomaly when detected. The
shortfall of this approach is that every node is restricted to its boundary of detecting an anomaly. If the
WSN density is not sufficient to cover the entire region, there will be uncovered regions. The sensors in
the nodes measure the variation in water pressure and report the measurements to the central node. An
alternate approach could be that a group of nodes work together to locally identify if there is a potential
water leak in that region. In this case a group of nodes work together to deduce certain information.
This proposition finds several applications in smart city scenarios. The specific scenarios for smart
city applications can be well understood in the context of the IoT levels. The table below highlights the
different IoT levels and where each IoT applications primarily reside. It is important to understand the
characteristics of smart city applications to map these applications with IoT levels:

1. Large dense deployment with multiple sensor devices

2. Largely operating in the unlicensed band
3. Energy constrained devices
4. Critical applications with high reliability and low latency

IoT devices or systems can be classified into various levels based on their function, computational
mode, and communication mode (Waltenegus & Poellabauer, 2010). A sensor device primarily com-
prises of measurement device, communication link and the application. An example of a system with
these components is a temperature measurement device that reports temperature periodically to a central
node. This system has a measurement recording system where the central node obtains reading from
the WSN nodes. A further extension to this device is adding a controller to the system where an action
such as shutting a valve is taken locally within the system and the action is initiated by a central node.
The system can be further sophisticated if system is connected to several other peer devices and provid-
ing a local compute engine for localized processing. Thus, we see that the system can be extended and
expanded in scope and feature richness. This level of sophistication in IoT systems is represented by the
various IoT levels. The difference between each of the IoT levels is illustrated through Table 1.

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Co-Operation in Wireless Sensor Networks for Smart Cities

Table 1. Levels of IoT

Computation in the
Nodes Data Storage Data Volumes Applications
Device
Level 1 Single Local Small NIL Custom home Automation
Level 2 Single Cloud Small Minimal Standalone systems
Factory/ standalone fault monitoring
Level 3 Single Cloud Large Minimal
systems
Level 4 Multiple Local/Cloud Medium Minimal Industry application /Surveillance
Level 5 Multiple Cloud Large Medium Industry application /Smart Cities
Level 6 Multiple Cloud Large Medium Large Industry/ Smart Cities

The table above illustrates the different implementation template models for IoT. Simple home
automation devices are at level 1 or level 2. Current large-scale deployments come under level 4 and
above. As discussed above, smart city applications are characterized by large scale deployments, local-
ized action which may be triggered internally by the observer nodes or from the external network. In
dense and large-scale deployments, the question that arises is how well does a Level 6 deployment scale.
(Santi, et.al, 2019) have extensively highlighted the challenges in large sensor deployments particularly
highlighting the problem of placement of sensor nodes. Figure 2 illustrates a smart city scenario which
will enable to evaluate if newer approaches are required for large scale IoT deployments.

Figure 2. Smart city scenario

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Co-Operation in Wireless Sensor Networks for Smart Cities

The focus of this chapter is highlighting and expanding the challenges in large scale IoT deployments
in smart city scenarios. Smart city scenarios are characterised by dense deployments and it should be
self-adapting and self-configuring devices. Dynamic and self-adapting refers to the ability to adapt or
tune to the changing contexts or the deployment scenarios (Elhabyan et al., 2019). For example, irriga-
tion moisture sensors switch to sleep mode during night, or a rainy day and surveillance camera may
automatically change their capture mode with respect to the time of the day. Self-configuring devices
refers to user devices that configure or attach themselves easily or effortlessly to the existing applica-
tion. For example, take the case where public road infrastructure is fitted with vibration sensors. When
the road network expands, newly added sensors should automatically configure themselves to the exist-
ing network and provide the functionality. The devices should have the ability to fetch latest software
upgrades with minimal user intervention. These characteristics make IoT deployments in smart city
applications complex and challenging. IoT devices operating in smart city environments have multiple
sensors measurement devices which will transmit data at varying intervals. The next section outlines the
functional blocks of a IoT device in smart city environment. Subsequently the chapter discusses on the
co-operation aspect among devices and layers in the device that enable cooperation. Node cooperation
was introduced first in cellular networks first to increase spectrum utilization. Several strategies have
been proposed in literature for cellular networks (Qian et al., 2012). As mentioned earlier, the goal is of
this chapter is to extend this concept to IoT networks. The need for these novel approaches arises from
the challenging and constrained user scenarios in smart city deployments (Samih, 2019).

FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS OF IOT DEVICES IN A SMART CITY SCENARIO

Previous sections of this chapter sufficiently highlight the fundamental blocks of an IoT device and the
capabilities of IoT devices desired in smart city scenario deployment. The levels are classified based on
the deployment scenario. The goal of this section is to set the functional blocks of an IoT device in large
scale deployment scenarios particularly for smart cities. Additional blocks or layers are added to the
basic building blocks to provide additional functionality. Functional design refers to the building blocks
of the device required to perform all the desired function in a smart city scenario.
The characteristics of this device are:

1. Measurement Coverage and Accuracy: Smart city IoT applications monitor and govern a large
region. Devices must work collectively to accurately monitor all the points in the region.
2. Energy Efficiency: Devices with several sensors must conserve their power as these devices will
be installed in regions without direct access to power supply.
3. Minimal Latency in Measurement to Action Response: Many critical applications such fire safety,
water provisioning, accident avoidance and others demand corrective response immediately when
an anomaly is detected. This requires localized architectures where edge computing servers have
access to data in the region and have the computing engine to perform localized communication.
4. Formation of Dynamic Sub Regions to Perform Localized Action: Large node density and mul-
tiple applications require the devices to be auto configured to localised virtual regions or groups
to execute a task.

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Samih (2019) has listed various deployment and user scenarios that are a combination of these char-
acteristics. The challenge is to create algorithms that encompass all these characteristics. This chapter
specifically focusses on the last characteristic of forming sub regions to effectively trigger localized ac-
tions. There has been work done at individual layers to address challenges in large deployments primarily
at the routing layer where minimizing the control overhead is a primary objective (Liu, 2015). The idea
of clustering at the node level provides the benefit of minimizing communication overhead and energy
spend (Shahraki, et.al, 2020). This chapter explores the concept of node cooperation within a localized
region or cluster to improve efficiency and scale of deployment. Efficiency is parametrized by the control
overhead, communication latency, system node capacity, node management and accuracy of response.
It is essential to understand the blocks of a device to determine the impact of clustering and node co-
operation. An IoT system comprises of several functional blocks that provide the system the capabilities
for identification, sensing, actuation, communication, and management. Smart City IoT Functional Blocks:

1. Measurement Device: An IoT device allows identification, remote sensing, actuating and remote
monitoring capabilities.
2. Communication: Communication block enables the communication between devices via the net-
work protocols from the physical layer to the application layer. This will encompass the wireless
technology, routing schemes and the transport layer.
3. WSN Cooperation: This block is responsible for dynamic group formation in large IoT networks.
As mentioned in earlier sections, in large IoT deployment there needs to be virtual formation of
group of devices within the region to effectively perform a function. This layer is further discussed
in the next section.
4. Intelligent Services Layer: An IoT system uses various types of IoT services such as publish/
subscribe for device communication and services for device and service discovery.
5. Computing Layer: Devices in large scale deployments will also act as edge devices where they
have computing capabilities.
6. Management: Management block provides various functions to govern the IoT system.
7. Security: Security block secures the IoT system by providing functions such as authentication,
authorization, data integrity & security.
8. Application: IoT applications provide an interface that users engage with to control and monitor
the IoT system. Applications allow users to view and analyse the captured data.

The functional block of the IoT device to execute the above functions are outlined in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. Functional block of IoT smart city device

WSN COOPERATION

The central theme of this chapter is to further outline the concept of node co-operation (Silva et al.,
2017) in large scale IoT deployments particularly for smart city scenarios. Prior sections sufficiently set
the context and the premise to arrive at this section. The limited resources of the sensor nodes make the
design of a large scale IoT application challenging (Renuka et al., 2020). Application requirements, in
terms of latency, data throughput, or device lifetime, often conflict with the network capacity and energy
resources. One approach for addressing these trade-offs in literature is to rely on wake-up scheduling
MAC protocols, which consists in alternating the active and sleep states of sensor nodes. In the active
state, all the components of a node (CPU, sensors, radio) are active, allowing the node to collect, pro-
cess and communicate information. WSN nodes generate large amounts of data and this data in large
WSN networks need to be routed across the nodes which considerably impact the latency and energy
efficiency of the communication. There has been considerable literature to show that the performance
of a WSN network can be further improved, if nodes not only synchronize, but also desynchronize with
one another (Liu, 2015). Desynchronization refers to the term where nodes on different branches of the
routing tree are active at different times to minimize or avoid congestion. In WSNs nodes can be logically
organized in groups. In other words, the activity schedules of nodes that need to communicate with one
another are synchronized to improve the message throughput. These nodes belong to a group or cohort.
The system is intelligent such that the schedules of groups of nodes which do not need to communicate
are desynchronized in order to avoid congestion and packet losses. The cooperation of multiple WSNs
may be able to improve the network lifetime of each WSN by load balancing all over the WSNs nodes
because the energy consumption of sensor nodes is almost completely dominated by data communication
rather than by sensing and processing. Hence, the whole network lifetime can be prolonged by balanc-
ing the communication load at heavily loaded nodes around a sink. There are numerous studies on load

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balancing using clustering approaches in large WSNs (Shahraki et al., 2020). The concept of virtual or
dynamic group formation results in creating localized application at the higher network layers as well.
For example, consider a scenario where sensors are deployed in a dense urban area to monitor vehicular
traffic density and road vibrations. The same devices will have multiple sensors, but the granularity of
the measurement is controlled or created at the service discovery and the co-operative layers.
A group a sensor will have to work cohesively to yield the required output. The optimum number of
nodes required to yield desirable measurable accuracy for an application depends on spatial and temporal
variation of the measurement. Measurements such as temperature will have gradual spatial variation
and higher temporal variations. Hence the groups must be formed dynamically based on the application
characteristics and same node may be partisan in multiple groups to yield the desirable results. The
term co-operative networks for WSNs refers to the ability or capability of the WSN nodes to inherently
form virtual groups to conserve the available resources such as device power, and frequency resources.
Moreover, this approach also reduces the communication latency and drop rates thus improving the
reliability of communication.
Figure 4 illustrates this concept or theme. This is a MANET scenario where nodes are connected to
each other to reach the gateway node.

Figure 4. Sensor nodes forming regions through co-operation

Figure 4 illustrates the theme of co-operation in large scale sensor networks where dynamic regions
are formed and unformed based on node movement and application characteristics. In Figure 4, the
rectangular box represents a given area. There are several co-located sensors in the region and several

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IoT applications are deployed in the region. Zones are dynamically formed regions based on several
parameters such as node density, measurement granularity, type of measurement, network conditions,
and power source constraints. Nodes in a zone may be connected to the public network directly or via a
gateway node. In Figure 4, ‘Application 1 Region1’ and ‘Application 1 Region 2’ are non-overlapping
regions making the same measurement while ‘Application 2’ and ‘Application 3’regions overlap with
Application 1 and region size is not uniform. The central idea of forming localized regions is to obtain
higher performance and conserve limited resources. The scheme of zoning further results in node-co-
operation whereby nodes interact with few essential neighbours to perform their task and conserve their
resources. There exist several literatures (Shahraki et al., 2020) where this theme is used to maximize
a specific metric such as power resources, data protection, routing efficiency, application performance
and others. There are multiple protocols and frameworks created for IoT scenarios (Sinche et al., 2020).
The first step in the design of a smart city deployment scenario is to highlight the characteristics of the
network that will subsequently enable to narrow down the protocols and frameworks at each layer. Next
step is to explore strategies to fulfil the characteristics and maximize the efficiency of the network.
The concept of zoning is primarily aimed at created localized regions. The larger research challenge to
develop strategies that operate dynamically because many a times sensor nodes are deployed in batches
and in many cases the devices are not static. Examples of non-static sensor devices are device mounted
on moving vehicles and machines. Bio-inspired nature inspired algorithms such as swarm optimization
algorithms are effective in dynamic group formation (Singh et al., 2021). Swarm Optimization algorithms
are dynamically responsive, and the computation is distributed. An effective deployment strategy is
highly dependent on the application and deployment scenario. Node co-operation is an effective strategy
to build highly scalable IoT scenarios. These strategies combined with other strategies such as edge and
cloud computing will enable to create large scale IoT networks (Singh & Mohan, 2019). The objective
of this chapter is to highlight node co-operation as an effective strategy for smart city IoT development.
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to explore algorithms and approaches on each metric. Once smaller
groups are formed, several metrics can be optimized through this approach. The key open areas with
respect to collaboration can be summarized as below:

1. Node Auto Configuration: Devices should get auto-configured to the sensor network and the
localised group.
2. Group Formation: Dynamic formation of groups and re-balancing of groups within the sensor
networks to maximize the performance.
3. Virtual Group Formation: Co-located or overlapping groups can exist to increase performance.
4. Creating Sensor Networks at Scale: Network can accommodate nodes with varying underlying
protocols.

CONCLUSION

In this chapter we highlight and elucidate the concept of wireless sensor network node co-operation.
This concept is highly relevant for smart city application. The early part of the chapter walks through
the definitions, concepts of WSN & MANET, IoT levels leading to the functional blocks of a device.
Node cooperation is the key theme of this chapter which is discussed in later sections. The goal here is
to sufficiently emphasize on the concept of node cooperation and its relevance particularly in smart city

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IoT deployments. This should enable technology implementers to be aware of methods to improve the
efficiency of their deployments and enable new research directions specifically in smart city scenarios.

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Chapter 15
A Review on the Impact of
Hybrid Renewable Energy
Systems for Sustainability
and Energy Management
Swetha Shekarappa G.
Alliance University, India

Manjulata Badi
Alliance University, India

Saurav Raj
Institute of Chemical Technology, Marathwada, India

Sheila Mahapatra
Alliance University, India

M. Senbagavalli
Alliance University, India

ABSTRACT
On account of continuous increase in concerns about environmental deterioration and electrical usage,
sustainable energy sources are being commonly used to generate power and offer several benefits like
clean energy and reduced price. To meet the fast growth in power stipulation, major renewable sources
must be attained. Though renewables present a long-term solution as an alternative to fossil fuels, they
are associated with uncertainty in generating power. In this chapter, to overcome the above problem,
a combination of energy bases will be able to be implemented called as HRES. Due to the relatively
low environmental effects, HRES have become a major choice for rural electrification. In this work, an
endeavor has been made to present the outline of role of HRES. This chapter will also dispense about
the power control strategies, energy assessment of a hybrid system, and battery energy storage devices
in electrical networks.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch015

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

A Review on the Impact of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems

INTRODUCTION

This section has a summary of the integration of a complete literature assessment on alternative hybrid
renewable energy sources (HRES), control mechanisms, and battery energy storage systems. Due to in-
creased global need for electricity, conventional electrical power infrastructures are undergoing a drastic
transition as large-scale renewable power penetration is assimilated. The capacity to work is defined as
power. In science, power cannot be created or annihilated; it can only be changed into another form. All
life on the earth depends on energy and its transition, and transparency energy generation is a crucial
part of that transformation.
Throughout this process, energy can be changed into a variety of diverse forms. Heterogeneous types
of energy can be derived from sustainable and unsustainable energy sources. The continual growth of
RES has become a crucial feature in many nations around the globe with the goal of ensuring a safe and
renewable expansion as well as counteracting climate change consequences. Even though replacing fossil
fuels with renewable energy bases is serious in today’s world, conventional energy sources are still in
use. In this situation, the usage of non-fossil fuels is still insufficient to preclude continued expansion
(Dyrstad, Skonhoft, Christensen, & Ødegaard, 2019). Major key factors limiting the use of renewables
to substitute fossil fuels is their variable and inconsistent nature, which makes integration into power
systems difficult (Feilat, Azzam, & Al-Salaymeh, 2018). Solar and wind energy attributes may result
in an overabundance of energy output that is lost if the compliance is the process and production phase
do not meet. In 2013, for example, a total of 940.8 billion kWh of electrical energy was predicted to be
restricted globally (Li, Shi, Cao, Wang, Kuang, Tan & Wei, 2015). Communities with few or no inter-
connections to the power grid, as well as those that have never been energized, are prime examples of
where the installation of sources would be critical for reducing environmental loads. When it comes to
rural broadband via small grids, a lack of methodology for assessing energy needs might contribute to
wasteful system architecture.
HRES have attracted widespread recognition and have a significant impingement on the power grid
today. They can be found in big power systems, small distribution systems, and microgrids (MG). Goals
to cut carbon emissions, as well as many government subsidies to stimulate RES, have had a favorable
impact on the incorporation of renewable energy technology into power grid.
However, current technological issues about the stochastic nature of RES have limited the extent of
RES adoption in the incumbent power system. With RES currently accounting for < 10% of net elec-
tricity generation, significant technological progress is required to incorporate the virtually predicted
100% share of RES by 2050.
Accessibility has become a top priority in rural areas due to geographical destination, long speed
and distance from the primary power network, high costs of power transmission lines, technology issues
in sparsely populated locations, and concerns about electric power supply consistency due to natural
calamities. RES, namely solar and wind, can be a viable option for rural power generation (Nottan, Diaf
& Stoyanov, 2011; Ferrer-Marti, Garwood, Chiroque, Ramirez, Marcelo, Garfi & Velo, 2012). This
structure can provide a reliable electricity supply to rural areas while also being more cost-effective than
conventional electricity remedies, especially in telecoms, potentially toxic factories in remote locations,
deep forests, and coastal cities, among other things.
A power system has been identified as a HRES, which comprised of one clean energy and multiple
power sources. The framework shall be used in grid or stand alone, and the source can be formal, du-
rable, or blended (Belatrache, Saifi, Harrouz & Bentouba, 2020; Girardet & Mendonca, 2009). These

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have been discovered that the distinct shading materials of a mixture renewable energy plant can be
picked using numerous sizes variables. Additionally, many infomercial software packages are used for
measurements and efficiency.
Energy management planning must be used to obtain the complete functioning of renewable energy-
based hybrid approaches, as well as to guarantee supply and enhance power efficiency. A comprehensive
energy management planning enables the structure to suit demand, extend device lifetimes, alleviate
operating costs, maximize the utilization of renewable energy sources, drastically reduce costs ampli-
tude, defend modules from interrupt destruction, and, as a consequence, improve the power system ‘s
credibility, and improve power efficiency.
Solar and wind power installation potential globally totalled 903.1 GW in 2017, accounting for 41.4
percent of total renewable energy generated potential. To combat the volatility and unpredictability of
a solitary renewable energy source, like solar and wind power, hybrid renewable energy methods have
been designed, and more than 80% of them are off-grid installations.
Technology will continue to devour all scarce technology soon in order to satisfy the nation’s ever-
growing power requirements. Owing to the corona virus pandemic and complete lockdown in 2020, export
growth declines by 5.9% comparison to 2019. In electric energy, the latest analysis uncovers that global
financial progress substantially lowered global electricity utilization by 3.8% comparison to the starting
months of 2019 in the starting months of 2020 (Ammari, Belatrache, Touhami & Makhloufi, 2022).
In the beginning months of 2020, consumption for renewable power increased by around 1.5 percent.
Renewables are frequently given grid priority and are not forced to implement their output to reach
requirement to protect them from the implications of lower energy demand. According to the Global
Electricity Council’s future energy projections, green and nuclear power will account for 25.0% of the
worldwide power production in 2040. Figure 1 gives the general layout of the hybrid renewable energy
structure for numerous sources of energy.

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Figure 1. General hybrid renewable energy structure

The book chapter first aims to exhibit the technology used for HRES, Power Converters used, HRES
that incorporates PV modules, solar power, wind turbines, and a biogas generation. Then it focuses on
presenting and analysing in depth research of the recent work published in HRES. The work proceeds
to discuss about the energy storage and power control strategies in hybrid structures. An energy impetus
to hybrid system that includes a photovoltaic panel, a wind turbine, and battery energy storage space
device is also presented in the book chapter.

POWER CONVERTERS AND CONTROL STRATEGIES OF HRES

Power Converters

Every hybrid energy system typically has one or more power converters in order to operate efficiently.
Devices that are electromechanical or electrical are used (Manwell, 2004).

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Figure 2. Block diagram of the power converters

Electromechanical Power Converters

In hybrid energy systems, electromechanical converters at most 2 classes are being used. The rotatory
converters and the synchronous condenser are two of them.

1. Rotatory Converter: An electromechanical component that transforms AC to DC or vice versa

is known as a rotary converter. It is an inverter whenever it operates in the other direction. The
rotary converter is made up of two revolving electrical units that are linked together. The first is a
DC machine, and the second is an AC machine. Based on the target direction of power flow, one
of them operates as a motor or a generator. The AC machine might either be an electromagnetic
or synchronous machine. Which one is used will be determined by the system’s capabilities.

Rotary converters have the benefit of being a reliable and excellently mechanism with a long history.
Another downside is that they are more expensive and inefficient than digital devices that can perform
the same function.

2. Synchronous Condenser: An alternator that is linked to an electrical community to assist sustain

the system voltage is known as a synchronous condenser. In this scenario, the synchronous machine
is merely a motor with no load attached. A voltage switch is attached to the alternator and performs
the identical operations as formerly detailed in 224 Hybrid Energy Systems. As there are no other
synchronous machines linked for at minimum portion of the period, synchronous condensers are
employed in hybrid energy system. This is frequently the scenario in diesel generator systems
that are designed to permit all of the diesel generators to be spurned under certain instances. A
synchronous condenser, for illustration, might be utilized in a wind/diesel system with induction

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generators that could generate electrical load at instances. The fuel could perhaps be shut off;
however, the synchronizing machine will be essential to provide the induction generators with the
requisite reactive power and sustain system voltage.

Electronic Power Converters

For usage in hybrid energy systems, a large range of electronic equipment has been invented and repur-
posed. Many of them perform comparable roles to the electromechanical devices discussed before, but
they have a variety of strengths, including cheaper cost, higher efficiency, and more manoeuvrability.
converters, loads, and power point trackers are among the most interesting equipment.

1. Rectifiers: Diodes are the fundamental processing information, as they only allow current to flow
in one direction. The AC in a 1ϕ or 3ϕ circuit is turned to an undulating, but single- direction,
electricity by using the right semiconductors. Batteries can be used to modulate the current that
results.
2. Inverter: Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are the principal switching elements (IGBTs). They’re
connected in a circuit element and turned on to produce an oscillatory signal. Some inverters work
in tandem with other equipment that control the frequency of the network. Line commutated is
the term for them. Several inverters have the capacity to control their own frequency. Also called
“self-commutated.”
3. Maximum Power Point Trackers: The largest energy hunter is yet another electronic gadget that
preserve utilized in hybrid energy systems, specifically those with photovoltaic cells. This gadget
is a DC-DC converter that functions in a similar way to a DC transformer. Its job is to deliver a
specific intended output to the remainder of the network during regulating the voltages at the input
to enable the generator linked to it to produce the most power possible. Small wind turbines were
also fitted with maximum power point trackers.

Control Strategies of HRES

The management tactics, which is linked to particular system conditions, controls the HRES power
flow. The fundamental requirements for hybridised renewable energy resources are stability, protection,
and energy balance. In order to accomplish various objectives, it is frequently complicated and calls for
constant operation. To maximise energy efficiency and endurance, the HRES must be under optimal
management. The primary objectives of controlling strategies are listed below (Zhu, Zhuo & Shi, 2013;
Kollimalla & Mishra, 2014; Song, Cao, Du & Karimi, 2013; Garcia, Torreglosa, Fernandez & Jurado
2013; Wang, Tang, Ren & Li, 2015; Dash & Bajpai, 2015):

• To keep the battery from going into lateral erosion.

• Minimize the capacitors constant voltage consumption, charge/discharging cycle, and dynamical
stress.
• To keep a constant DC voltage.
• Lower the probability of losing power supply (LPSP).
• To increase the system’s inherent efficiency.

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There are two types of manage approaches. Classical control systems such as Rule-based controllers
(RBC) and Filtration-based controllers (FBC) are basic and straightforward to deploy since they do not
necessitate complex processes (Brka & AL-Abdeli, 2015). They are, nevertheless, generally susceptible to
characteristic changes and inflexible (Akcayol, 2004). When comparison to classical control techniques,
smart control techniques like Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) are better stable and economical because
they improve the dynamical performance of the systems without necessitating a precise description of
the process (Akcayol, 2004). The Membership Functions of FLC, on the other hand, are normally cal-
culated through trial-and-error method (Safari & Sirizi,2013).
In the research, there are numerous control strategies for wind turbines, such as using MPPT focusing
on PSO (Sitharthan, Sundar & Rajasekaran 2020), based on direct power control selecting output voltages
on the rotor side converter (Gil, Montoya & Garces, 2019), pitch control using rigorous sliding mode
approach (Colombo, Ippoliti & Orlando, 2020). Several regulatory approaches for solar photovoltaic
have been used to maximize solar array efficiency, including MPPT based in (Mirza, Ling & Mansoor,
2019), neural network based deep learning for photovoltaic power forecast, and employing MPPT in
substantially shadowed conditions. Voltage, frequency, and reactive power (Mehrjerdi, Hemmati & Far-
rokhi, 2019) all are control strategy key study topics for diesel generators.
There are a variety of additional control techniques for HRES, involving centralized control, hybrid
control, distributed control etc. Intelligent methods such as neural network, multi-objective particle
swarm optimization (PSO) (Hussain, Pradhan, Gao, Reddy & Roy, 2020), fuzzy logic controllers, and
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems are examples of traditional methods (ANFIS).
While the style of control is utilized in a micro scale hybrid renewable energy system, it shows great
efficacy, improved productivity, and flexibility in construction. Additionally, the pricing of centralize
control is advantageous while in comparison with distributed control. Even then, there’s a good chance
they’ll have to shut down the network altogether if there’s an issue with the generator or production
schedules.

OVERVIEW OF HRES

In today’s smart grid, MG (grid-connected system, standalone mode) is the most important architecture
(Mohanta, Murthy & Roy, 2016). One option for properly utilizing RES is to assure the system reliability
delivery in remote places, therefore decreasing grid ambiguity. One method to promote the use of greener
energy is to employ HRES in off-grid mode, which entails independent control of the major electrical
grid. The MG’s capacity installed can be determined by the individual use, such as for dwellings, a
municipality, or a tiny village, as well as forecasted renewable energy supply, storage capacity, and load
demand in that location (Jurado & Saenz, 2002). HRESs involves: (a) 1 RES and Energy Storage; (b) 2
or many RESs; or (c) 1 or many RESs. Nevertheless, runoff, sun irradiation, wind speed, and relative
humidity all have an impact on the power generating properties of these resources (Khatib, Mohamed
& Sopian, 2013). As a result, combining diverse energy sources can successfully tackle the difficulties
of solar/wind energy’s unpredictability, instability, and uncertainty (Banos, Manzano, Gil & Gomez,
2011; Iqbal, Azam, Naeem & Anpalagan, 2014).

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Photovoltaic (PV): Wind Energy System

The Sun, as the fundamental source of power, offers us a plethora of options for harnessing ecologi-
cal, pollution-free, and cost-free energy. Solar energy, on the other hand, is not without its downsides.
Because sunlight is only accessible during the daylight and low sunshine is accessible during the win-
tertime, the solar radiation changes greatly with the routine global solar fluctuation over the period.
The cosmic, as the primary source of energy, offers us a plethora of options for harnessing sustainable,
pollution-free, and cost-free energy. Solar energy, on the other hand, is not without its downsides. As
a result, the output power of either solar or wind neither ensure that the fluctuating total load will be
met. Solar, on the other hand, is usually obtainable during the day, however wind is usually prevalent
at night (Adarmola, 2014). In reality, this means that a hybrid power system may be built to level out
the systemic issues, with photovoltaic cells supplying power throughout the day and wind supplying
power at dark throughout the winter and summer seasons (Deshmukh, 2008). When it comes to the
performance of renewable energy resources, solar and wind are essentially synergistic. As a result, a
hybrid system that combines PV and wind renewable sources greatly enhances power quality, reduces
storage space requirements, and contributes to reduced generation costs (Kaldellis, 2010). Despite the
various existing RES combinations, the PV–Wind hybrid combo is far more appealing globally due to
its technological advancements, cost-effective functioning, and abundant supply. Grid-connected and
stand-alone hybrid solar-wind systems are the two types available. HRES usually combine different
types energy to produce power. In this book chapter, HRES stands for hybrid renewable energy system,
which combines PV and wind to produce power as a unit and optimize the power potential of an MG.
Based on the abundance of renewable energy resources in a certain location, generation capacity, and
all related expenses, such as setup, operations, and management, an HRES may have any composition of
renewable energy resources. According to understanding of power conversion system in a conventional
photovoltaic–wind, photovoltaic –wind–diesel, photovoltaic –wind–Battery energy storage system, and
photovoltaic–wind–diesel– BESS configuration. The inconvenient aspect of Wind–PV systems can
help to reduce each other’s intermittent renewables, improving the hybrid system ‘s sustainability. In a
grid- connected MG operation, however, a PV–wind combination may provide green energy to maintain
the system. Only a PV–wind tandem in a standalone MG, on the other hand, can provide uninterrupted
energy supply during a 24*7 period. PV and wind may be able to lessen abrupt swings, but as non dis-
patchable energy sources. Spinning reserve is required to sustain the system’s steady-state operation and
to prevent system from collapsing in the event of severe precipitation. With the PV–wind-based hybrid
MG’s durability in question, a diesel and storage system could be a realistic approach for ensuring the
MG’s performance and consistency. In terms of budget and effectiveness, as well as client convenience,
the combo of RES and storage system is ideal. By retaining maximum electricity during the day, a bat-
tery system can assure that no load is dropped, particularly during peak periods of the day, lowering
total energy costs. The Figures 2 and 3, represents the structure/Module of the hybrid system of wind
and diesel power with energy storage.

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Figure 3. Hybrid Module 1

Figure 4. Hybrid Module 2

The storage device can take many different configurations, such as a cell (Fasaeenejad, Radzi & Hizam,
2014; Nandi & Ghosh, 2010) or any other storage system, depending on the storage device’s price and
other basic requirements. In some instances, conventional diesel (Rehman, Alam & Al-Hadhrami, 2012)
or potential biodiesel (Ashnani, Johari & Hasani, 2014; Dwivedi & Sharma, 2014) is used in conjunction

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with the storage system to ensure that power demand is met if the store capacity is insufficient. A review
was conducted by author in Habidullah, Masjuki, Rahman, and Ashraful (2015) of detection methods
for a HRES, and Arul, Ramachandaramurthy, and Rajkumar (2015) conducted an evaluation of HRES
optimization on wind and solar PV systems. Throughout a specific span of time, the power of one source
could surpass the deficiency of another (Bhandari, Lee, Cho & Ahn, 2015; Patel, 2005; Engin, 2013).
According to the results (Dalwadi, Shrinet, Mehta & Shah, 2011), the transmission size for solar and air
energy was, respectively, 27.00 GW, 26.60 GW, and 11.10 GW. In Deetjan, Martin, and Webber (2018)
the authors shows that multiple solar trackers in a PV-only network are comparable on seasonal and
hourly time periods, and that their integration can reduce PV output variability while increasing power
generation. As a result, while building hybrid systems, this concept might be addressed. Enhancing the
effectiveness of the energy sources, this may enhance the efficiency of the system ‘s while also adding
to its expenses. As a result, while developing a hybrid system, the expenditure ratio is always critical.

Photovoltaic (PV): Wind-Energy Storage System

ES is used in a PV-ES hybrid to balance out the variable nature of renewable PV production. A part of
the PV energy stored by the ES system throughout the day may be exported to the electric grid or used to
satisfy peak load at midnight (Erdinc, Pappi & Catalao, 2015). ES was introduced to a PV-only system in
Navarra, north of Spain, to enhance financial profit of a 100 kWp roof - mounted Photovoltaic coupled
to the power grid. In Yahyaoui, Atieh, Serna, and Tadea (2017) provided a scaling technique for design-
ing a standalone PVES installation to meet the agricultural needs of a rural property in the United Arab
Emirates, Tunisia’s northern region. The performance characteristics of a stand-alone PV-ES system to
generate energy to a social centre in Kunming, China, was explored in Li (2019). The PV-battery-fuel
cell scheme with 500.00 kW PV modules, 9120.00 kWh batteries, 20.00 kW hydrogen fuel, 10.00 kW
expansion valve, and 10.00 kg hydrocarbons tank were determined to be a viable approach. Significantly
with the inclusion of the fuel cell system, the overall net present value (NPV) was 1.13 percent greater
than that of a PV scheme.
ES stagnates the real-time variability of wind power in off-grid or matrix wind-ES systems. It also
retains excess production during the nights for daylight load and/or transfers it into the electric grid (Clua,
Mantz & De Battista, 2018). Luo, Shi, and Tu (2014) suggested an energy storage sizing technique for
a wind-ES system to meet equilibrium state throughout grid restoration intervals of a 125 MW wind
farm erected on Nan’ao island, China. With a percentage performance / energy capability of 5.5 MW
and 36.4 MWh, accordingly, ES was included to maintain a regular electricity supply throughout the
repair time. ES equipment were installed to a wind farm in, China, for the off wind-ES system to manage
with demand and wind power changes, as well as to alleviate wind curtailing. Applying the HOMER
program, Amirkhalili and Zahedi (2018) constructed a wind-fuel cell system in, Iran. The best amount
of wind turbines was 3, while the best fuel cell, infrared detector, gas tank, and converters capacities
were 120.0 kW, 400.0 kW, 3000.0 kg, and 400.0 kW, respectively. Furthermore, the data revealed that
the fuel cell contributed 9.41%.
PV-wind-ES takes advantage of the natural substitutability of PV and wind, as well as the charge-
discharge features of ES (Ahadi, Kang & Lee, 2016; Hossein Alizadeh, Amalnick & Taghipour, 2016).
As a result, ES needs are lowered, and efficacy of treatment is increased. Panayiotou, Kalogirou, and
Tassou (2012) provided a way for designing an alternative group that could accomplish 100% annual
demand protection throughout a conventional year with minimal system cost based on residential loads

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for customary periods. The method was created for the city of Nice in southern France, where the sum-
mertime is dry and hot and the wintertime are moderate. PV-wind-ES has the similar ES capacity as
PV-ES, according to the optimal outcomes. With 9.90 kW of PV panels, 4.80 kW of wind generators,
and 108 kWh of storage, the PV-wind-ES system had a cheaper price. Sanajaoba and Fernandez (2016)
used a computational formula to construct a stand-alone hybrid system for 7 un-electrified townships
in India, with the goal of lowering total system expenditure. They considered seasonal variations in
demand and calculated 3 different permutations: photovoltaic-ES, wind-ES, and photovoltaic -wind-
ES. The simulations findings demonstrated that combining PV and wind significantly lowered battery
storage demands when contrasted to PV-ES and wind-ES, with the direction of reducing size option
consisting of 3 kW Photovoltaic cells, 75 kW wind generators, 20 kW converters, and 170 kWh cells.
Despite conditions where the total load was completely fulfilled, the PV- wind-fuel cell was shown to be
significantly economical than that of the PV- and wind-fuel cell in a review based on factual evaluation.

Photovoltaic (PV): Wind-Diesel Energy Storage System

Diesel fuel, being a typical fossil source of energy, is only employed in the PV-wind-diesel-ES system as
a recovery power source while PV, wind, and ES are unable to meet the load requirement (Mandal, Das
& Hoque, 2018). As a result, diesel generators improve system resilience in unusual weather situations
while also increasing system efficiency. In India, 163 kW diesel generators were adjusted to off-grid
hybrid system installed in a distant area with ample sunlight and intensity to high wind speeds to guar-
antee uninterrupted power supply (Kumar, Gupta & Bansal, 2013). With plentiful wind and solar energy
on Senegal’s north western coast, multi-objective GA was used to find Pareto strategies for a standalone
PV-wind-diesel-ES system with various numbers of Photovoltaic cells, wind turbines, diesel engines,
storage, and other components. They also discovered that loading patterns and the design of diesel
generator can have an impact on the optimization ability. For a load of residential building structures
in Iran, Maleki and Pourfayaz (2015) proposed the appropriate size for a standalone PV-wind-diesel-
ES system that carried out the highest possible load for the whole year while concentrating on overall
yearly cost reduction. They also evaluated the price of optimal size for various configurations. Further
energy configurations, such as PV-wind-diesel (Bentouba & Boutouis, 2016), PV-diesel-ES (Lan, Wen,
Hong & Zhang, 2015), PV-gas turbine and wind-hydrogen, have been developed by several researchers
based on their specifications and attributes. Owing to the abrupt reduction in wind speed, the PV-ES
system proven to be more suited than the wind-ES system, according to Askari and Ameri (2012). In
another place, however, Maleki, Khajeh, and Ameri (2016) had the reverse result. Consequently, from
an investment perspective, Maleki and Askarzadeh (2014) and Khare, Nema, and Bareda (2017) came
to opposite results in various areas.

Hydropower/Hydro Storage-Photovoltaic (PV)-Wind Energy System

In a hydro -wind hybrid, hydro modifies its production in parameters of peak load and wind productiv-
ity to increase the incorporation of the energy, which has unique operational function than a hydro/PHS
network. Because PV and wind complement each other, combining hydro/PHS-PV-wind can minimize
necessary hydropower regulatory potential and PV-wind encroachments (Francois, Hingray, Borga &
Creutin, 2016). Two different standalone renewable energy systems were installed in Nepal and Hong
Kong to provide electricity to isolated villages and a deserted island, respectively. The Nepalese system,

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which consisted of a 20.0 kW hydropower generator, a 5.0 kW photovoltaic array, and a 3.0 kW wind
turbine, was designed with meteorological considerations in mind. Meanwhile, the Hong Kong system
used a combination of pumped hydro storage, a photovoltaic array, and a wind turbine with predicted
capacities of 20.0 kW, 110.0 kW, and 10.40 kW, respectively, to meet the electrical needs of the island
while accounting for the intermittency of the solar panels. Both systems demonstrated that solar and
wind power can complement each other, reducing the need for energy storage. However, because of the
limited capacity of micro hydropower, tiny hydroelectric power, and run-of-the-river hydropower to
complement other sources of energy, alternative energy sources or energy storage may be necessary to
enhance system reliability. This may lead to increased costs and/or greenhouse gas emissions, as noted
(Kanase, Saini & Sharma, 2011; Menshsari, Ghiamy & Bagal, 2013). According to the research, govern-
ments all over the worldwide are steadily focusing on the merging of hydro/PHS and other renewable
energies. As a result, strategists can combine conventional hydropower installations or PHS units with
optimal natural resources based on topography attributes, energy resource features, budgetary variables,
and unique demands to obtain the best power efficiency.

Hydrogen-Battery Energy System

Most energy storage systems suited for off-grid structures are electrochemical, chemical, or thermal.
Reusable batteries with numerous scientifically competent battery composition options, such as lead-
acid or Li ion, are the foundation of electrochemical energy retention technologies. These types of
units are ideal for temporary storage ranging from days to months, because to their restricted capacity
and self-discharge (Schmidt & Pereira, 2016). Biochemical preservation technologies, on either hand,
can store vast quantities of energy electrochemically on spot and consumed as required during phases
as fuel cell. Hydrogen storage of electricity, which involves turning electrical power into hydrogen, is
another sort of chemical energy storage. If inexpensive power is available, the electrolyzing process,
which produces hydrogen from electricity, may be carried out quickly and with the highest degree of
reliability. The hydrogen must then be kept, maybe in underground tubes for extensive power storage,
but Smaller-scale stockpiling can be accomplished with steel containers. Piston engines, gas turbines,
and hydrogen fuel cells can all be powered by hydrogen, with the latter having the highest efficiency.
Hydrogen, which may be created electrolytically from water, electrically isolated, and recycled directly
to energy with a fuel cell (Jossen, Garche & Sauer, 2004), is one alternative for usage as a preservation
reagent. Hydrogen has the greatest gravimetric potential density of all fuels (HHV= 39.42 kWh/kg) (Luo,
Wang, Dooner & Clarke, 2015), making it an appealing storing medium. From a scientific standpoint,
pressurized gas retention is arguably the most acceptable solution for housing estates (Ursua, Gandia
& Sanchis, 2011). Because to safety procedures (Zheng, Liu, Xu, Liu, Zhao & Yang, 2012), the self-
discharge probability from intact compressed hydrogen storage is minimal, and storage space is easy to
scale, rendering it suited for precise positioning. Nevertheless, as matched to rechargeable capacitors,
the round-trip effectiveness of hydrogen conversions is minimal, compelling energy storage capacity
inappropriate for smaller battery durations. The third possibility, thermal storage in private buildings.
In recent decades, there has been a lot of enthusiasm in HRES. Several research has looked into hybrid
energy system that combine with energy sources like photovoltaics, wind, and hydro with batteries and/
or hydrogen retention.

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Figure 5. Types of hybrid renewable energy system

THRUST FOR HRES

There are several factors why a hybrid system could be adopted. The usage of fossil fuels is being re-
duced, which is one of the main reasons. Fossil fuels are expensive, specifically in inaccessible areas
where the expense of delivering the fuel to the site must be factored in. Fuel oil must be kept in many
isolated areas, typically for the whole winter. Warehousing expenses can be reduced by minimizing the
usage of fuel used. An independent hybrid power system can be used instead of building or upgrading
power lines. Hybrid power methods are generally expensive due to the large number of components they
contain. Since they can be employed as a substitute to overhead wires installation, the economic benefits
can help offset the hybrid system’s cost. A power line may obviously operate in some circumstances,
but it is not competent of transporting the required current. This could happen when a significant load
is imposed. The inclusion of an existing line could facilitate hybrid system design by eliminating the
requirement to establish the power line frequency and eliminating the necessity for either storage or
dump loads. In several instances, distributed generation has benefits, and in some circumstances, the
cumulative effect is boosted by employing a hybrid system. Combined heat and power are frequent use
for dispersed generation. Waste heat from fossil fuel burning is used for ambient or industrial heating in
this situation, boosting the sum of energy efficiency of the fuel use. Hybrid systems have the potential
to improve local environmental conditions. Diesel generators, in general, should be used less frequently

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and for shorter periods of time (in isolated applications). This will diminish air pollution and noise
generated locally, as well as the risks involved with fuel transportation.

CONCLUSION

This book chapter provides summary of HRES. Different attributes such as the detailed review and
explanation about the various types of the HRES related to photovoltaic- Wind-hydro- diesel- hydro-
gen and energy storage systems. Also, the chapter explains about the power converters and the control
strategy related to hybrid energy followed by the impetus with respect to the Hybrid energy system.
Hybrid energy systems are yet in their immediate phases of progress. Technology is currently predicted
to advance in the future, accepting for enormous application and lower prices. More consistent settings
will make it simple to select the system that best fits a given set of needs. The different parts are going
to communicate more frequently. Governance, monitoring, and assessment will be simpler. Furthermore,
there will be an increase in the use of power electronics converters. Energy electronic devices are cur-
rently employed in a number of hybrid systems, and as pricing and performance rise, they are anticipated
to be used more frequently.

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Chapter 16
IoT-Based Energy Harvesting
and Future Research Trends
in Wireless Sensor Networks
Wasswa Shafik
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9320-3186
School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei & Dig
Connectivity Research Laboratory, Kampala, Uganda

ABSTRACT
The more technology advances, the extra benefits to the public and devices that connect to the internet
have increased as well, commonly known as internet of things (IoT). The battery lifespan of these devices
rises with technical concerns where an alternative to traditional energy attainment is needed. As the way
forward, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and IoT are tested to be used as novel energy alternatives
through energy harvesting (EH). This study identifies the availability of energy by location. Similarly,
it focuses on the sensor node’s architecture with EH capabilities expanding to the classification of five
EH techniques. It evaluates the EH developments in search of minimal resource utilization associated
with WSNs. Its extensive distribution of interconnected devices is connected via the internet and other
related high-tech innovations. Finally, it discusses the feasibility of energy storage and its potential for
WSNs, paving the way for future trends and motivations.

INTRODUCTION

WSNs have proved a notable multi-hop wireless network testing role, this is because of its potential
application in conservation and operational systems for safety like using semi or autonomous drone for
public control (Shafik, 2023), proper energy optimization. The architecture of communication protocols,
localization, monitoring strategies, and power management are key in this paradigm. IoT-based hedge
systems have demonstrated a positive for solar power generation. Prediction algorithms or models on
edges availed a correlation coefficient of 0.917 and coefficient of determination value of 0.841 (Syu et
al., 2021). WSNs were inspired by technological emphasis, for example, conserving natural resources

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch016

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

and changing them into energy. The WSN nodes usually are battery-powered. The system is considered
“empty” when its power is exhausted; batteries can either be replaced or recharged in minimal applications.
The replacement or recharging process tends to be slow and costly and reduces network performance,
but it is inevitable (Hadas et al., 2018).
EH is defined as to the conversion ambient energy present in the ecosystem into electrical energy for
both natural and artificial use. There is increased device connectivity to the internet and its associated
merits like increased resource sharing, improved computation speed, and reduced latency. Regarding the
IoT application in reducing energy consumption, several appropriations have been highlighted within
this study as core factors that need to be addressed to proper energy utilization by the intelligent systems
like situation or pandemic forecasts and the public. Identified ones include industrial condition monitor-
ing, operation isolation setups, WSNs, wireless pressure sensors, and Pipeline Actuators. Free energy
also comes at a cost and going about the entire system is critical in deciding how energy harvesting
can satisfy the power needs. To affect this issue, green energy, collecting, wasted energy, self-charging,
consumer (customer) electronics, and drop-in battery replacement are identified as possible ways to
save energy. WSNs perform computing through sound resource management owing to their pervasive
existence (Syu et al., 2021). Energy mainly entails three main chains from the supply to transformation
to consumption as Figure 1 depicts; for instance, under supply, it starts from extraction and treatment,
followed by primary energy supply, then import or export stock changes. At the primary energy supply,
this is passed to conversion technologies, T&D system where both are transformed with some energy
loss. At that point of T&D system provides final energy, to end use appliance with some energy loss to
finally useful energy for consumption.

Figure 1. Energy supply chain

Various methods have been suggested to delay the degradation of battery capacity, including power
management and the use of session-based activities. These approaches sometimes use low-current
wireless transceiver techniques, the components of which can be turned off to save energy. In case the
device reduces the power (similar in power efficiency) phase, the output of the device is significantly

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reduced versus when it is on due to the fifth-generation technology. Nevertheless, while sleeping, the
device cannot relay or recognize the data packet. The task loop completes in correlation to the time; the
device is on, then it rests before it finally turns off. The use of protocols running at a relatively low power
level seems to be an acceptable explanation that accords with long-lasting WSNs (Yetgin et al., 2017).
Dependable IoT devices are required to generate correct data in several computations, its components
are illustrated in Figure 2. The authors of this study presented an approach for characterizing IoT de-
pendability measures. The reliability measurements are computed utilizing queuing theory. The theory
explains the response time, queue length, delay time or waiting time, and busy periods, for example in
recommender system, among others. To account for the reliance on items in IoT contexts, the Markov
Chain traits were used, and thus better reliability measures were obtained (Zin et al., 2018).

Figure 2. Components of an IoT platform

This approach leads to significant pitfalls: 1) There seems to be an apparent compromise between
power consumption (reducing duty cycling) and information delay. 2) WSNs run with batteries struggling
to meet the demands of many new technologies that require time-taking complex network computing. 3)
Leakage depletes the batteries even though they are rarely used. Recent studies on long-lasting WSNs
take a vastly different approach, suggesting “constant” WSN performance through tandem energy har-
vesters utilizing battery packs and superconducting materials for power storage. WSN considering EH
(WSNEH), based on energy harvesting, tends to be the result of imbuing WSN entities with the ability
to collect power from numerous sources.

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The EH takes advantage of various power sources, such as solar energy, air, mechanical stress,
temperature fluctuations, and electromagnetic waves. The EH subsystems regularly supply and process
power for future use, enabling the sensor node to last forever (Adu-Manu et al., 2020). This study ex-
plores the current challenges and opportunities of the WSNEH, assessing why it is necessary to rethink
the architecture of the WSNs fundamentally. The review starts with the vital definitions, followed by
the WSNEH node’s architecture, particularly its power system. The analysis of the different sources of
energy available is also presented. Furthermore, a discussion on the classification of energy harvesting
is examined.

Key Contributions of the Chapter

This chapter contributes the following:

• The study presents a survey on the current technology advancements, the public receives addi-
tional benefits, particularly through the IoT and the increasing number of connected devices.
• Highlights the technical concerns related to the battery lifespan of IoT devices and the necessity
for alternative energy sources to power these devices.
• The study focuses on WSNs and IoT as potential platforms for novel energy alternatives through
EH.
• The research identifies the availability of energy based on location, suggesting that different re-
gions may offer different energy sources for EH in WSNs.
• The study examines the architecture of sensor nodes with EH capabilities, likely to investigate the
integration of energy harvesting mechanisms into existing sensor networks.
• The research classifies five different EH techniques, which may include methods such as solar
energy, kinetic energy, thermal energy, etc.
• The study evaluates EH developments with the objective of minimizing resource utilization as-
sociated with WSNs, aiming to optimize energy efficiency.
• The study discusses the feasibility of energy storage for WSNs, likely examining different energy
storage technologies and their potential integration with EH systems.
• Finally, the research explores future trends and motivations related to EH in WSNs, potentially
identifying emerging technologies and directions for further research in the field.

The Chapter Organization

The rest of the chapter contains six main sections. Section 2 presents a comprehensive overview of EH.
Section 3 details the classification of EH techniques, including the EH based on radio frequency (RF),
astrophysics-based EH, thermal-based EH, mechanical-based EH, and human-based EH. While the ap-
propriation, inverse, and future directions are documented in Section 4. Regarding appropriation industrial
conditions monitoring, operating isolated setups, wireless pressure sensors, and pipeline actuators are
detailed. In inverse issues like alternative green energy options, collecting wasted energy, self-charging
electronics, and drop-in battery replacement are demonstrated. Future research avenues are documented in
the context of system integration, low power, wireless communications, smart cities, biological systems,
and fluctuating prices. In section 5, some insights on EH on IoT applications which are most suitable for
smart city applications are demonstrated and lastly, section 6 portrays the chapter conclusion.

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ENERGY HARVESTING

Energy harvesting is widely described as converting ambient energy into electricity. We describe energy
harvesting as “the on-demand, off-grid processing, and storage of ambient energy.” The first concept
deals with the energy transmission transducer system, which implies that energy needs to be transferred
to electric power. This interpretation provides a detailed and comprehensive software-centric perspec-
tive (Hadas et al., 2018). The transmitter is part of a complete power supply network for applications
for which other energy sources are inaccessible or unacceptable.
Ambient energy comes in several different forms, for example. nuclear, biological, electrical, me-
chanical, and many more. Either of these power sources should be available in the area to use EH. An
opposite transducer must be in place to transform electricity. Power harvesting has been used for elec-
tricity generation where no external power source is available. Excavators require investment, and they
are an excellent alternative when using conventional sources such as grid power or batteries become
too expensive and impractical. On-demand electricity must be supplied by the energy harvester when
required, not merely when it is available. Some form of power storage is usually the recommended order-
ing value for the requirement (Nguyen et al., 2020). In principle, there exist numerous forms of energies
accessible for EH, for instance, from radiation (light, electrical, cosmic, and electromagnetic), thermal,
physical (potential, mechanical, dynamic, fluid), gravitational, chemical (capacitor, battery storage, coal
power, phase transition), nuclear, gravitational (magnetization, movement), and electrical.
Sound cosmic radiation, atmospheric pressure variation, and solar atomic neutrinos are readily avail-
able but have almost no related energy. When other energy fields are accessible, the harvester relies
exclusively on the location and the selection of feasible forms. The options are usually limited to only
one or two that are appropriate for a particular area. Sunshine is a decent energy source with a high-
power density and correct consistency outdoors. Air can be suited to large facilities that are high enough
to have direct air currents (Chun-Wei et al., 2020). Optimal temperature and vibration differences are
challenging to detect. Such lighting systems could provide adequate indoor electricity for low-power
applications, for instance, calculators. Moreover, the device waves and temperature radiation can also
be employed for industrial applications such as extreme temperatures and intense oscillations occurring
at a predicted behavior.
Data security and information privacy remain key challenges in such sensitive computation that
has IoT and sensors. The configuration state could be attacked or updated without privacy-preserving
precautions (Jun et al., 2021). This often results in security issues and sensitive data loss. An ant colony
optimization approach was suggested to tackle the security aspects. This was determined by the need
to preserve secret and sensitive information on sixth generation (6G) IoT networks by implementing
multiple objectives and utilizing transaction deletions (Huang et al., 2020). A set of deletion operations
represent each ant in the population that may be used to conceal sensitive information.
Diverse types of systems have varying requirements for electricity. A pacemaker necessitates only
around five joules to operate in one day. On the other hand, a desktop PC needs about five Mega Joules.
Some systems operate continuously, and regular power consumption is much like the demand for immedi-
ate electricity. Anything that is on for 1 second and then off for 9 seconds has a ‘duty ratio’ (electronics)
of 10%. Consequently, the average requisite energy is only 10% of the total power demand. Whether or
not a particular application uses EH depends on the knowledge of the energy consumption profile and
its comparison with the available energy from extraction.

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Sensor node energy efficiency is critical to the long-term viability of IoT networks (Renuka et al,
2018). When live nodes are many in number, the converging ratio compared to price performance is
faster which implies that there are additional residual energies, the load is equally distributed, and the
temperature produced by IoT nodes is lower, the energy consumption will be ideal. Within this research,
we propose a hybrid whale algorithm and Moth flame optimization approach that optimizes the 500
criteria described above to find the best cluster head. In comparison with the existing algorithms, the
proposed model is examined. The experiment’s findings indicate that the suggested model outperforms
other models. Such as load, temperature, energy, latency, cost performance, and the total number of live
nodes (Maddikunta et al., 2020).
The primary goal of staying useful life estimation is to achieve maintenance at a cheap cost and resource
conservation. In the field of prognostics, cutting-edge applications and the findings of the models have
been outstanding. Correspondingly, the proposed approach aims to improve recurrent neural network
training to make better predictions. The obtained results (Agrawal et al., 2020) show that deep learn-
ing models of short-term memory algorithms are outperformed by the improved design of long-term
memory algorithms. Table 1 presents a description of the available energy for different locations. All
areas in the table with “No” notation indicate that these areas remain subject to research since existing
models have not explored them (Maddikunta et al., 2020). Table 2 summarizes the different sources of
energy and their capacity.

Table 1. Availability of energy by location (R = radiation, AL = artificial lighting, MV = machine vibra-

tion, G = gravitational, TG = thermal gradients)

Energy by Location R Wind Sunlight AL Human MV G TG

Office or home Yes No No Yes Yes No No No
Along the street Yes Yes Yes No No No No No
Bridge Yes Yes Yes No No No Yes No
Vehicles Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes
Station of the pumping Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes
Petrol rig Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes
Battlefield Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No
Sensing for remote locations Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes

Throughout the study, principal component analysis (PCA)-based random forest regressions (RFR)
is utilized to forecast the battery life span of an IoT network. Missing values are filled in using the at-
tribute mean during the preprocessing stage, normalization is done using the regular scalar method,
and transformation is done using the technique of one-shot encoding. The PCA algorithm is then used
for feature assortment and reducing on dimensionalities. The data set’s reduced dimensions are fed into
RFR algorithm. The obtained results support the superiority of the presented model. It is possible to
assess the suggested model. On a large-scale set of data in the future; deep neural networks can also be
used to improve prediction.

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Table 2. Available power sources and their vital summary

Source Power Capacity Vital Summary

Cosmic raying 0.1 µW(microwatt) Negating transfer inefficiencies
10 x 10 cm antenna 10 m under a 10 kV(kilowatt) transmission
EM-ray radiation 0.5 µW(microwatt)
line
The pressure of the blood 15 µW(microwatt) The estimate of the Southampton University Hospital
The vibration of the computer 05 mW(milliwatt) Perpetuum PP27
Lighting indoor 20 mW(microwatt) Solar cell 5 x 5 cm
Human electricity 2 W(watt) Winding a radio from Baygen

Sensor Node’s Architecture With Harvesting Capabilities

In this subsection, an analysis of the nodes of the wireless sensor system is described. The significant
components include (a) An energy harvester responsible for converting energy produced by the natural
environment or a living organism into electrical power. (b) The module extracts electric power from the
harvester and either saves it for immediate use or supplies it to other components, (c) Housing power
for the harvester, (d) microcontroller. (e) Data-transmitting radio transceiver, (f) sensor devices, (g)
A/D (analog-to-digital) converter for digitizing the audio voltage produced by the sensor and making
it accessible for further transmission to the microcontroller, and (i) memory for storing sensing data,
application-related data, and code (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Architectural design of a wireless node with harvesters of energy

In the conversion of accessible energies from the environment to electric energy, the power system
needs one or more harvesters. To transfer the energy to the node(s) or retain it for future usage is done
using harvester gather. In certain applications, the sensor node may be directly powered by harvested
electricity without storing energy (extract-use architecture), although it is not a viable choice (Yang et
al., 2021). A relatively more rational design allows the node to use the harvested energy directly and
includes a portion of the storage that acts as a power source for storing and preserving the extracted

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energy. When the extraction is greater than the utilization, the buffer portion can preserve the surplus
energy for future consumption. Figure 4 shows the general configuration of the wireless sensor node for
the power module, including the power generation functionality.
The secondary battery packs and superconducting materials (also known as ultra-capacitors) are
two energy storage options. Supercapacitors are like typical condensers except those which generate
exceptionally high power on a small scale. There are several advantages of powered batteries; firstly, the
supercapacitors can be powered and drained almost indefinitely, while the cumulative life of electrical and
chemical batteries is less than 1000 cycles. Besides, simple charging loops may power them efficiently,
increasing the network’s complexity and not requiring deep discharge protection circuits. Secondly, there
is more charge and additional unloading flexibility than rechargeable batteries. Moreover, decreasing
the environmental issues associated with the disposal of batteries is an extra benefit. Because of these
characteristics, super condensers are used as energy storage by many mining systems either on their own
or in conjunction with batteries (Zhang et al., 2016).

Figure 4. WSN energy subsystem design (RF = radio frequency; PV = photo voltaic)

CLASSIFICATION OF TECHNIQUES OF ENERGY HARVESTING

Various sources of energy have been discovered for the EH. Whether or not a particular source can
provide enough power to the sensor node is one of the critical criteria for selecting an energy source,
the voltage movement dissipates the energy due to the conversions. It is crucial to guarantee that the
power is generated at the required current and voltage levels for proper utilization. The energy source
is an energy storage device, or a source adjusted to an optimum level of electricity. For instance, in RF,
the required demand is met by increasing the source power.
A high amount of electricity is produced in the PV cell area, resulting in a greater electricity rate.
Nevertheless, it is not possible to match the sources or convert energy too efficiently in some situations.
Thus, the harvesting system can be extended; numerous WSNs allow a node to be compacted and be thin
leading to minimized energy utilization. Researchers typically use the energy density metric to compare
different strategies for extracting energy (Raja and Mookhambika, 2021). Hereafter, designers should

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consider this exchange after choosing a suitable EH device for a particular application. The sources of
energy are divided into two broad classes, i.e., internal, and external. Biological resources are readily
available in the atmosphere at almost no cost. Secondary sources are intentionally used for energy storage
purposes in environments. These categories are further subdivided, as described below.

Energy Harvesting Based on Radio Frequency

After conditioning, the received radio signals are transformed into DC voltage for RF-based energy
processing. Depending on the specifications of the required application (e.g., weight, output, or volt-
age), RF signals can be converted to DC power through various methods such as single stage versus
multistage. All factors affecting the amount of electricity produced are the source of electricity, including
the antennas’ gain, the range between the target sources, and electrical efficiency. Usually, over an input
power range of 100 m, the RF to DC exchange rate is between 50% to 75% (Sudevalayam and Kulkarni,
2010). It is superior to offer one WSN radio to reduce the complexity of the program and minimize the
overall code size.
For the intentional sources of WSNs, a case point sinks to distribute energy, and the platform obli-
gates the control to be terminated by the available power. The anticipated foundation can deliver power
on a continuous, intended, or ultimatum basis, and can be used to supply power to stimulate the fully
charged instrument nodes. The nodes can also predict other sensor nodes and provide the radio frequency
and energy harvesting basis (Zhang et al., 2019). The intermediate nodes operate regularly or intermit-
tently as a power source; nevertheless, the nodes cannot usually be regulated because the continuous
dissemination of records may not be significant for ideal wireless and sensor networks. Radiofrequency
energy harvesting improves the performance of one-to-many wireless controls involving WSNs; diffu-
sion starting at a given node will supply power(s) to communicate or eavesdrop on the communication
during such transfer (Amirinasab et al., 2020). It is vital to note that safety and health regulations restrict
radiofrequency production power.
In a variety of WSN systems, RF energy storage may be used both indoors and outdoors. Their ap-
plications include environmental surveillance, smart homes, systemic safety monitoring, and supervision
of locations. RF EH has greater potential for indoor usage because peripheries often need additional
low-light conditions or lack of lightning, while astrophysical EH assemblies are inefficient (Khalifeh
et al., 2020). Besides, temperature variations and disruptions are unlikely indoors, providing excellent
conditions for wireless sensor network applications.

An Astrophysical-Based Energy Harvesting

Astrophysical energy tends to emerge as an affordable and clean source of energy due to global abundance,
and it may potentially alleviate the impending issues of WSN energy. However, due to the night-time dis-
advantages of solar energy storage systems, engineers must achieve the best possible performance during
the daytime to ensure efficiency. PV effects may be detected after specific semiconductor resources are
visible to the sunshine, and cosmic rays are metamorphosed into electricity (Fu, 2019). Cosmic booth
tends to be an electrical semiconductor confluence device, typically self-possessed of silicon.
As sunbeams impact an astrophysical device with adequate dynamics, the electrons are quarantined and
continue to pass through an input and output regulator toward the attached charge. Cosmological harvest-
ing employs an output stock of a consuming unit with numerous loading adoptions; these phenomenal

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capacitors, arrays, or a combination of both, immersed on the external surface of the astrophysical cell,
yield excellent cosmological coordination that offers tremendous efficiency (Mausam et al., 2020). The
astrophysical energy, overall, is generally appropriate in an outdoor environment. Indoor atmospheres,
like infirmaries, grounds, and engineering construction, can also benefit; however, they usually obligate
extra light than other indoor surroundings.

Thermal-Based Energy Harvesting

Transforming the temperature and corresponding energy to electrical energies require a combined con-
tainer with the hot and the cold surfaces of the thermal energy generator. Several large-scale machines
have been developed since the production of passionate heaters. The extreme apprehension, on a larger
level, is to trigger voltage from anthropological physique malaises. A thermos-electric regenerator
obligates a long service cycle, inactive parts, and stable functionality. Thermal harvesting has a low
efficiency of 5% to 6%, which is a significant impediment to its widespread adoption. Recently, more
than 10% of the output efficiency has been reached (Hao, 2019). The development of modern thermo-
electric components and segments.

Mechanical-Based Energy Harvesting

A Mechanic-Electrical Energy Generator (MEEG) extracts energy from the atmosphere and roughness.
In general, an electromagnetic harvester, for example, MEEG, uses the piezoelectric system to extract
energy. Pressure variations can be rehabilitated to vigor using piezoelectrics that provide optimum and
concrete impact. Vibrations are essential in processing the electromagnetic spectrum to shift a magnet
around a coil and produce current. On the other hand, electrostatic converters use impulses to force the
charged capacitor’s plates toward the electrostatic resistance, resulting in electrical energy in arrears to
the capacitance proliferation. The piezoelectric materials can generate an electric perspective transforma-
tion when stimulated by vibrations derived from electrical energy (Wang et al., 2020). The mechanical
electrical energy generator, which creates generated energy reduction in the system, produces 10 mW
(milliwatt) per 100 cm3 on a realistic scale.

Human-Based Energy Harvesting

The healthcare sector is of prime significance among other WSN applications due to the need to con-
tinuously track patients and ensure accurate, significant, and timely action by medical practitioners.
Consequently, the wireless bodied-area networks need considerable attention; sensors are mounted on
or even injected within human body in such networks to track biological constraints incessantly (Satyala
et al., 2014). These systems need to be stable for long periods because of their installation by humans,
preferably for their lifespan. Therefore, harvesting human energy for this purpose carries paramount
importance. Table 3 depicts EH approaches, related technologies, EH methodologies, and applications.

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Table 3. Energy harvesting techniques and applications (TEG = thermoelectric generator)

EH Technique Harvesting Method Application Technologies Reference

High-level performing Rectifying antenna
Frequency-based kzrcuse3 predictions (Wang et al., 2020)
thermoelectric materials Rectenna
Acquaintance with dainty Outdoor, and indoor
Solar based Photovoltaic (PV) cells (Satyala et al., 2014)
photovoltaic cells systems
Wearable TEG
Temperature difference, Flex TEG,
Thermoelectric and
Thermal based heating, or cooling Automatic-Powered (Li et al., 2016)
pyroelectric, TEG
pyroelectric Wireless Temp
Sensor
Wind turbines, Miniature
Flow-based converting airflow Outdoor (Zhu et al., 2020)
wind turbines
Ambiances
Power-driven stress and The self-powered Piezoelectric,
Mechanical based compression, tension WSN node, driving electrostatic, and (Elahi et al., 2018)
from the superficial of the vehicles (MEEG) electromagnetic
device
Vicissitudes in extremity Electroactive polymers,
Human-based situations, body heat, and Micro TEG piezoelectric, shoe- (Khalid et al., 2019)
the blood-flows mounted rotary harvesters

APPROPRIATION, INVERSE, AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

EH application provides are proper energy use balance exists amongst the obtainable energies and the
required energies for power storage, offer a value that cannot be accomplished with batteries or energy
from the grid (Li et al., 2016). Table 4 illustrates the proposed EH models and used technology-based
device applications. In this section, we outline the appropriate approach, inverse, and future motivations.

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

Table 4. Proposed harvesting techniques and their applications (MDGMEC = maximizing data gathering
with minimum energy consumption, WPT = wireless power transfer, SDA = software-defined architecture,
MPPT = novel maximum power point tracking)

Harvesting Proposed
Application Tools Pros Cons Reference
Technique Model
Movement speed Industry,
Frequency- RF energy Battery-free Equipment
of a monitored Agriculture, (Zhu et al., 2020)
based through WPT tags Dependency
asset IoT, Health
Energy Collaborative simple,
SDA for CB Limited Solar
Solar based consumption beamforming cheap, (Elahi et al., 2018)
communications energy supply
reduction in WSN (CB) efficient
Static
Poor energy, high
Autonomous WSN The DA + deployments
Thermal based MPPT cost, and low (Khalid et al., 2019)
nodes O&SO method thus
output power
outflow
Data collection Predictable
Data gathering Not available for
Flow-based using a mobile MDGMEC energy (Rosa et al., 2020)
process commercial usage
sink output
Portable and Bidirectional Devices
Mechanical Rectification Protected
wearable electric vertical deteriorate with (Bao et al., 2019)
based mechanism and reliable
devices oscillation time.
Restraint on
Thermoelectric human
Related electronic LTC3108, the lifetime and (Hou and Chen,
Human-based energy Implantable
device BQ25504 circuit reliability of 2020)
generator apps
biological parts

Appropriation

Industrial Condition Monitoring

Control and automation delve into the explosive growth in the use of WSNs in several applications over
the last few years. Since wireless technology can reduce costs, increase efficiency, and make maintenance
easier, it is becoming increasingly popular. Self-organization, fast deployment, versatility, and inherent
intelligent processing are all advantages of industrial wireless sensor networks over conventional wired
industrial monitoring and control systems. In this regard, industrial WSNs perform a significant respon-
sibility in establishing more dependable, effective, and profitable industrial structures, thereby enhancing
companies’ market competitiveness (Kumar and Dash, 2020). Many parts of the vibrating machinery
are usually in a large oil pumping station. Understanding the conditions of operation avoids errors and
downtime, improves performance, and lowers costs. Wireless sensor networks can be expensive to install
with miles of cabling and standardized battery-operated spare parts. A network of wireless-controlled
independent pulsation devices offers an incredible system for delinquent data collection.

Operating Isolated Setups

EH systems can use both artificial and natural sources to generate electricity. The piezoelectric effect and
the thermoelectric effect can also be used to generate electrical energy from movement. Environmental

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

fuel, such as solar, wind, or waterpower, is an excellent outdoor source. The use of ambient heat as an
energy source for remote sensors located inside a building may be beneficial. Thermoelectric devices
can produce electrical energy from temperature variations through a thermocouple, while PV devices
can generate electrical energy from changes in material temperature (Mi et al., 2020). A transit stop
with an interactive bus information board is helpful. The technology is highly valuable in rural areas;
however, due to its size, grid power is expensive to install, and single-use sequences would not continue
for long. The astrophysical panels or small airstream turbines, self-propelled with a rechargeable battery
and equipped with power controls, are the cheapest way to control the projector and additional electron-
ics (Xia et al., 2020).

Wireless Sensor Networks

Due to their ubiquitous existence and broad deployment in IoT among other emerging areas, WSN tech-
nologies face a significant bottleneck due to the limited energy associated with them. The development
and design reliability and high-performance EH systems for WSNs are being scrutinized to address this
major limitation. Sensors seldom need much energy, meaning that flow rate, temperature, humidity, and
pressure measurements can be attained with a small amount of ingathered energy (Kausar et al., 2014).
The exchange rate, such as the latest readings of important wireless communication protocols, allows
the use of information for saving money through the timely detection of complications and planned
maintenance.

Wireless Pressure Sensors

Car manufacturers are integrating wireless communication systems into automobiles to enhance the
safety and execution of the automotive transportation systems. Tire pressure monitoring systems can
track real-time tire pressure in vehicles and warn drivers and passengers when a tire is in an abnormal
condition, ensuring driver and passenger safety. The pressure control of tires decreases fuel consumption
and enhances driving efficiency, but there is no connection from the battery to the tires by power cables
(Wang et al., 2019). The Battery-powered sensors via wireless data transmission do not last long to pro-
vide ample electricity, enhancing maintenance costs for changing batteries. The processing of friction
energy from everyday factors as the helm rotates is the idyllic way of undertaking the sensors explained.

Pipeline Actuators

The advancement of embedded systems and communication technology has resulted in a need in the
industry to systematize duties and provide more power. Instant advances in data managing technologies,
wireless networking and management have provided opportunities for change in all aspects of oil and
gas processing industry practices. Because of their duration, reliable monitoring, and timely reporting
to remote control rooms for the gas-carrying and the oil pipelines is still a superior challenge. There
is plenty of electricity available from a natural gas tank or a steam pipe delivery system (Shaikh and
Zeadally, 2016). The use of maintenance-free solid-state thermoelectric transducers can capture thermal
energy. The energy can be used to open and shut down the valves without needing the actuator’s cables.

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

The Inverse of Energy Harvesting

Free energy also comes at a cost and going about the entire system is critical in deciding how energy har-
vesting can satisfy the power needs. Likewise, it examines the EH reviews on the key features, proposed
frameworks, and models. Specific energy source productions are focused on that WSNs use. WSNs are
the assembly of spatially apart, cutting-edge sensors to monitor.

Green Energy

A fallacy that continues to spread is that energy harvesting is a moderate example of how the popula-
tion can capture naturally available energy and that such systems can be industrialized and recycled in
the future to power our hospices and industries (Panatik et al., 2020). The said systems are very much
incompatible, except for the photovoltaic cells for capturing sunlight.

Collecting Wasted Energy

Calculations for demonstrating how much electricity is ‘consumed’ by a thousand people’s feet are
easy to do. There is little economic sense in running permitted types of machinery from passengers’
pathways at subway locations. The harvesters would be costly; besides, the amount of generated energy
is insignificant compared to the electricity consumed in illumination, reheating, and aeration (Iqbal et
al., 2017). In case the drop in charges was the goal, it will pay off even faster to improve the operation
of current construction facilities and replace old equipment.

Self-Charging Consumer Electronics

Modern palm-sized astrophysical devices can yield energy for this; however, when charging, the phone
cannot be carried in a pocket (Egaji et al., 2019). The vibration energy harvesters that use movement
energy usually offer sufficient power, nevertheless, merely under specific circumstances. Combine these
negatives with sophisticated mobile influence conventions comparatively with mature headphones, and
the alteration between the energy required and the energy obtainable is only widening.

Drop-in Battery Replacement

A battery-operated system runs wherever it is. Harvesters can only produce electricity where there is
sufficient energy. Batteries are standard products that are available from a wide variety of manufactur-
ers at a low cost (Sherazi et al., 2018). Energy harvesters are currently available from a limited range of
manufacturers as new, high-cost, mostly bespoke technology solutions.

Energy Harvesting/Optimization Challenges in WSN/IoT Networks

The increasing IoT development has heightened the need of developing wireless sensors with low power
consumption. Wireless sensors have now been incorporated into IoT systems to provide data in a precise
and reliable way for monitoring and controlling the flow of activities in various sectors. The EH tech-
nology is a green method for extending the sensor’s life and, in certain circumstances, eliminates the

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

need for batteries. The EH also has economic and practical advantages, for instance, increased energy
efficiency and cheaper grid maintenance costs. The study outlined some of the upcoming research prob-
lems that must be solved on a wide scale to fully realize the potential for EH solutions in the IoT. Even
though substantial improvement in EH devices development and design are witnessed, major scientific
obstacles remain before IoT device production becomes self-sustaining.

Modeling of Harvested Energies

An equilibrium concerning the quantity of energy produced and the quantity of energy used is crucial.
This necessitates IoT device power profiling and customization of their functioning to the amount of
gathered device. The accessibility of collected energy fluctuates with time in a non-deterministic way.
As a result, prediction techniques are used to estimate the amount of energy scavenged, and to govern
the power coming from the energy sources, classical power management methods (for instance, PLL
(software phase locked loops) and MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)) are utilized. Models for
energy forecasting that have recently been offered should be improved to produce more accurate find-
ings, and management of energy decisions must be taken to reduce energy damage. Furthermore, the
power supply must offer sufficient energy for processing processes of data, activities of transmission
and/or reception, and intervals of sleep (Sherazi et al., 2019). Accordingly, to lower the cost of energies
during wireless data transmission, academic and industrial researchers are to expand optimum energy
use algorithms (Hussain et al., 2020) and examine creative approaches to tailor wireless transmission
protocols to the energy harvesting process’s features.

Harvested Energy Storage

Because the technique that was employed to store the energy gathered influences the size, price, and
working life of the IoT devices. This entails the advancement of rechargeable batteries and supercapaci-
tors as acceptable storage components. Due to the cycling deterioration phenomenon, batteries with high
power densities aren’t ideal for IoT devices that need to last a long time. Furthermore, they are harmed
by both hot and low temperatures. Although the energy density of supercapacitors is lower than that of
batteries, they do not suffer from cyclic deterioration. In addition, supercapacitors experience higher
current leakage, which consumes a significant portion of the energy collected. As a result (Setyawan et
al., 2020), future researchers should look at new methodologies for identifying the best contender for
storing collected energy, as determined by the following criteria: minimal cycle degradation, minimal
energy leakage, high-density energy, and continuous functioning even at extreme temperatures.

Energy Harvesting From Multiple Sources

In certain circumstances, a single power harvesting source is inadequate to provide electricity to IoT
devices. The dependability of IoT devices may be improved by integrating energy from several sources.
Developed designs and methodologies for circuits for lower power administration that collect energies as
of several suppliers of energy that are heterogeneous. The findings show that the suggested designs are
appropriate for specified utilization. As an example, the power ring topology or the complementary usage
of harvesters is the basic scheme that is acceptable when all input energy sources are not anticipated to
supply a considerable amount of power at the same time. Energy is also combined from heterogeneous

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

sources using Switched-inductor and switched capacitor converter topologies with multiple inputs (Singh
et al., 2021). Developers should think about the creation of customizable matching impedance techniques
for MPPT control regardless of the architecture used. Additionally, scientists must concentrate their ef-
forts on the creation of sophisticated algorithms with the ability to pick up energy sources of information
based on their accessibility, obviating the requirement for the storage of energy.

Size and Cost Efficiency

IoT device dimensions and weight are important in some cases (implantable and Wearable IoT devices,
for example). However, these gadgets only create a little amount of power, which is insufficient to ac-
complish their primary purpose (For example, powering the gadget and any associated sensors, as well as
data transfer). Micro and nanoscale harvesting systems that can power IoT devices while also supporting
additional tasks (for example, monitoring patient health status and functioning as stimulators for tissue
regeneration) should be created to little manufacturing costs in mind. PEHs can successfully power tiny
and minuscule IoT devices, according to the scientific literature. To allow PEH mini and nanofabrication
with increased versatility and output energy density, future researchers need to discover new eco-friendly
materials (Cavalcanti et al., 2019). Recent breakthrough microelectronics holds a lot of promise and may
be leveraged to create energy harvesters that are resilient, compact, low-cost, and low power.

Impact of Renewable Energy Sources on the Environment

Sources of renewable energy assist to reduce contamination, and as a result, they are being utilized to
produce current IoT gadgets as the sector has grown significantly in recent years. In IoT devices, batter-
ies used that do not include energy-collecting technology gradually deteriorate and are discarded after
a few weeks or months. The ecology suffers if there are no battery recycling methods in place. In this
scenario, the task is to design IoT devices that capture energy with a lifespan that is substantially longer
than that of batteries. It’s also worth mentioning that certain IoT devices that capture energy use harmful
or infrequent minerals (for example, TEEHs use bismuth telluride, PEHs use lead zirconate titanate, and
PVs use cadmium.). As a result, another difficulty that must be addressed is the usage of environmen-
tally benign things, electroactive polymers, for example, and carbon nanowire semiconductors, to create
electrical components for energy harvesting IoT devices (Khazaee et al., 2020).

Future Directions

The energy dispensation work has concentrated on the transducer to resolve how to extract as much
energy as possible from an assumed dynamic pitch. As our knowledge progresses, the emphasis will
turn to new applications recognizing the potential of energy harvesters.

System Integration and Smart Cities

The idea of smart cities is currently a reality in some nations, and it is still expanding to several counties
as the technology get appreciated; connected intelligent systems as witnessed, for instance, transportation,
infrastructure, and public service. Although energy harvesting can power many of the sensors that allow
these applications, there is a growing demand for self-sufficient, clustered, or sensing gadgets that can

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

also execute edge computation. The EH plug-and-play would become the standard. Some recognition
of the vendors for the procurement and installation of various components of the harvester on demand.
Power from these systems has been generated by portable and mechanical wireless devices, adding a
great deal of useful knowledge to make travel, safety, and infrastructure changes possible.

Low Power Wireless Communications

In the last decade, rapid advances in energy harvesting have greatly improved the performance of device
in transforming free energies into formally usable electric energies, allowing energy-independent system
design at present. Communication protocols are being developed and are unambiguously planned to
diminish the complex use of data communication.

Biological Systems and Falling Costs

Achieving an effective energy scavenging for millimeter-scale biomedical implants, the regulation of
breathing or blood pressure may be operated on medical devices with ultra-low electricity. Scientists
ought to build an advanced pacemaker capable of pulling a third of the required energy from the blood
supply. A centralized data connectivity in a smart city perception entails mainly five key factors as
demonstrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5. A centralized data connectivity in a smart city perception

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

The cost of EH would reduce as it makes its way into products for global customers. Therefore,
business projects should allow greater use of energy-harvesting-powered technologies supporting the
developmental work, all summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. A summarized appropriation, inverse, and future directions

Harvesting Technique Application Proposed Model Reference

Industrial condition Pulse -centered condition
(Rosa et al., 2019)
monitoring monitoring
Operating isolated setups Wireless power transfers (Chamanian et al., 2019)
Two different vibration-based
Appropriation Wireless Sensor Networks harvesters: piezoelectric and (Sejaan et al., 2020)
electromagnetic
Micro-electro-mechanical system
Pipeline Actuators using a vertical multi-junction (Zhang and Park, 2020)
photovoltaic cell
Organic polymers including
Green Energy (Allam et al., 2019)
inorganic nanoparticle(s)
Energy consumption and data
Collecting wasted energy (Wen et al., 2020)
delivery
The inverse
Self-charging consumer
Self-operated WSNs (Wang et al., 2019)
electronics
Two piezoelectric vibration energy
Drop-in battery replacement (Allam et al., 2019)
harvesters via COMSOL
Nonlinear vibration absorber
System Integrations (Zhang et al., 2019)
Integration
Low-power wireless Secured smart home switching
(Zungeru et al., 2019)
communications system
Dependable control schemes for
Future Directions Smart cities (Ha and Phung, 2019)
microgrid management
Biological systems Track and monitor of Galápagos (Loreti et al., 2019)
A self-powered human motion
Falling costs (Xi et al., 2019)
monitoring
Artificial intelligence Wearable AI-systems are examined (Shi et al., 2019)

ENERGY HARVESTING ON IOT APPLICATIONS IN SMART CITY STANDPOINT

The process of capturing and storing energy from the environment to power IoT devices. This is par-
ticularly useful in smart city applications, where large numbers of IoT devices are deployed to collect
data and provide services to citizens. Here are some of the most suitable EH technologies for smart city
IoT applications:

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

Solar Energy Harvesting

Solar energy is a popular choice for powering IoT devices in smart cities due to its abundance and reli-
ability. Photovoltaic (PV) panels can be installed on rooftops, streetlights, and other structures to capture
sunlight and convert it into electrical energy (Zeb et al., 2023). In a smart city context, solar energy
harvesting is an efficient and sustainable solution to power smart devices and infrastructure such as
streetlights, traffic signals, and sensors. It reduces the reliance on grid power, lowers energy costs, and
enhances the city’s overall sustainability.

Vibration Energy Harvesting

Vibrations generated by traffic, pedestrian movement, and other activities in the city can be captured
and converted into electrical energy using piezoelectric materials. This energy can be used to power
sensors and other low-power IoT devices. Vibration energy harvesting can be applied in smart city ap-
plications by converting the mechanical vibrations from vehicles, pedestrians, and other sources into
electrical energy to power devices such as wireless sensor networks, IoT devices, and structural health
monitoring systems (Luo et al., 2023). This reduces the reliance on batteries and grid power, enhances
sustainability, and improves the efficiency of city infrastructure.

Thermal Energy Harvesting

Thermal energy harvesting involves capturing the temperature differences between different parts of the
city and converting them into electrical energy. This can be done using thermoelectric materials that
generate electricity when exposed to a temperature gradient. Thermal energy harvesting can be applied
in smart city applications by utilizing the temperature differences between objects to generate electrical
energy. This can be used to power devices such as wireless sensors, IoT devices, and structural health
monitoring systems (Liu et al., 2023). For instance, temperature differences between buildings and the
surrounding environment can be harnessed to power building automation systems, reducing energy
consumption and enhancing sustainability.

Radio Frequency Energy Harvesting

RF energy harvesting involves capturing and converting the energy from wireless signals, such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular signals, into electrical energy. This technology can be used to power low-power
IoT devices such as sensors and tags. RF EH can be applied in smart city applications by utilizing the
energy from ambient radio frequency waves to power devices such as wireless sensors and IoT devices
(Liu et al., 2023; Zeb et al., 2023). This eliminates the need for batteries or grid power, which can be
expensive and difficult to maintain. RF energy harvesting can be used to power smart city infrastructure
such as streetlights, traffic signals, and environmental sensors, enhancing sustainability and reducing
energy costs.

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IoT-Based Energy Harvesting and Future Research Trends

Wind Energy Harvesting (WEH)

Wind turbines can be installed on buildings and other structures to capture the kinetic energy of wind
and convert it into electrical energy. This energy can be used to power IoT devices such as sensors and
cameras. WEH can be applied in smart city applications by using wind turbines to generate electrical
energy to power devices such as streetlights, environmental sensors, and other infrastructure. In a smart
city context, wind turbines can be installed on rooftops, lampposts, and other structures to take advan-
tage of the available wind resources. Wind energy harvesting can also be used in conjunction with solar
energy harvesting to provide a reliable and sustainable source of power for smart city infrastructure
(Wang et al., 2019; Yetgin et al., 2017). In totality, WEH is a promising technology that can contribute
to a more sustainable and energy-efficient smart city infrastructure while reducing the reliance on grid
power and lowering energy costs.

CONCLUSION

This chapter presented a clear trend of EH strategies in fulfilling the energy demands for prospective wire-
less sensor network installations. The WSNs sojourn attracted much interest from different shareholders
due to their design and implementation. This study investigated the energy harvesting node architecture,
EH hardware configurations, harvested amount of energy harvested together with the output. Moreover,
the prestige, potential, and anticipated essential uses in the future were discussed. Furthermore, some
open research issues that would need to be tackled have also been explored. Overall, EH, IoTs and WSNs
have depicted increased interest in academia and industrialization paradigms in the recent past. These
approaches can find numerous innovative applications and offer novel solutions to the problems identi-
fied, and thus deserve significant attention.

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Chapter 17
Future Indian Smart Cities’
Renewable Energy Scenarios
Manjulata Badi
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3196-8383
Alliance University, India

Sheila Mahapatra
Alliance University, India

Saurav Raj
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1875-3903
Institute of Chemical Technology, India

Swetha Shekarappa G.
Alliance University, India

ABSTRACT
Due to the growing energy shortage and rising global temperatures, sustainable development has
become more of a necessity than ever before. While renewable energy, sustainable energy resources,
and a focus on low carbon emissions in the power system all contribute to sustainable development,
these concepts must be coordinated if they are to have a lasting impact. These complications present a
new set of challenges in the process of integrating renewables to the existing grid structure, including
intermittency, system utilization efficiency, and others. The rest of this chapter deals with the topic of
sustainable development and explores the various options for shifting power generation from traditional
fossil fuel-powered sources to renewable energy. As renewable energy is employed, additional clean
energy such as solar energy, wind energy, and photovoltaic systems will be added to the existing grid.
There is another benefit to the net metering program.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch017

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

To comprehend the connection between smart city concepts and environmental sustainability, analyses
scientific research that are both focused on these topics. This chapter provides a thorough survey of the
literature on smart governance, which is defined as the use of technology to enable local governments
and citizens to work together to achieve sustainable development. In today’s data-rich economy, it helps
with policy creation and city planning. relating to smart sustainable cities, sustainable development,
and sustainability. The difficulties that must be resolved in order to advance towards future cities and
sustainable potential for smart cities. At this rate, the overall greenhouse gas emissions and fuel costs
will climb rapidly, necessitating rapid efforts to adopt renewable energy such as natural gas or electric-
ity. While renewable energy has numerous advantages, there are also significant drawbacks, such as the
lack of continuous supply, and as such, must be designed, planned, and controlled to achieve continuity.

Literature Review

The global economy has developed rapidly in the last decade, especially in emerging economies, and
this has resulted in a dramatic increase in energy requirements. Johnsson, Kjärstad, and Rootzén (2019)
describe the fossil fuel resources diminish, environmental protection and energy conservation are more
appealing. To reduce our dependency on fossil resources, we must decrease our consumption of energy
by implementing energy-saving programs that are applied in both industrial and domestic sectors. An
additional way to accomplish this goal is to use green energy, for stand-alone systems. Abujarad, Mus-
tafa, and Jamian (2017) elaborate one of the major drawbacks of renewable energy technologies is their
intermittent nature and green energy sources have some disadvantages, such as having a low-capacity
factor and requiring active storage systems. In addition, renewable energy sources eliminate the dangers
associated with atomic power, so socially speaking, it is seen as more advantageous to utilize renewable
energy power plants (Pradhan, Reddy, Roy, & Mohanta, 2011). Decisions made by governments and
businesses include deciding whether to put in place green energy. We discovered that wind power is
the most fuel-efficient power source, uses the least water, has fewer environmental impacts, and offers
numerous advantages to society, has a significantly higher capital cost. In the study of Cantarero (2020),
three major technological changes that include demand-side energy savings, green energy were factored
into a sustainable development of renewable energy. As assessed the effects of RE systems on various
areas of energy, the economy, and the environment include. By making advances in renewable energy
technologies, sustainable development can be accomplished while resolving several environmental
problems caused by energy issues. It is worth noting that when we use optimization algorithms to help
with the optimization of renewable energy systems, we’re getting results that are favourable (Hussain
et al., 2020).
According to forecasts, India’s energy demand will triple in just over two decades in Arent et al.
(2021). Additionally, existing traditional sources are responsible for both climate conditions and being
unlimited in capacity. Because of this, a different method of generation will be needed that is cleaner
and limitless. As of July 2019, total power generating capacity had been installed using renewable en-
ergy. India, a country rich in natural resources, has the potential to use renewable energy to generate
electricity on a massive scale. Kasdan, Kuhl, and Kurukulasuriya (2021) presents today’s technology
has made it possible to use these renewable resources more efficiently for electricity generation. India
has a competitive advantage in renewable energy production because of its plentiful natural resources.

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There are a wide variety of renewable energy resources available in India, including wind, solar, small-
hydro, biomass, tidal, and geothermal energy, and of those, wind and solar are the most popular. There
are many possible reasons for India’s focus on renewable energy, including its importance to the country.
A significant increase in renewable energy generation in India has been witnessed in the past decade.
From Tsung-Han, Bin, Shih-Ming, and Yen-Chiang (2020) and Reynolds, Boulding, Pollock, Sweet,
Ruiz, and Draeger de Teran (2020) shown in Figure 1, the nation’s total capacity of RE has increased.
The Indian government founded the of MNRE to help generate and deploy alternate energy sources, to
help meet the country’s energy needs. The firm has initiated a number of projects since its formation to
boost electricity generation from renewable energy. Also, it is less expensive to create resources over
time using renewable sources, in comparison to non-renewable ones. Kim, Park, and Lee (2021) presents
in India’s renewable energy potential is about 900 GW, split evenly between wind and solar with 12%
of wind power and 83% of solar power. Bioenergy sources contribute 3%, while small hydro makes up
2.2%. India has promised to help reduce environmental harm and has committed to increase the use of
renewable energy by 2030, when 40 percent of its energy generation will come from renewable sources.
India could be one of the world’s biggest producers of renewable energy if this ambitious goal is met.
As illustrated in Alemzero, Acheampong, and Huaping (2021) and Sawhney (2021), Figure 2, RES ca-
pacity factor by type of RE sources is listed. India has vast land areas that can be used for solar energy
generation. India’s sun exposure, moreover, is widespread.

• Many areas with strong wind speeds exist, and they could lead to increased wind energy generation.
• The decent annual biomass energy yield.
• And the nation’s numerous rivers and waterways, which can generate hydroelectric power on a
small scale.

With population growth limiting economic and industrial growth, the fact that the per-capita con-
sumption rate is rising rapidly is a major concern in Vaka, Walvekar, Rasheed, and Khalid (2020). The
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Gujarat states make up most of India’s 86.76 GW of renewable energy
capacity as of February 2020. Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan are some of the other top
states. Despite the fact that it has vast potential, only a few states have succeeded in generating enough
energy from renewable sources because of a lack of plans, policies, and regulations to promote their use
in Oehler-Şincai (2021). On several occasions, these power plants were set up on farmlands, which was
of benefit. Raising RE manufacturing with cropland may help generate a notable increase.

GLOBAL ASPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

The UN SDGs form a framework for governments to follow as they work to realize the objectives with
sustainability and environmental protection. Mukherjee and Chakrabarti (2004) describes the SDGs
have set the timetable for every nation to accomplish their potential by 2030, and the UN has interfered
to ensure that significant hurdles are resolved. The principle of “doing more and better with less” (Goal
12 of the SDGs) is focused on improving energy efficiency, sustainable infrastructure, consumption,
and production. While Goal 7 emphasizes affordable and clean energy for all, nations around the world
are struggling to make this a reality. More work is required, and additional private and public funds
should be allocated. Additionally, new models and regulatory frameworks must be implemented to meet

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

this goal. Almost 24% of the total energy consumed was generated by renewable sources, with the rest
coming from conventional sources. Fossil fuels make up a significant portion of energy production, so
global warming, climate change, and Environmental impacts are all triggered in a domino effect. The
Paris agreement’s primary goal is to prevent a global temperature increase of less than 2 degrees Celsius.
The mission also targets aiding nations in addressing global climate change. In Sim and Mills (2021) in
contrast to the many existing accords, the Paris Agreement implemented a bottom-up approach with the
national contributions of the signatories, in order to reach a target of 40% of its electricity from renew-
able resources by2030, India has agreed.
Some countries have yet to ratify the treaty despite its being signed by 185 countries. The United
States has announced its plans to disengage from the agreement by 2020, whereas China had met its
2020 target and European countries such as Sweden, Portugal, and France have achieved the most prog-
ress with 77%, 66%, and 65% respectively in Kazi, Short, Isafiade, and Biegler (2021). To satisfy the
demands and limit the effect of global warming, it is necessary to increase the share of renewables in
global energy production. Countries have developed a number of measures to enhance the penetration
of renewable energy into the energy mix. In the last decade, a lot of new policies in the world in support
of renewable energy have been adopted in the power sector, such as FIT introduction in 61 countries
and green certificate (Das, Shah, & Suyal, 2020). In 2017, 121 countries had renewable energy poli-
cies in place. Renewable energy production is growing by the day and in 2018, the global energy mix
includes 171 GW of new renewable energy with a growth rate of 7.9% due to the incorporation of solar
and wind energy. The global share of installed RE capacity is seen in Figure 4, where Asia is the leading
continent with 44% of the total. The three leading Asian renewable energy producers are China, India,
and Japan. According to Figure 5, the total installed capacity of some of the leading Asian countries
can be seen in the following Table 1. In Figure 4, China is shown to have huge potential in solar and
hydroelectric/wind power, renewable energy-producing countries. According to the country’s Energy
Information Administration, as of 2018, India’s installed renewable energy capacity is 695.86 GW, six
times the total capacity in (Priyadarshini 2021). To meet the target of sourcing 680 GW of power from
renewable sources, China’s 13th Five-Year Plan for Renewable Energy established a goal of obtaining
200 GW of hydropower capacity and 580 GW of other types of renewable energy. As shown in Figure 1,
Indian aspects of total capacity are represented. By 2020, the capacity of renewable energy sources will
be around 210 GW, with wind energy contributing about half of that amount. Even though renewable
energy capacity rose 12 percent in 2017, China’s total installed capacity was still 728 GW in 2018, up
from 693 GW in 2017. Various incentives are being provided to Chinese companies in order to lessen
the country’s reliance on foreign countries. In recent years, biomass capacity has soared, with 17.8 GW
of total installed capacity. Additionally, China’s self-defence energy policy seeks to extend its facilities
across the nation and promote the advancement of renewable energy technologies. Figure 7 demonstrates
the region’s renewable energy growth from 2010 to 2018. The regional RE generation from a variety
of sources in 2018 is displayed in Figure 7 (Andrew, 2020). North America’s renewable energy leaders
include the United States, Canada, and Mexico, where the USA boasts an installed renewable energy
capacity of approximately 245.24 GW as of 2018 in Gupta and Bonds (2020). Although the USA only
accounts for 14.6% of the gobal carbon emissions, it is the number one producer of renewable energy,
just behind China. The U.S. has a massive wind energy capacity of 314 GW. According to Majid (2020),
the government is expected to allocate resources to expand the wind energy capacity even further. There
has been a notable increase in the number of households that are going solar recently, including Solar-
City Corporation, in increasing the amount of solar energy that is used in American homes. According

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

to forecasts, solar PV production will increase to 48 percent of total renewable energy production by
2050, while wind is projected to amount to 28 percent and hydroelectric at 18 percent. Since additional
structures are unlikely, the hydropower has been limited. Renewable energy is projected to be the world’s
most plentiful energy source by 2030, accounting for half of the world’s energy supply. Renewable
energy production in Europe is led by Germany, France, Portugal, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark.
In Irfan, Zhao, Ikram, Gilal, Li, and Rehman (2020), with more than half of Sweden’s energy supply
coming from renewable sources, the country of zero emission. According to IRENA, an agency which
promotes renewable energy, it has an installed capacity of about approx. 30 GW. Since 1974, the country
has been a member of the International Energy Agency (IEA) and today’s lowest CO2 emissions are at
one-quarter of the United States. This has been possible because the country has promote nuclear power
over the last 30 years, as the country became less dependent on fossil fuels for energy production. While
the country’s energy supply is composed of over 68.6 TWh (Terawatt hours) of nuclear and conventional
sources, hydropower produces nearly 30% of the total. It has significant water resources, but despite this,
hydropower development is still limited as a means of preserving the big rivers. Even though the country
had already attained a 50 percent total energy production RE by 2012, it now aims to reach 100 percent
RE by 2040. The global aspects of total capacity of the countries in Africa in 2018 is illustrated in Figure
8. In the last year of 2018, Africa’s renewable energy capacity was 46,269 MW. African countries with
the most renewable energy production include Ethiopia, Egypt, Morocco, and South Africa. The charts
in Figure 8 demonstrate that the installed capacities in several African countries have been boosted by
RE. South Africa leads African countries in renewable energy output, and the National Development
Plan’s goal is to heavily invest in renewable energy capacity and generation by 2030. The necessity of a
mixed energy generation mix in the country, i.e., hybrid energy. A significant leap in renewable energy
capacity was noted between 2010 and 2015, during which the installed capacity of zero was raised to
7.3 GW. SADOE in South Africa has focused on growing solar panel use and ignoring the construction
of new nuclear power reactors. Nearly 20,000 MW of new power generation capacity was obtained via
27 renewable energy projects which is estimated to reach over 1.5 million people. South Africa has an
average of about 2,500 hours of sunshine every year. The country’s average solar radiation is 4.5 and
6.5 kWh/m2. At present, approximately 250 MW of solar PV capacity has been installed on rooftops.
Although some wind farms, such as Metrowin Van Stadens (27 MW), Jeffreys Bay (138 MW), and
Kouga, are not operational, they all hold the potential to generate wind energy. It is also able to produce
an estimated 2,500 MW of power. The government has set an ambitious goal of building 21.5 GW of
renewable energy capacity by 2030, and it’s working to increase the use of renewables, with plans to
ultimately decrease coal consumption.

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Table 1. Global increase in renewable energy sources from 2007-2035

Estimated Capital
Region 2007 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
%, 2007–2035
Hydro Energy
2999 3689 4166 4591 5034 5418 2.1
(HE)
Wind Energy (WE) 165 682 902 1115 1234 1355 7.8
Geothermal Energy
57 98 108 119 142 160 3.7
(GE)
Solar Energy (SE) 6 95 126 140 153 165 12.7
Other 235 394 515 653 773 874 4.8
Total 3462 4958 5817 6618 7336 7972 3.0

Figure 1. Global generation of renewable energy sources in billion kWh from 2007-2035

INDIAN ASPECTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

India makes steady progress while regularly setting targets to promote the use of renewable energy,
which aids in reducing carbon dioxide emissions and aids in slowing global warming and improving air
quality. The traditional vehicles and replacing them with electric vehicles by 2025. Though these initia-
tives have been adopted throughout India, renewable energy generation isn’t being distributed uniformly.
International Energy Agency (IEA). The future need for 90000 MW of electrical power will be met to
meet the basic requirements in 2035, as forecasted by the results of load forecasting. Early in the develop-
ment process, photovoltaic (PV) cells are more expensive and less efficient than other source of energy.

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

Switching to PV resources for electricity generation is encouraged by a decline in PV costs of around

80%. Many Indian states have implemented regulations that invite the private sector to boost RE gen-
eration and enable wheeling, banking, and reverse supply of electricity. Private firms are offered the
benefits to encourage them to join the deal. Because of the third party’s control of the network, buyers
and sellers can transmit power using the third party’s network. A form of renewable energy trading
referred to as “Bay back” exists. In certain states, generation capacity is far greater than in most other
states. RE capacity in India, as demonstrated in Figure 8, totals up to this presentation’s information is
derived from the MNRE report, which was published on February 29, 2020. It is shown that only 10
states in India generate more than 1,000 MW of renewable energy. Solar and wind energy generation
had a larger percentage of India’s total renewable energy generation. All 29 states in the country are
generated by the table. States in India are divided into those in the north, south, east, west, and central
and into the northeast or southern region, depending on where each state is located. The analysis of the
table shows that the north-eastern states have a deficient generation of 0 MW. The north-eastern states
of India have a very small amount of renewable energy sources (RES) generation, being provided by
a small-scale hydroelectric power industry. Their poor production is primarily due to the weather and
geographical features. Due to the country’s cold climate and wet summers, the generation of energy
through solar and wind is limited.
Because of this, the wind (WE) and solar (SE) exposure necessary to produce economically unfeasible.
According to 54° C, these states can reach a maximum temperature of 30 degrees Celsius. Nevertheless,
the greatest amount of precipitation occurs in the northeast of India, with an annual average of 11,418
mm. Because of an annual deluge and a wealth of river water, it is possible to get a generation of smaller
hydropower in these states. Goa’s smallest RE generation state. It is difficult to build anything there
because it is the tiniest state. As a coastal state, it has the option of harnessing wave and tidal power. The
problem has not been solved, owing of a lack of resources and the state’s policies.
Table 1 reveals that SE source and WE source generation is the greatest in southern states. The massive
generation is a result of the states’ climatic conditions and the government’s policies. There are several
different state-level organizations that are responsible for promoting and maintaining the green energy
by introducing new policies and promoting general awareness. From Table 1, we can see that most of
the states in which wind power is generated have a low MW. Even though India has plenty of wind, the
lack of instruments, money, and industry expertise has made things difficult. Problems with gaining grid
connection and construction approvals, as well as with R&D and the transmission infrastructure also
plague the situation. Due to these barriers, poor wind energy generation exists. Several states, including
(AP), (KA), (TN), (GU), (RA), and (MR), are overcoming electricity generation issues, but Maharashtra
leads the way with wind farm capacity of over 4000 MW. The quick winds in those regions have led to
a massive increase in offshore wind capacity, and new policies, such as offshore wind energy policies
and wind bidding schemes, have helped. As of month of Feb of 2020, the total green energy capacity in
India was 86.76 GW. Despite an increase in the potential for off-grid renewable power, the on-grid renew-
able power capacity has decreased. The top Indian states for renewable energy production are KA, TN,
and GU. The installed renewable energy capacity in KA, TN, and GU the three most populous states in
India is, respectively, 15,232 MW, 14,335 MW, and 10,511 MW. The progress of solar and wind energy
installation, as well as the current capacity of renewable energy resources. This meant that these three
states of India which were previously analysed and explained in detail became the context for the choice
we are currently discussing. It was determined how much progress had been made in each state as well
as which plants were involved in each renewable energy sector and what sorts of policies were in place.

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Hydro Power Source

The power produced by hydropower accounts can potentially supply up to 870 GW, or 17 percent of the
total power produced in the world. The remaining 10 percent of this power is produced through large
hydroelectric dams; by small plants with the run-of-river method, the remaining 10 percent is produced.
The long-term limitations of large hydro due to the fact that many large rivers have already been dammed
cannot be avoided.

Wind Power Source

Wind power technology, among all other technologies reviewed in this report, has the second-highest
rate of growth, at 34 percent annually. The technology is fully mature and straightforward, and exten-
sive experience is available in a few countries. Despite being limited to land, wind turbines have been
successful due to their large economies of scale. These have led to wind farms being deployed offshore.
However, the wind energy industry is still very competitive. In total, wind power currently provides
120 GW of installed capacity, or about 1.5 percent of the world’s total generation of electricity, with an
average capacity factor of 25 percent. The fastest-growing technology in the field is photovoltaic, with
annual growth rates of 40 percent. As one of the largest markets, the former place of prominence was
held by remote power supplies, but recently the developed countries have pursued the residential-roof
deployment programs, changing the scenario. It is difficult to know the global capacity of photovoltaic
modules because they are installed in small quantities. The current estimate is that 9 GW of them are in
use. Generation globally is 12 TWh if the average capacity factor is 15 percent.

Thermal Solar Power

Thermal solar power, also known as concentrating solar power, has attracted renewed interest in recent
years. The world’s existing 1.5 GW of solar power is produced by a combination of trough, dish, and
Fresnel systems in large-scale plants. Solar-power plants work well with standard thermal plants because
they can be used as energy-saving fuel alternatives. Capacity factors typically sit at 20 percent but can
exceed 40 percent when high-capacity heat transfer fluids are used for storage on an hourly basis.

Geothermal Power

Since 1920, geothermal power has been used for energy production. Some countries draw a high per-
centage of their electricity from geothermal reservoirs, though they only make up 10 GW globally. The
performance of a geothermal plant is dependent on the quality of the resource. For the sake of using
steam turbines, low-temperature resources must go through one or two flashing processes. Although the
global electricity generation rose by only 4 percent annually and was around 60 TWh in 2013, average
capacity factors of 70 percent are within reach, with 90 percent being possible. Despite its great technical
potential, geothermal power is hobbled by two major hurdles: the question of whether it can be economi-
cally used, and the very high cost of drilling. It takes only a short while before new oil wells are dug in.

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Biomass Power

Biomass power is not a primary application of biomass, but it is still used in a handful of industries,
including pulp and sugar manufacturing. The interest in alternative energy sources was spurred described
the 1980 reintroduction of biodiesel as an alternative energy source. Biomass is the leading alternative
power source option in use today. In the last 30 years, extensive research has been conducted on the
use of biomass to produce transportation fuels in researched the various methods of making bioethanol,
as well as the fuel’s global production trends. Biomass-based transportation fuels of the modern era
designed mathematical models for the generation.

Energy Mixed With Renewable Resources

Energy from renewable sources is produced by harnessing natural phenomena. Energy sources for these
technologies include solar radiation, wind, water flow, biomass, gravitational forces, and geothermal
heat. These resources are extremely powerful, though, due to their dispersion and the difficulties in
accessing them, they are hard to tap. Most of them are intermittent, and they also differ by region. The
most progress over the last few years has been the increase in efficiency.

Sustainable Development

It evolved at a faster rate than ever before over the past decades. New technologies, new climate knowl-
edge and new political and economic configurations make global energy systems assessments outdated
faster than before. As the industrial revolution started, many new and intensive systems, especially in
the low-power sector, began to develop quickly in the world. As evolution accelerated, humans began
to greatly increase their power output with the aid of technology. To reach various objectives, such
as generating electricity, heating enclosed spaces, or moving transportation vehicles, energy systems
typically combine different types of energy: thermal, mechanical, and electrical. A system-based ap-
proach to problem solving can be used because of the nature of energy systems. The decision makers of
energy systems often must consider multiple local, regional or global objectives (physical, financial or
environmental). In Chabhadiya, Srivastava, and Pathak (2021), sustainable development is an excellent
idea today, which involves pursuing a variety of objectives, including energy management, in various
economic activities. The transition to a sustainable path for the global energy system has been identified
as a priority policy objective. The deregulation of the electricity market requires efficient, safe opera-
tion and a simplified energy system that can respond quickly to changing circumstances. In addition,
it is necessary to coordinate different utility decisions affecting the same market. The issues of energy
system engineering, particularly at decision and planning stages. The authors are stated this additional
in-depth analysis and decision-making capability enables.

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

Figure 2. Electricity generation technology costs in United States in 2020-2050

Figure 3. Electricity generation technology costs in European Union in 2020-2050

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

Figure 4. Electricity generation technology costs of China in 2020-2050

Figure 5. Electricity generation technology costs of India in 2020-2050

INDIA’S RENEWABLE ENERGY SECTOR ARE

• In Thiruselvi, Kumar, Kumar, Lay, Aathika, Mani, and Show (2021), Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency Ltd. (IREDA) has called for bids from solar module manufacturers to set up
solar manufacturing(SM) at the cost Rs. 4,500 crore (US$ 616.76 million) (PLI) scheme, which
offers incentives for setting up new solar manufacturing units.

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

• The Competition Commission of India (CCI) approved Renewal Power’s existing shareholders’
swap of their equity in the company with shares of Renewal Global in June 2021. This move was
supported by the CCI, who additionally approved a reverse triangular merger of Renewal Global’s
subsidiary with RMG II.
• The India Renewables Dashboard was launched by CEA and CEEW-CEF in April 2021 to provide
details about India’s RE projects.
• In 2021, inviting stakeholders, including information received from energy transmission com-
panies, the Indian Reserve Bank, the HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, the industrial, solar and wind
industry and government associations.
• A Memorandum of Understanding on cooperation between India and the Franco-Republic in the
field of renewable energy was approved by the Union Cabinet in March 2021.
• A 40-percent subsidy plan for a 3 KW solar system in residences was initiated in March 2021 by
Haryana in accordance with the guidelines of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy for the
promotion of solar energy in the country. The installation of 4-10 KW solar systems by designated
companies is subject to a 20% subsidy.
• In March 2021, Gram Ojala, India’s most ambitious project to provide rural poor Rs. 10 LED
bulbs (USD 0.14), helping the country to advance its climate change and self-reliance policies,
came into effect.
• Besides giving the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) a capital infusion of Rs. 1 000 crores
(US$ 137.04 million), the Indian Government granted an Indian Renewable Energy Development
Agency Rs. 1.500 crores (US$ 205.57 million).
• Taxes on solar inverters(SI) increased from 5 to 20 percent to support domestic manufacturing,
while tariffs on solar lanterns increased from 5 to 15 percent.
• The 1,5-megawatt solar energy project in November 2020 Ladakh received at the Leh Indian Air
Force Station under the Make in India Center Government initiative.
• A $1.07 billion Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for five years to produce high effi-
ciency solar photovoltaic modules are set.
• On 17 November a memorandum of understanding with the Government of Goa was signed
between the Minister and venture RE Department (DNRE) energy efficiency services limited
(EESL), which discusses the launch of the first Indian Convergence Project in the state.

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

Figure 6. Total emission of India in 2011-2016

Figure 7. Sustainable development 2019-2050

The government announced in October 2020 that an inter-ministerial committee, Aayog would lead energy
modelling research and studies in the west, India plans to generate 30 GW in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The
Delhi government decides to turn the thermal power plant Rajghat into a solar park of 5,000 KW. The
Indian government proposes to spend $238 million for a national mission to advance ultra-supercritical
coal-cleaning technologies. In Badi (2012) and Shiva, Badi, Shekarappa, Babu, Mahapatra,Vedik, and
Rangarajan (2022), the Indian Railways is introducing an energy efficiency plan to reduce emissions
by 33% by 2030.

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Future Indian Smart Cities’ Renewable Energy Scenarios

Figure 8. Electrical generation capacity in GW from 2019-2016

FUTURE SCOPE

The development of renewable or sustainable energy systems depends greatly on energy policy. Policy-
makers need to build policies about the diverse options and thorough evaluations of numerous scenarios.

CONCLUSION

Nobody thought that until the 1960s there was a better way to generate power. Their highly integrated
nature makes them vulnerable to supply chain disruption. The paradigm of electricity delivery, in par-
ticular, falls short. Although these decentralized small systems are still in infancy, they have become
a viable alternative to the traditional centralized energy supply, which is more dependent on a single
source of energy. The scientists expected to decentralize the energy supply, which they believed would
be particularly beneficial to the environment. Due to the multiplication of technological options, decen-
tralized power planning is becoming more complicated and difficult to decide.

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Chapter 18
Smart Cities:
Operational Concepts for
an Elusive Framework

Nelson deMatos
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6263-5007
ESGHT and CinTurs, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal

Célia M. Q. Ramos
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3413-4897
ESGHT and CinTurs, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal

ABSTRACT
Human and technological development allowed cities to be built upon structures to increase the qual-
ity of life of their citizens. But evolution also brought challenges like high consumption patterns and
reduced natural resources. The chapter aims to provide common ground among the main concepts of
smart cities and shed light on the often-elusive framework of the “smart city,” highlighting the need to
incorporate a more holistic approach and integrate sustainable quality of life. A conceptual model was
proposed and discussed, framing the dimensions: nature, infrastructure, technology, services, sustain-
ability, and social. The influence of technology to better manage was also taken into account, without
neglecting the importance of efficiency and innovation in a holistic system. The conclusions reinforce the
composite nature, the need for more consistency, measurement scales, and the interconnectivity between
management and its citizens, which is needed for better population well-being.

INTRODUCTION

Since pre-historic times, the human species have had to adapt to environmental and life circumstances,
and the natural answer to those always-changing circumstances has been the creation and development of
place to live, habitations and cities (Schuurman, Baccarne, De Marez, & Mechant, 2012). Thus, nowadays,
like in the past, similar decisions are made by citizens striving for a large concentration of resources and

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch018

Copyright © 2023, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Smart Cities

facilities (Perera, Zaslavsky, Christen, & Georgakopoulos, 2014) with the cooperation and incentive of
governments, organizations, and agencies around the world, particularly in the western countries.
However, challenges arise since, according to the United Nations (2015) projections, the world popu-
lation (7.3 billion by mid-2015) show a tendency to grow. Consequently, local and national authorities
and organizations (private and public) will, like all citizens worldwide, be pressured constantly in every
aspect of their daily routine in the cities to keep their life quality. The pressuring dilemma lies in the
metabolism of cities, in which societal consumption transforms the input of goods and resources into
the output of waste (Albino, Berardi, & Dangelico, 2015) and pollution.
This predicament led since the late 90s some scholars, such as Graham and Marvin (2004), to address
the potential of technology to create better management systems and platforms to reduce consumption
and intensify sustainability potential. The Internet of Things (IoT) (Perera et al., 2014; Vlacheas et al.,
2013; Zanella, Bui, Castellani, Vangelista, & Zorzi, 2014) aims to “connect billions of sensors to the
Internet and expects to use them for efficient and effective resource management in Smart Cities” (Perera
et al., 2014, p. 1) presents itself as an opportunity to attain this objective, i.e., sustainability. Furthermore,
environmental concerns have dictated new trends in the citizens’ behaviour and caused changes in how
organizations, governments and agencies act to reduce those costs and consumption. Sustainability is
key, either through the promotion of natural capital and resources (Albino et al., 2015) or by the reduc-
tion of consumption (Caird, 2018).
In this environment characterized by rapid and complex societal changes, Smart Cities (SC) managers
and stakeholders are required to define strategies rapidly and incisively to improve performance, engage-
ment, and connection with its citizens in the urban setting. It also requires information and communication
technologies (ICTs) (McFarlane, & Söderström, 2017; Schuurman et al., 2012; Toppeta, 2010) to be
addressed, including problems related to management productivity through the different organizations
(Chourabi et al., 2012). However, despite societal and technological developments, a better understanding
and balance between these two parties, and how it contributes to a better management of SC is lacking.
The reason lies in the highly complex nature of SC, which consists of “a collection of elements that
act independently of one another but nevertheless manage to act in concert” (Mora, Bolici & Deakin,
2017, p. 3). Thus, the relationships between the various elements (e.g. ICTs, IoT) must be assessed with
more profundity, without neglecting the social perspective. As Turcu (2013) notes, a more anthropocen-
tric approach should be taken for cities to be able to respond to their citizens’ needs, which means SC
should provide sustainable solutions as inputs towards better and improved social and economic outputs
(e.g., live conditions). One such example can be found in Venezia or Florence in Italy, which strives to
keep the balance between the tourism economic and social development with the assistance of technol-
ogy to build and create a smarter city (Papa, Gargiulo, & Galderisi, 2013), to improve its conservation
(Lazzeretti, Capone, & Cinti, 2011), to improve human conditions (and quality of life) (Kummitha, &
Crutzen, 2017) and to contribute to environmental sustainability (Ahvenniemi, Huovila, Pinto-Seppä,
& Airaksinen, 2017).
This chapter seeks to provide a common ground among the main concepts of SC, regarding its defini-
tion, dimensions and influential factors, that considers the influential variables and the relation between
them. The study will be based on a review of the literature from 1997 to 2017. First, the origin and
development of SC will be introduced in section 2, followed by the various definitions and dimensions.
Next, the influential variables of SC are highlighted. Afterwards, a conceptual model is described in
section 3, encompassing the different perspectives reviewed under the literature review will be presented

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and discussed in section 4. In the end in section 5, some conclusions and implications to the academia
will be shown.

SMART CITY (SC) CONCEPT

Origin and Development of the Concept

The origin of the SC concept was initially used in 1994 (Dameri & Cocchia, 2013) to respond to a need
to frame the new understandings about urban and cities technological development (Anthopoulos, 2017).
As the author claims “smart city was not the initial term that scholars used” (Anthopoulos, 2017, p.
13). Only at the 1990s, did the scholars started using terms similar to SC, such as virtual city (see e.g.,
Graham & Aurigi, 1997) in their search for new definitions regarding the new period or era, in which
(among other) the technological progress, social and economic developments (e.g., globalization), envi-
ronmental concerns, were the main global topics. These challenges awoke the attention and support of
political forces, public and private organizations (e.g., IBM) and institutions (e.g., European Union) to
the SC “endeavor” (Zygiaris, 2013; Reddy et al, 2023). As seen in Figure 1, from the initial practices in
1994 (e.g. first digital practice Amsterdam), and 1999 at Dubai, to the primary SC attempts in creating
rankings by the European Smart city group in 2007 (e.g. Giffinger, Fertner, Kramar, Meijers, Pichler-
Milanovic, 2007) indicators (Urban indicators, UN-Habitat, 1996) and standards (ISO, 2014), overall
more than two decades passed.

Figure 1. Smart City evolution timeline

Source: Adapted from Anthopoulos (2017, p. 14)

In the late 90s and early 2000s, Graham (1997, 2002) accompanied also by Marvin (see Graham
& Marvin, 1999, 2004), brought forth several seminal books and papers addressing: a) the integration
of telecommunications b) the development of network infrastructures and the technological mobilities
(within the urban planning scope), with the purpose of offering a comprehensive theoretical and practical

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understanding on the cities at that time, but also about the future, i.e., cybercities. Hence, the continu-
ous efforts from scholars and several organizations (e.g. United Nations) permitted the development of
a more robust and sounder theoretical framework.
On the other hand, it also led to the first conflicts with grey literature technicians and researchers,
i.e., research and technical documents produced by governments, agencies or organizations external to
the mainstream and traditional academic and/or commercial channels. As point by Mora et al. (2017)
in their literature review of 1067 documents, which included academic and grey literature, SC research
was found to be fragmented and to lack cohesion. Moreover, two distinct developments were found by
the authors, one supporting a holistic perspective on SC, originating from peer-reviewed publications
produced by European universities, and the other relating to a technocentric view of the construct, by
American business communities within the grey literature. Nevertheless, despite the conflicts arising
from different perspectives, the theoretical body of knowledge continued to evolve, and new trends
became evident. According to Chourabi et al. (2012) these trends focused on the conjugation of three
different perspectives: (i) digital city – which argues that the Internet-of-Things and all the technology
has an ubiquos communication (Khan, Khan, Zaheer, & Khan, 2012; Perera et al., 2014; Schaffers,
Komninos, Pallot, Trousse, Nilsson, & Oliveira, 2011), (ii) green city – which seeks the integration
of environmental and sustainability concerns (Kramers, Höjer, Lövehagen, & Wangel, 2014) and (iii)
knowledge city - where the knowledge, skills, information, efficiency, planning associated with cities
organizations’ management are central elements (Kramers et al., 2014).

Defining Smart City (SC)

The SC concept remains, after three decades (Hanley, 2017) a relevant, popular and fast-growing topic
(Mora et al., 2017). In Table 1 it is possible to see the evolution of the definitions presented overtime
regarding SC. Consequently, Albino et al. (2016, p. 4) opinion is that SC is a fuzzy concept to the degree
that “the range of conceptual variants is often obtained by replacing “smart” with alternative adjectives”,
such as intelligent or even digital. Another critic offered, is the repetitive reference (direct or indirect)
to cities’ performance, as one of the main goals for cities to be “smarter” (Castelnovo, Misuraca, &
Savoldelli, 2016). In spite of these diverging positions, other authors such as Chourabi et al., (2012, p.
2289) argue that “One way to conceptualize a smart city is as an icon of a sustainable and liveable city“.

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Table 1. Definitions of a smart city

Construct Definition Literature Source

A city well performing in a forward-looking way in these six characteristics [smart economy, smart Giffinger, Fertner, Kramar,
people, smart governance, smart mobility, smart environment, and smart living], built on the smart Kalasek, Pichler-Milanović,
combination of endowments and activities of self-decisive, independent and aware citizens. and Meijers (2007, p. 11).
Harrison, Eckman, Hamilton,
A city “connecting the physical infrastructure, the IT infrastructure, the social infrastructure, and the Hartswick, Kalagnanam,
business infrastructure to leverage the collective intelligence of the city”. Paraszczak, and Williams
(2010, p. 2)
“The use of Smart Computing technologies to make the critical infrastructure components and Washburn, Sindhu,
services of a city––which include city administration, education, healthcare, public safety, real estate, Balaouras, Dines, Hayes and
transportation, and utilities––more intelligent, interconnected, and efficient”. Nelson (2010, p. 2).
“A smart city infuses information into its physical infrastructure to improve conveniences, facilitate
mobility, add efficiencies, conserve energy, improve the quality of air and water, identify problems and Nam and Pardo (2011, p.
fix them quickly, recover rapidly from disasters, collect data to make better decisions, deploy resources 284).
effectively, and share data to enable collaboration across entities and domains.”
“Smart city as a high-tech intensive and advanced city that connects people, information and city
elements using new technologies in order to create a sustainable, greener city, competitive and Bakıcı, Almirall, and
innovative commerce, and an increased life quality with a straightforward administration and a good Wareham (2012, p. 139).
maintenance system”.
“Being a smart city means using all available technology and resources in an intelligent and coordinated Barrionuevo, Berrone, and
manner to develop urban centers that are at once integrated, habitable, and sustainable.” Ricart (2012, p. 50).
“A smart city is understood as a certain intellectual ability that addresses several innovative socio-
technical and socio-economic aspects of growth. These aspects lead to smart city conceptions as
“green” referring to urban infrastructure for environment protection and reduction of CO2 emission,
“interconnected” related to revolution of broadband economy, “intelligent” declaring the capacity Zygiaris (2013, p. 218).
to produce added value information from the processing of city’s real-time data from sensors and
activators, whereas the terms “innovating”, “knowledge” cities interchangeably refer to the city’s ability
to raise innovation based on knowledgeable and creative human capital.”
“Smart Cities initiatives try to improve urban performance by using data, information and information
Marsal-Llacuna Colomer-
technologies (IT) to provide more efficient services to citizens, to monitor and optimize existing
Llinàs, and Meléndez-Frigola
infrastructure, to increase collaboration among different economic actors, and to encourage innovative
(2014, p. 618).
business models in both the private and public sectors.”
Source: Author’s elaboration.

Each definition listed in Table 1, presents a perspective which not always is congruent, therefore,
based on the previous authors’ definitions in Table 1, a word cloud generator was used to retrieve the
most common, frequent, words authors employed, which can be seen in the Figure 2, where it is possible
to distinguish three main words: City, Smart and Information. Topics central to SC and the informa-
tion era. However, in a second level of less frequent words, words such as: innovative, data, intelligent,
improve and urban can be seen. All these words, can be useful words to understand the concept of SC.

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Smart Cities

Figure 2. Words employed to define SC

Source: Author’s elaboration using word cloud generator.

Nevertheless, another approach could be attempted, one, which proposes a definition in which, based
on the theoretical framework and the previous words found, a new definition can be presented:

A smart city uses tangible and intangible capital, to design critical infrastructures and implement ac-
tivities with the use of ICT, in an innovative, intelligent and optimized way, so that citizens may be more
informed and their quality of life improved in a more sustainable urban environment.

The author’s proposed definition, which will be used in the present paper, denotes the importance
of comprehending the tangible (e.g., waste, water, electricity systems, housing) and intangible (e.g.,
security, skills, well-being) capital, but it also highlights the need to design and plan infrastructures
and activities (both at the core of the SC concept). Moreover, it reinforces the role of innovation and
technology, to provide more efficient, sustainable and liveable cities for its residents, and at the same
time with environmental concerns and quality lifestyles.

Smart City Multi-Dimensions

The SC dimensions are a topic for intense debate among scholars with several assuming different positions.
Among these, Giffinger et al. (2007) presented six categories of SC: governance, economy, mobility,
people, environment and living. Later, Mandelson and Bradshaw (2009) added four more dimensions,
to a total of 10 dimensions SC needed to consider: education, innovative services, health, ICT literacy,
effective use of resources, public administration, regional economics, public safety, culture and recreation.
Contrasting to these positions, Nam and Pardo (2011) only suggested three dimensions: technol-
ogy, people and institutions. Their model established a direct relationship between the people and the
technology dimensions, as the drivers of change in the economy, environment, and community of SC.
Lee, Hancock, and Hu (2014) on the other hand, developed an enlarged conceptual framework with five

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dimensions: urban openness, service innovation, partnership formation, urban proactiveness, smart city
infrastructure integration, and smart city governance. For the latter, they suggested five more subdimen-
sions: smart city strategy, a dedicated organization for promoting the smart city, smart city development
and management processes, smart city principles, performance measurements.
Calzada and Cobo (2015) decided to explore and debate a cross-disciplinary research agenda about
the hyper-connected societies and their digital natives. The authors suggested unplugging to be an
advantage, and provide a conceptual framework with ten dimensions (who, how, systems, governance,
information, what, space, design, socio-political processes, political economy) “…comprised a complex
interdependent corpus driven by human-interaction meta-factors” (Calzada & Cobo, 2015, p. 37). Over-
all, the scholars’ descriptions and arguments extend from the number of dimensions and Helixes (see
e.g., Lombardi, Giordano, Farouh, & Yousef, 2012), since other comprehensive dimensions, such as the
sustainable economy, governance, and ICT, among other, could be suggested (Tachizawa, Alvarez-Gil,
& Montes-Sancho, 2015).
However, drawing on the definitions presented earlier and on the author’s different perspectives, it
is argued that SC dimensions could be grouped into six main clusters: a) Nature, b) Infrastructure, c)
Technology, d) Services, e) Sustainability, f) Social. As seen in Figure 3, management is a central element
influencing all the six dimensions, since managers will influence the degree of resources’ consumption,
processes used, technologies and services employed, and the level of sustainability that can be reached
to attain better social quality of life. However, the dimensions in the figure still miss an order regarding
their ranking and interrelationship.

Figure 3. Six dimensions of a smart city

Source: Author’s elaboration.

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Smart Cities

Therefore, as shown in Figure 4, SC development could be regarded as a flow in which a process

composed of several steps (six), with each step representing an element of a whole organic entity (i.e.,
SC). To reach the end of the process, it would be necessary throughout all the steps to increase the in-
novation effort (as the arrow at the bottom shows), the level of efficiency would also increase (as the
arrow on top shows). At the same time, the organic entity (SC) needs to perform several actions (e.g.
from input data to output indicators) to improve the city development and its management throughout
all the six dimensions.

Figure 4. Six dimensions flow of a smart city

Source: Author’s elaboration.

Thus, at the beginning of the flow is the nature-based dimension, which is composed of the nature
elements (e.g., water, sun, wind) and resources (e.g., energy, water, food) upon which society and cities
rely on the survive. The second dimension is infrastructure, upon which society trusts to accomplish their
daily tasks and everyday life (e.g., roads, ports, airports, water, electricity power). The third dimension,
technology (e.g., ICT, IoT, Mobile phones, cars, planes) supported the human progress, helped in the
transformation of raw materials into goods and services. It permitted humans to have higher mobility or
assisted in the building of infrastructures, an increase the life expectancy.
The fourth is services (economy) since SC and society, in general, rely on planners, managers, tech-
nicians to get the job done (e.g., human resources, skills, education). But particularly, economies and
societies (including human resources education and training) which are constantly changing and being
dominated more and more by services. Sustainability is the fifth dimension since one of the main con-
cerns SCs have is to attain a higher level of sustainability due to the scarcity of resources and overflow
of waste, pollution. The sixth, social dimension, the goal of SC and their citizens is to attain good living

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conditions and potentially people well-being. This dimension is at the top of the flow because it is the
cities’ fundamental or ultimate goal.

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

Drawing on a range of theoretical and a wide body of knowledge approaches (Albino et al., 2015; Cal-
zada & Cobo, 2015; Hollands, 2015), it is argued in the following conceptual model (see Figure 5) the
positive relationships (e.g., technology effects positively infrastructures) between the diverse dimen-
sions that compose the SC concept, i.e., six dimensions (nature, infrastructure, technology, services,
sustainability, social).

Figure 5. Six dimensions smart city conceptual model

Source: Author’s elaboration

Nature dimension is one of the foundations upon infrastructures are created, and technology oper-
ates. In effect, raw materials, roads, habitations, cities, to name a few, are built and developed after the
transformation of natural resources. These natural resources are transformed using technology to create
the infrastructures to support the human life, and humans’ desire and need to construct and live in large

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cities. Technology influences not only the capacity of cities dealing with the citizens demands (Harrison
et al., 2010; Perera et al., 2014; Vlacheas et al. 2013; Zanella et al., 2014), particularly ICT (Ebrahim &
Irani, 2005; Mandelson & Bradshaw, 2009), which functions as a key driver of SCs (Hollands, 2008).
The infrastructure dimension consists of a housing, building, roads, ports (i.e., man-made) structures
indispensable for day-to-day tasks. The technology is considered to support services, infrastructure, nature
and social, as a way to increase human well-being. (Chourabi et al., 2012; Gil-Garcia, & Pardo, 2005;
Scholl, Barzilai-Nahon, Ahn, Olga & Barbara, 2009). The services, in which governance policies are
defined to increase the economy growth, efficiency (i.e., education, skills, and training), together with
leadership and better decision-making, are critical aspects for the success of any SC, contributing to the
development of sustainability and at the same time to the social conditions of the population. These two
dimensions infrastructure and services affect directly sustainability.
After SC reach satisfactory levels of sustainability, better living conditions can be provided for its
citizens – social dimension (Giffinger et al., 2007; Turcu, 2013). This dimension impact on citizen’s
quality of life, but also, on their community participation and on governance actions. In this regard,
Chourabi et al. (2012, p. 2292) affirm that “Addressing the topic of people and communities as part
of smart cities is critical, and traditionally has been neglected on the expense of understanding more
technological and policy aspects of smart cities.” All of these six dimensions need to be managed by
the organic Smart City entity and corresponding decision-makers. Moreover, all parties need to work
together to increase the efficiency and the innovation inputs for a better quality of life of the SC residents
and visitors (e.g. tourists).
In sum, while these are all important factors, other factors (e.g., culture, use of ICT, the role of
formal and informal institutions, stakeholders’ goals) and their relationships are also important, thus
more opportunities for debate arise. In this regard, Hajduk (2016: 36) reminds that “The smart city is
an integrated and comprehensive vision of all aspects of urban life.”

DISCUSSIONS

The theoretical approaches and a wide body of knowledge show the complex transformations underway
in SCs. These transformations have their origin in key areas, such as Technology, Nature, Infrastruc-
ture, Governance, ICTs or IoTs. For instance, Chourabi et al. (2012) reminded of the importance of
governance and proposed eight pre-conditions for its implementation, collaboration, leadership and
champion, participation and partnership, communication, data-exchange, service and application in-
tegration, accountability, transparency. A key task to accomplish higher levels of governance is using
ICT. Several authors (Albino et al., 2015; Calzada & Cobo, 2015; Caragliu, Del Bo & Nijkamp, 2011;
Hollands, 2015) have addressed this element, particularly Graham and Marvin seminal book in 1996,
“Telecommunications and the City” which provided the first critical and state-of-the-art review of the
relations between telecommunications and all aspects of city development and management. Another
important element is the IoT, which theorizes people and things must be connected (using any network
or service) at any moment or place.
This ideology faces a new and emergent challenge, the need for better and more reliable infrastructures
since most of those platforms are now based on cloud technologies (Perera et al., 2014). On the other
hand, it also requires ICT programs to improve the skills of employees and technicians. Ebrahim and
Irani (2005) suggested in this regard, that challenges can be grouped in IT skills (education and training

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for employees) and organization dimension (more cooperation, coordination). Gil-Garcia and Pardo
(2005) call for managerial and organization success relying on the theoretical framework.
However other debates need to be addressed, in particular, certain areas are fertile grounds for the
SC development, such as Nature’s preservation, and safekeeping of fauna and flora, efficient use of land
and water. Infrastructures affect transportation (by land, sea and air), everyday life routines, water, and
food access, infrastructure’s capacity or availability. Technology, needs to assimilate more integrated
systems, for instance, the use of sensors related with pollution indicators, security, weather, quality of
the air, traffic flows, residents (Rao et al., 2022). (e.g., sensors, Wi-Fi, network).
Services, adoption of best practices for planning, managing and operating, establishing comparable
indicators and standards, improvement of human resources. Sustainability, reduction of consumption
patterns, more and better regulation for environmental protection and preservation, waste policies, pol-
lution surveillance, fair trade policies. Social, quality of life, equality, education, safety-related to health,
terrorism, hackers, privacy threats.
Other implications were found from the literature review, such as:

1. SC concept is difficult to frame, since SC is composite (amalgamated of other disciplines, areas,

like for example, engineering, ITC, Social Sciences) by nature, complex, and multifaceted. In ad-
dition, more global views taking a holistic approach are missing;
2. Consistency and standards are lacking among the body of knowledge – due to grey literature bring-
ing different and contradictory arguments and perspectives conflicting with the academic view;
3. The measurement of SC (e.g., indicators, indexes, standards) are complex, reflected on the difficulty
scholars and practitioners have to measure it, on one hand, due to the singularity of each SC, and
on the other hand, due to the goals, visions, values, each SC wishes to attain;
4. More interconnection and linking between SC and its citizens are needed, this can be supported
by ICT and IoT, for the citizens to be more informed and knowledgeable.
5. Scholars and practitioners need to take into consideration several elements, dimensions when
addressing the smartness of their city. They also need to monitor the inputs and outputs of their
policies on the citizen’s liveable conditions.

Cities and their citizens will always be consumers of resources (Albino et al., 2015), which increases
the challenge to make cities more sustainable. As Chourabi et al., (2011, p. 2289), notes “Making a city
“smart” is emerging as a strategy to mitigate the problems generated by the urban population growth and
rapid urbanization”, but it also demands the development of a more livable city for its citizens.

CONCLUSION

This paper attempted to clarify the meaning of the concept SC. Despite its youth when compared to
other traditional constructs (e.g., economics), its relevance and importance are evident within the new
social, technologic, economic, and environmental scenario, i.e., high-population density, climate change,
scarcity of natural resources, economic crisis, starvation, energy efficiency, pollution. The goal of this
paper was to provide a common ground among the main concepts of SC. Thus, an all-inclusive definition
was proposed, including not only the tangible and intangible elements of a city but also the planning,
managing, and control that every SC should have, including the relevant role of innovation and technol-

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ogy. The multi-dimensional perspectives from the different scholars were also explored, and a similar
all-inclusive suggestion of six dimensions (Nature, Technology, Infrastructure, Services, Sustainability,
Social) was made, without disregarding other sub-dimension (innovation and efficiency). It was also
highlighted, that several dynamic elements (i.e., always changing) must be accompanied continuously,
due to their nature and influence on SC success and competitiveness.
In effect, it is essential to have an adequate SC management to transform the physical space and
engage all the dimensions into a holistic system, to preserve the nature and to contribute to changes in
the human quality of life.
The study’s limitations are bound by the nature of the paper, conceptual, confining the implications
presented. Also, governance and legal dimensions are not explored with depth. The cities to become
smarter, i.e., SC, also need in the future to identify and anticipate their citizen’s behaviour, taking in
consideration their emotion and soul states, especially regarding how information is sought, perceived.
It is also important to assess, how the available information impacts on the citizen’s expectations, and
afterwards their city experience, with the aim to predict their mood at the moment or the next day. In other
words, cities are dynamic places in which different organisms, need to interact and relate with intelligence
and knowledge. They also need, better and more tools to measure the SC inputs and outputs. As a future
work, an empirical study should be developed with all performance indicators considered pertinent, to
assess and monitor all the six dimensions, variables, indicators considered to investigate the satisfaction
level of the population with the SC system as a whole. In the end, each specific dimension considered
in this study can be evaluated and monitored to measure more effectively the SC as a holistic system.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This chapter is financed by National Funds provided by FCT - Foundation for Science and Technology
through project CinTurs (UIDB/04020/2020).

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Chapter 19
Artificial Intelligence and
Machine Learning Approaches
in Smart City Services
Mona Bakri Hassan Dahab
Sudan University of Science and Technology, Sudan

Elmustafa Sayed Ali Ahmed

Red Sea University, Sudan

Rania A. Mokhtar
Taif University, Saudi Arabia

Rashid A. Saeed
Taif University, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT
Recently, the concept of smart cities has been linked to artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, which
greatly help in improving the efficiency of various applications related to smart cities and the green
environment. Machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) techniques play an important role in up-
grading the design of control and management systems at various levels in many smart city applications
such as transportation, public safety, smart energy, and building automation. This chapter introduces the
concept of artificial intelligence technologies and their uses in smart cities and their methods in many
related applications, in addition to challenges and future directions for using artificial intelligence to
provide smart city services.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-0744-1.ch019

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Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Approaches

INTRODUCTION

Artificial intelligence (AI) approaches such as machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), are embrace
a much of promises for handling activities and automation in smart cities. The aim of the smart cities is
to offer efficient services to the public by implementing modern data analytics and technologies (Ullah
et al., 2020). There are several benefits of smart cities such as enhance city planning and development,
E-government services delivered faster and at a lower operating to citizens, enhance safety and security,
manage waste for energy and fuel, manage waste water to be treated, smart meters, smart grid and many
more (Pradeep et al., 2019).
By 2030, AI is predicted to allow over 50% of smart cities services, amongst which urban solu-
tions for mobility, significantly contributing to sustainability, vitality, resilience, and social welfare of
urban life. Using AI and ML in smart cities will improve the personalize services delivery, help makes
expectation and forthcoming services predictions. Also, simulate the utilization of different strategies
beforehand applied (Pradeep et al., 2019). Moreover, it will enhance the city’s finance management via
predict target and expenditure management. ML and DL in smart city would completely influence the
environment through waste, traffic, and energy management. Furthermore, it would increase production
of employees with the assistance of effective services and products which will increase the economic
capital growing of the city’s (Elmustafa et al., 2021).

Figure 1. Classification of AI technologies in a smart city

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Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning Approaches

AI allowing smart cities solutions including noise and traffic congestion, more efficient energy,
water and waste management, reduced pollution. It is the science of simulating intelligence in machines
and program them to emulate human actions. As shown in Figure 1, AI technologies in smart cities
could be classified into AI/ML, natural speech, expert system, expert systems, robotics and language
processing (Elmustafa et al., 2021). The major goals of AI are learning, reasoning and perception. The
different growing field of AI used in many fields including medical, robot control, finance, remote
sensing, semantic web, computer vision, virtual reality, game theory and more fields. AI is predicted to
support sustainable development of future smart cities (Ullah et al., 2020). AI approaches such as ML
and DL enable to provide many intelligent services in smart cities which could be classified in to seven
categories as follows:

• For governance including tailored funding provisioning, urban planning, disaster management,
and prevention (Mansour, 2021).
• For live ability, healthcare, safety, and security including smart monitoring, noise management,
personalized healthcare, and enhanced cyber security (Mansour, 2021).
• For education and citizen participation including actionable and validated knowledge support for
making decisions (Nada, 2022).
• For economy including resources efficiency and enhanced affordability through, customers tai-
lored solutions, effective supply chain and sharing services (Aswathy, 2022).
• For mobility and logistics including smart routing and parking assistance, supply chain resiliency
and traffic management, autonomous and sustainable mobility (Nada, 2022).
• For infrastructure including optimized infrastructure deployment, use and maintenance as well as
transportation, energy grids, waste and water management, and urban lighting (Aswathy, 2022).
• For the environment including air quality management, biodiversity preservation and urban farm-
ing (Nada, 2022).

Due to the great improvement that ML/DL algorithms can achieve in developing many smart city
applications and services. It is important to highlight some important roles and methods of integrating
AI into smart city applications. Accordingly, concepts about these roles and methods are presented with
the review of some applications and their challenges as well as future directions, as they are presented
according to the following organization, Section 2 provides a background and some related works to the
AI in smart cities. The roles of using AI techniques in smart cities services are reviewed in Section 3.
The use of ML and DL approaches in addition to their integration to smart cities are discussed in Sec-
tions 4 and 5 respectively. Section 6 introduces the ML and DL services in some important smart city
applications. The challenges of using AI in smart cities and future directions are reviewed in Section 7.
Finally, the chapter is concluded in Section 8.

BACKGROUND AND RELATED WORKS

Recently, AI/ML have been utilized extensively in smart cities projects and research. AI encourages ef-
fectively and enhance the life quality for the cities of the future by illustrating huge resources pools and
merging modern robotics, machine vision, ML, neural language processing (NLP) and other technolo-
gies (Reham et al., 2022). Smart cities initiative in many countries are currently focus on DL and ML

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services. Conferring to the statistics in Washington DC, by 2030, the ML/AI industry would be grow
up to $200 billion. In 2023, the global investment in AI and cognitive systems would grow up to $60
billion, with AI/ML being adopted in up to 75% of the city applications (Ali, 2021).
While China has the highest smart cities number in the globe, that govern cities and public places by
using cameras, embedded sensors, metering equipment, and many others monitor techniques in addition
to AI/ ML-based data analytics technologies (Reham et al., 2022). The forthcoming paragraph will be
discussing the related work that AI and ML used in smart cities.
In study by Zaib Ullah et al. (2020), authors present the smart cities concept and the implementation
realization for modern big data analytics methodologies. Also, they explore the role of AI, ML, and
Deep Reinforcement Learning techniques in different applications in smart cities. Moreover, they present
deeply the services of the prior methods in smart grid energy-efficient utilizations, intelligent transpor-
tation system (ITS), cybersecurity, effective use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to guarantee the
best utilization of 5G and beyond (B5G) network, and Intelligent healthcare systems for a smart cities
(Nada et al., 2022). Finally, they determine different research challenges and future research directions
trends for implementing the prior techniques in smart city.
Pramathi and Vindhya (2018) represent all the main areas of AI/ML. Also, it determines deeply
in various ways of applying smart cities challenges and its probable solutions. With the technologies
implementations including recognize images, big data analytics, patterns recognition, DL/ANN, many
issues relating to traffics management, waste and water management, parking, industrial and education
sectors which could be determined proficiently (Alatabani, 2021; Pradhan et al., 2022).
Trevor et al. (2018) have shown a brief review to discover different significant and essential issues of
smart cities. Some of the challenges have been discussed to ensure data security and privacy, networks
protection against probable attack, encouraging responsible and mature data share philosophy, and
implement of AI/ML/DRL methods for that.
Badri and Prangya (2019) present a survey for ML applications in smart city, ML algorithm that
provides services in smart city. Selecting appropriate algorithm could give a great results for some of
the crucial issues. Big data is required for ML algorithm accuracy. ML has a challenge due to variety,
velocity and volume of big data management to attain suitable and good decision for various algorithms
to have appropriate results (Ashu et al., 2021).
Daniel Luckey et al. (2020) identifies objectives of smart monitoring, serving as a basis to categorize
Artificial Intelligence algorithms or Machine Learning algorithms for smart monitoring. Also, an over-
view of Machine Learning algorithms used for smart monitoring is presented, providing an overview
of using Machine Learning algorithms in smart monitoring that may be modified to achieve Artificial
Intelligence in civil engineering.
Nosratabadi et al. (2019) present an overview and describe the benefits of using DL and ML algo-
rithms in smart city. Also, they present new applications of using ML and DL in urban sustainability
and smart cities. From study, it approved that five DL and ML methods is the most applied to address
the different aspects of smart cities they are support vector machines decision trees, ensembles, Bayes-
ians, hybrids, neuron fuzzy, artificial neural networks (ANN), and deep learning as well as it discover
that DL and ML methods contributed to solve the problems in the main domains of smart cities such as
health, energy and public transport (Nalluri et al., 2019).
M. Batty (2018) explained relationship between AI and smart cities and proposed ML techniques
for real-time city applications. In study by Ebenezer et al. (2018), authors determine the benefits and
challenges of smart cities. Also, they discusses future production of smart cities and characteristics of

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smart city. Sweta et al. (2020) proposed a survey on usage of Deep Learning in Smart City data as well
as several future research directions on deep learning on smart city applications are suggested.

ROLES OF AI IN SMART CITY

A smart city is a smart physical, civil and economic infrastructure that provides innovative technology
for a number of applications related to utilities and transportation. This promotes improved quality of
life, ease of living, economic growth, and sustainable development (Shahab et al., 2022). The general
roles of implementing smart cities is related to building three layers, namely:

• A technical database of smartphones and sensors that produce data and are connected to high-
speed networks.
• Fast computing and data processing systems to process raw data and give alerts.
• Technology platforms for people to interact with various smart applications that help make better
decisions and change behavior.

The above mentioned roles are strongly related to AI technology, because its enables an intelligent
way and decisions related to different smart cities application such as, traffic management, environment
conservation, public transport, healthcare, waste management, and security. For traffic management,
AI algorithms help solve congestion in intelligent traffic management systems by informing drivers of
roadblocks and delays. The use of machine learning can also predict and reduce traffic (Othman et al.,
2022). Deep learning can work on building systems capable of significantly reducing road accidents by
using systems for detecting traffic violations, cameras, and analysing the information collected through
these devices. It also enables live updates about public transportation, improving timeliness and customer
satisfaction.
For the roles of environment conservation, AI can be used to analyse citizens’ energy usage data and
determine where to use renewable energy sources with the aim of reducing energy waste. It also helps in
analysing and predicting pollution levels, which will help the authorities to make the most appropriate
decisions for the environment (Othman et al., 2022; Mamoon et al., 2022). The roles of AI in healthcare
section, its enable the patient monitoring systems to detect chronic conditions in advance and help pre-
vent them. In addition, ML and DL enable to provide health reports of citizens by analyse the medical
report and provides consultations.
In the security field, cameras that support artificial intelligence detect criminal behaviour and report
it to the authorities immediately. It also enables the recognition of human faces and compares them with
a database to track their identity and authenticate the entry of a person into the city or restricted areas.
Smart cities based on AI roles can play a pivotal role in transforming urban areas to increase the standard
of living and build economic growth (Othman et al., 2022).

ML AND DL APPROACHES IN SMART CITIES

Recently, DL and DL methods are contributed to the advancement of models in the different aspects of
prediction, planning, designing and analysis of smart cities. ML is a subset of AI which provides system

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the ability of learning automatically by accessing the data provided and implementing it to learn for
themselves and to enhance performance without being programmed (Ebenezer et al., 2018).
Machine learning is one of the technologies that is coming to contribute in deploying the smart cities
in all phases. Application domains include the main aspects of the smart cities such as healthcare, energy,
education, homes, transportation and pollution as shown in Figure 2. Also, it is contributing techniques
to improve society and useful to identify malicious in cyber world (Ebenezer et al., 2018). The diagnosis
is a critical phase which comes to ensure the achievement of a project in reality of the city diagnosed,
also, this step requires an important financial commitment.
ML methods are divided into four categories including supervised, unsupervised, Reinforcement
Learning and Deep Learning. It already gained the attention of the researchers involved in smart city
with other advanced technologies like Internet of Things, big data, cloud computing, or analytics. Deep
Learning (DL) is a ML technology which is used to extract insights from data, thus helping in better
decision making (Elmustafa et al., 2021).

Figure 2. Applications of machine learning

BENEFITS OF INTEGRATING ML IN SMART CITIES

Using ML in smart cities has multiple advantages to human interaction. From an eco-friendly environ-
ment to sustainable environment, using ML comes with various types of benefits.

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A. Environmental Impact

One of the key disadvantages of industrial cities environment the CO2 emission which would be the
main motivation behind the fast growing of sustainable and smart cities.

B. Optimized Energy and Water Management

The smart and grid water management are foremost influences that support to produce energy with
low pollution. Also, it benefits of getting clean healthy water for drink.

C. Transportation Systems

Efficient and clean transportation of people, services and goods are crucial for the smart cities. In the
optimism of improving mobility, several cities were utilizing AI technologies to less traffic congestions
and afford customers with real-time updates.

D. Advanced Security and Public Safety

The safety of the people is at highest priority in the smart cities. The ML-enabled environment of
smart cities are tolerating municipalities for better citizen’s monitor thanks to CCTV cameras with im-
age recognition (Othman et al., 2022).

ML/DL SERVICES IN SMART CITIES

Using ML/DL in smart cities will improve the life, if we implement in the right way. There are many ap-
plications in cities or in urban zones where ML and DL could be implemented to enhance the efficiency
and performance of the eco-system (Ullah et al., 2020; Mamoon et al., 2022). In general, cities purpose
are becoming smart and sustainable, which have to become more sustainable, attractive, balanced and
inclusive for the public. Figure 3 shows categorization of AI services and applications for smart cities.
As it becomes an agenda of several governments all around the world. The citizen’s satisfaction is one
of the main demands in terms of effective services, security, decent and comfort transportation, etc.

Figure 3. AI smart cities applications

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Intelligent Traffic Management Control System

Transportation plays an important role in smart city planning. It will be used for better city transport ser-
vices for public, automatic vehicles positioning systems, and gathering over-the-air data and information,
which to be utilized and shared over screens and displays at bus stops, in the bus as well as website and
mobile. Also, it can solve the city congestion problems by updating the drivers with roads situations and
latency (Adnane et al., 2021). It could estimate and decrease traffic by utilizing DL algorithms, which
can assist to lower emissions of carbon. Also, it can reduce the accidents in the highways by configuring
AI-enabled surveillance systems, radars, sensors, and traffic and weather information along the road.

Figure 4. AI for intelligent traffic management system (traffic monitoring example)

Vehicles detection in ITS is a crucial aspect in guaranteeing safety of the roads as it is essential for
vehicles flow monitoring, illegal vehicles type detections, incidents detection and vehicles speed pre-
diction. Despite the grow and popularity in smart cities research, there are still several challenges and
problems that need be resolved. The usage of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) could be utilized
for the vehicle’s detection from roadway cameras output to implement video signal processing methods
for features extraction (Lina et al., 2022). Such DL approaches provide solutions that have recently been
utilized for vehicles detection such as radars and supersonic suffer a serious limitations in its capabil-
ity to measure significant factors in traffic monitoring which are needed to precisely evaluate traffic
environments (Shahab et al., 2022). For example, a traffic camera can be placed directly across the
bidirectional highway enabling monitor of the traffic both day and night to monitoring traffic as shown
in Figure 4. Deep learning can process image data to build a model that can rate vehicle detection by
analysing standardized vehicle detection image datasets.

Security and Public Safety

Security and public safety in cities have been basically enhanced by utilizing CCTV camera with image
and face recognition feature. An AI-enabled surveillance systems recognize the pattern and forecast
potential criminal activities and implements security and safety measure (Shahab et al., 2022). The ap-
plication of AI-based security camera has demonstrated to be a game-changer in offering fast responses
at the threat times at businesses and institutions premises. A smart cities are supposed to support reliable,

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safe, and secure connected relays, sensors, and actuators to collect, manipulate and transmit informa-
tion to confirm efficient and trusted digital applications. This interconnectivity of different nodes has
unlocked up cyber-security challenges that require to be addressed and improved (Trevor et al., 2018).
Most of the information and data are produced by cloud-based IoT nodes that accomplish a crucial role
in various services in smart cities.
For public safety and security, human behaviour recognition applications are one of the most important
issues. AI techniques enable to recognition of the motion patterns of persons in video surveillance captured
from several types of sensors. It also works on adaptive information merging to combine features and
action recognition of sensors for optimizing video sampling and joint recognition of the adaptive weight
of each action recognition sensor (Nosratabadi et al., 2019). In addition, these technologies help in the
retrieval and viewing of data for long video clips. ML algorithms enable to detection of the motion of
long video by optimizing the detection of Spatio-temporal points of interest. Figure 5 shows intelligent
human behaviour recognition as an example for AI-based Public Safety and Security applications.

Figure 5. DL approach for intelligent human behavior recognition

DL methodologies assist to simplify state-of-the-art solutions to deal with the problematic issues of
smart services in dense urban and which are related to the transportation, security, people, and environ-
ment. These methodologies assist to enhance data manipulation and convert it into suitable information
and implement cognitive intelligences for a sustainable city (Khalifa et al., 2022). Lately, the mixture of
ML and DL methods have become more common as an unsupervised learning techniques to recognise
objects and patterns through video footages in various Services, giving high recognition capabilities
with a precision of more than 85%. Deep learning techniques analyse integrated and aggregated big data
associated to cloud computing, sensors, videos, images, and resources management method to develop
several smart operations related to prediction and detection.

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Smart Energy Metering

Using ML in smart grids will improve the safety of power grids and enhance performance management.
Smart grids could make intelligent meter measures for large data amounts to predict and assess require-
ment responses and cluster loading. Forecast models could be setup on the grid platform to predict
the requirement and price of energy for specific time zone (Rania et al., 2021). The internet of energy
(IoE) is one of the modern technologies to provide smart solutions for the two-way flow of energy and
information in the Internet style, and it is considered an extension of the smart grid. Figure 6 shows an
example of IoE based energy management system.

Figure 6. IoE-based energy management system

Smart metering technology plays a sufficient role in IoE in that it enables the automation of smart
consumption metering and energy sensing systems with electronic or electromechanical components,
helping consumers manage and optimize energy resources in both different commercial and residential
applications.

Building Automation Systems

The goal of a smart building is to achieve better energy management reduce costs and carbon emissions,
helping organizations achieve cost and sustainability goals. Also, create more enjoyable and comfortable
management working environments. Moreover, better systems optimization results in better uptime and
productivity for systems and users (Shahab et al., 2022; Rania et al., 2021). For instance, retailers and

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stores owners’ can utilize sensors for tracking peak time when individuals come across the stores, as
well as near areas of the public gravitate. Through utilize of ML and DL, the data is produced can as-
sist to generate reliable forecasts and track annually, weekly, and daily differences (Rania et al., 2021).

Water Management Plan

An intelligent water management systems are an efficient in enhancing water quality in a city without
exposing water distribution and pressure. Many cities have on-began to apply the smart meters to avoid
possible leakages across underground water cylinders. Water supplies and protection are crucial part for
dense urban cities sustainable living (Shahab et al., 2022). The action of installing a water management
systems such as smart meters is useful to track-down the water consumptions as well as enterprises,
households, and industries average consumption, which can be assessed by using ML techniques. Also,
forthcoming consumption statistics could be assessed through ML algorithms implemented into histori-
cal data.

CHALLENGES AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

There are several challenges of using ML, and DL in smart cities such as, hardware installation and
maintenance costs, physical damage to AI equipment, and automation,

Hardware Installation and Costs of Maintenance

Generally, AI and ML technologies work via surveillance camera and sensor. This high-tech equipment
required an expensive cost, particularly in public services. This equipment is regularly maintained which
will lead to recurring costs. It is important to have a plane for implementation to analyse future costs
(Zhou et al., 2021). Although of this high cost, in due course, AI techniques improve the procedures of
smart city efficiency and this will lead to an increase the revenues.

Physical Damage or Stealing of AI Equipment

Physical damage such as natural disasters can destroy AI equipment due to setup in the risk areas. Also,
these equipment are an exhibition to theft on some time, based on location and accessibility (Freire et
al., 2021). It is necessary to plan the proper setup locations and keep in mind the weather effect.

AI Automation in Smart City

AI automaton is a complete stack of AI companies that provide the capability to adopt AI and ML. It
provides end-to-end services like Data Labelling, Model Deployment, and Application Development.
Also, it could carry AI technical and software real-world solutions use in Smart cities accessibility (Freire
et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2019). AI techniques are being applied to implement applications in smart
cities to reduce the local wealth and resources drain and improve applications. Lately, the educational
system is modernized with e-learning systems that allow humans to learn everywhere over the internet.
Transportation and mobility platforms have also developed, and engineers are still conducting various

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studies to manage traffic in cities. AI/DL is inflowing the security sectors to publics protection to improve
several IoT-based platform. With the start of IoT-based systems, intelligent systems for cyber-security
were developed very quickly (Zhang et al., 2019). All countries have faced a health pandemic since the
outbreak began, rising complex economic, ethical, and social challenges.

CONCLUSION

AI and ML techniques are currently an important part for cities and industries. There are many types
of research are focused on this field around the wide world. Using AI, ML, and DL in smart cities cre-
ates a positive impact on the environment, and cyber-physical space that includes traffic management,
monitor health, road safety, industrial control systems, water resource management, e-mobility, public
safety, and law enforcement, newer automation system, reduce the accident and monitor the traffic in
the urban cities. It participates in various fields of smart city such as traffic management, public safety
and security as well as smart building and other applications.

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400

About the Contributors

Hemant Kumar Reddy received his M.Tech and PhD. and from Berhampur University, BhanjaVi-
har, India. He is currently with the VIT AP University Andhra Pradesh, India, as an Associate Professor
Grade-II. Currently serving as an Associate Editor, Journal of Intelligent Fuzzy System (JIFS). He has
published several papers in High-Quality SCI/SCIE/ESCI Impact Factor Journals cum Scopus/ESCI
indexed Journals, 25+ Papers in International Conferences indexed with ACM, Springer, IEEE Xplore.
His current research interests include distributed and cloud computing, fog computing, IoT, Edge, Fog
computing, and service-oriented architectures.

Diptendu Sinha Roy was born in India. He received his B. Tech from Kalyani University in 2003
and subsequently his M. Tech and Ph.D from Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, India in 2005 and
2010 respectively. He is currently with the National Institute of Technology, Meghalaya, India Dr. Sinha
Roy’s research interests include distributed, grid computing, Cloud computing, Fog computing, software
reliability and optimization in engineering. He also works towards design and analysis of distributed
infrastructure of power systems.

Tapas Mishra completed his Ph.D. in the year 2017 from Indian Institute of Technology, Dhan-
bad, India. Now he is working as an assistant professor at SRM University, Andhra Pradesh, India. His
research area includes quality of service in Ad hoc and sensor networks, localization of sensor nodes,
recommended system, Robot navigation using artificial intelligence, Internet of things. He has more
than 20 international journals and conference publication in his name.

Mir Wajahat Hussain was born in Jammu & Kashmir, India. He received the B.Tech. degree from
University of Kashmir, India in 2014, and the master’s degree and Ph.D. from the National Institute
of Technology Arunachal Pradesh and National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, India in 2017 and
2021. He is currently with the Alliance University, India, as an Assistant Professor. His research interests
include software-defined networks and big data.

***

Rania Abdelhameed Mokhtar (Member, IEEE) received the B.Sc. degree in electronics engineering
(computer engineering) from the Sudan University of Science & Technology (SUST), Khartoum, Sudan,
in 2001, the master’s (Diploma) degree in information technology (advanced networking and telecom-
munications) from the International Institute of Information Technology (I2IT), Pune, India, in 2003,

About the Contributors

and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in
2005 and 2010, respectively. In May 2009, she earned the IEEE Wireless Communication Professional
(IEEE WCP) certificate in the Wireless Communication Engineering Technology (WCET) Exam. Cur-
rently, she is an Associate Professor at Department of Computer Engineering, College of Computers and
Information Technology, Taif University. She has published over 30 scientific papers and two books.
She was awarded the Elsevier Foundation Award for Women in Engineering, in 2017

Manjulata Badi has done her B.E. in Electrical Engineering from Biju Pattnayak University of
Technology, Rourkela, Odisha, India in 2005. Thereafter she has completed her M.Tech in Control and
Automation specialization from National Institute of Technology, Rourkela in 2012. Currently she is
pursuing PhD and working as a Assistant Professor in Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department
of Alliance University, Bangalore. She is a life time member of ISTE and IAENG professional bodies
including her research areas are Power System Optimization, Evolutionary Computing Techniques.

Mona Bakri Hassan received her M.Sc. in electronics engineering and telecommunication in 2021
and B.Sc. (Honors) in electronics engineering and telecommunication in 2013. She has completed Cisco
Certified Network Professional (CCNP) routing and switching course and passed the Cisco Certified
Network Administrator (CCNA) routing and switching. She has gained experience in network operations
center as a network engineer in back officece department in Sudan Telecom Company (Sudatel) and
in vision valley as well. She has also worked as a teacher assistant in Sudan University of Science and
Technology, which has given her a great opportunity to gain teaching experience. She published book
chapters, and papers on wireless communications and networking in peer- reviewed academic interna-
tional journals. Her areas of research interest include cellular LPWAN, IoT and wireless communication.

Elijah Blessing Rajsingh is the Registrar of Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences and
Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering. He received his Ph.D. degree in
Information and Communication Engineering from the College of Engineering, Anna University, India in
2005. His research areas include network security, mobile computing, wireless and ad hoc networks, grid
computing and pervasive computing. He is an Associate Editor for International Journal of Computers
and Applications, Taylor and Francis and a member of the editorial review board for many peer-reviewed
journals. He is a member of IEEE, ISTE and has served as an International advisory board member for
various International conferences.

Prasit Chakraborty is associated with Brainware University.

Niranjan Chiplunkar is currently Principal of NMAM Institute of Technology, Nitte and Professor
in Computer Science and Engineering in NMAM Institute of Technology. His research areas include
algorithm design for VLSI CAD, multicore architecture, program optimization, Ad-Hoc networks, Wire-
less Sensor Networks, E-learning and Advanced microprocessors. Dr. Niranjan has published “VLSI
CAD” (PHI Learning Publications,2011) and “CAD for VLSI” (2007). Dr.Chiplunkar has achieved
“Excellent Achievement Award” by Center for International Corporation on Computerization (CICC),
Govt. of Japan, in 2002.

Gobinda Das is associated with Brainware University.

401
About the Contributors

Shiplu Das is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering.

Nelson deMatos is an Assistant Professor at ESGHT, where he teaches several curricular units in
Marketing and Tourism. He holds a doctoral degree in Tourism from UAlg and is a member of CinTurs.
He has held various marketing management roles in the hospitality and services industry and has partici-
pated in various business projects as a marketing consultant and trainer. His main research interests are
in the areas of Marketing (namely brands and consumer behaviour), tourism (namely smart cities and
tourism experience), and neuromarketing. He is the author of publications in scientific books and journals.

Mathew F. is an undergraduate student from Mepco Schlenk Engineering College.

Swetha Shekarappa G. received her B.E. Eng. Degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering
from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India in 2010. She received her M. Tech in 2012
from Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India. She is pursuing PhD in Alliance University,
Bangalore, India. Her area of interest includes power system optimization, FACTS devices, renewable
energy, distributed generation, Swarm and evolutionary optimization techniques.

Abraham George is Professor and Head of the Department of Computer Science and Information
Technology at Alliance University, Bangalore. Dr. Abraham George earned his Doctorate degree in
Computer Science from University of Louisville, USA and Master’s degree in Computer Science from
Ball State University, USA. Dr. George has over a decade and half of industry experience in multinational
companies such as Kyocera and National Instruments. Primary areas of interest of Dr. George include
wireless networks, distributed computing, and Machine Learning. His work has been published in re-
puted journals such as Elsevier and IJPCC. He has several publications in top rated IEEE conferences.

Vrinda Gupta received her Bachelor’s degree in Electronics Engineering from Nagpur University
and a Master’s and a Ph.D. degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering from Kurukshetra
University and National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, respectively. Dr. Vrinda Gupta has worked
as an Engineering Teacher for over 27 years. Dr. Vrinda is currently heading the Department of Elec-
tronics and Communication Engineering at the National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra and is an
Associate Professor. She previously worked as a Lecturer at Banasthali Vidyapith (1988-1990). She has
teaching and research interest in the field of Communications Networks and the Internet of Things. Dr.
Vrinda has authored more than 65 publications. She is a Reviewers’ Committee member of some SCI/
Scopus-indexed Journals. She has chaired the Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Division
sessions at National and International Conferences. She is a member of professional societies, viz. IEEE,
IETE, IAENG, and Fellow of IE(I).

Deva Priya Isravel is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Computer
Science and Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences. She is presently pursuing her
Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering in KITS. She received her Bachelor of Engineering degree
from Anna University in 2005. She received her Master of Engineering from Karunya University in 2008.
Her areas of interest include computer networks, wireless sensor networks and software defined networks.

402
About the Contributors

Rajashree Jain is a veteran academician with more than 20 years of experience. She is associated
with Symbiosis Institute of Computer Studies and Research for more than 17 years. Her expertise is in
the areas of electronics, Entrepreneurship, Logic Development. She also has essayed various roles at
IEEE Pune Section for ore than 10 Years.

Bishwanath Jana is associated with Brainware University.

Kassim Kalinaki is a technology enthusiast, researcher and lecturer with more than 5 years teach-
ing experience and currently pursuing his PhD in Computer Science at Universiti Brunei Darussalam
(UBD). He completed both his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Computer Science and engineering
with technical education at the Islamic University of Technology (IUT) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Prior to
embarking on his PhD career, he served as the HOD computer science at Islamic University in Uganda
(IUIU l. His research interests include: Cybersecurity, IoT, computer vision, Machine learning and deep
learning, Remote sensing, digital image processing and data analytics.

Senbagavalli M. received doctoral degree in Computer Science Engineering (Opinion Mining of

Health Data for Cardiovascular Disease Diagnosis Using Unsupervised Feature Selection Algorithm)
from Anna University. She also holds an M.E. degree in Computer Science and Engineering from Anna
University and a B.E. degree in Information Technology from Periyar University. Dr. Senbagavalli has
close to two decades of teaching experience in subjects likes computer networks, object oriented pro-
gramming (C++ and Java), object oriented analysis and design, visual programming, career develop-
ment program - aptitude, reasoning and technical, C# and .Net, software testing, software engineering
and quality assurance, design and analysis of algorithms, computer organization and architecture, data
modelling and optimization, operating system, problem solving using C, fundamentals of data model-
ling. Her research area includes data mining, big data analytics, machine learning, deep learning, and
IoT. Dr. Senbagavalli has presented and published papers in national and international conferences and
reputed journals focusing on data mining, big data analytics, cloud computing, and opinion mining.

Sheila Mahapatra received her B.E degree in Electrical Engineering from Utkal University, Orissa,
India in 2002. She received her Master’s degree in Power System & Automation from GITAM, Andhra
University, Vizag, India in 2008. She received her PhD from The North Cap University, Gurgaon, Haryana.
Currently, she is working as an Associate Professor and Head Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, in Alliance University, Bangalore. She is a lifetime member of IET. Her area of interest
includes power system optimization, stability and control, evolutionary computing. (IEEE TPEC).

Ghalia Nassreddine is an Associate Professor at the Jinan University, Lebanon. She is a Ph.D holder
in information technology and systems from University of Technology of Compiegne, France since 2009.
Currently, she is serving as a chairperson in Business Computing School in Jinan University of Lebanon.
She is currently doing a lot of research in Machine Learning, education and Dempster Shafer theory.

Sumathi Pawar did her PhD in NMAMIT, Nitte under the guidance of Dr. Niranjan N. Chiplunkar.
She completed her M-Tech in NITK Suratkal. Dr Sumathi has got research experience of 15 years and
teaching experience of 22 years. She has published 25 research papers published in various journals
and conferences.

403
About the Contributors

Samaya Pillai Iyengar is a full-time faculty in Symbiosis Institute of Digital and Telecom Manage-
ment, Symbiosis International University, Pune (India). She holds MCA, MCM and MPhil degree under
the Faculty of Management. She is Perusing her PhD with (Savitribai Phule Pune University) SPPU,
Pune University under Computer-Management. She has 18 years of teaching experience with specialisa-
tion in databases. Her research interests focus around computer sciences and big data domains. She has
taught subjects in programming -Java, Python, C. Databases –Oracle, MySQL, MongoDB, Operating
Systems, MIS, Basic Statistics, and Networking etc. She has 8 publications in Scopus. 10 Papers in
Conference proceedings.

Buddhadeb Pradhan is Associate Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering.

Vamsi Punugoti received his B.Tech degree in and Electronics and Communications Engineering
from Lakireddy Balireddy College of Engineering, Mylavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India in 2022. Currently
he is pursuing his Master Degree in Communication Systems from National Institute of Technology
Kurukshetra.

Pradnya Purandare is an assistant professor at Symbiosis Centre for Information Technology, Sym-
biosis International (Deemed University), Pune, India. She has about two decades academic and research
experience in information technology area. Her major research area publications are in IT Project Risk
Management. She has published several research papers in international journals and participated in
IEEE and other conferences.

Rajagopal R. completed his Ph.D. degree at Anna University, Chennai. He has received his post-
graduation and bachelors from the Computer Science and Engineering also from Anna University,
Chennai. He served as a reviewer for Inder Science and other prestigious Scopus-indexed journals. He
serves on the editorial board of the International Journal of Mathematical Sciences, Engineering, and
Sciences Publication. Dr. Rajagopal has published in more than 50 international journals and presented
in many international conferences. His research interests include cloud computing, high performance
computing, big data analytics, and algorithms.

Saurav Raj has done his B.Sc. Engg. in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from R.P. Sharma
Institute of Technology, Patna, India in 2012. Thereafter he completed his Ph.D. degree in the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering at IIT(ISM) Dhanbad, India in 2018. Currently, he is working as Assis-
tant Professor in the Institute of Chemical Technology Mumbai, Marathwada Campus, Jalna, India. His
areas of interest include power system optimization, reactive power planning, Swarm and evolutionary
optimization techniques and FACTS devices.

Célia M. Q. Ramos graduated in Computer Engineering from the University of Coimbra, obtained
her Master in Electrical and Computers Engineering from the Higher Technical Institute, Lisbon Univer-
sity, and the PhD in Econometrics from the University of the Algarve (UALG), Faculty of Economics,
Portugal. She is Coordinator Professor at School for Management, Hospitality and Tourism, also in the
UALG, where she lectures computer science. Areas of research and special interest include the conception
and development of information systems, tourism information systems, big data, etourism, econometric
modelling and panel-data models. Célia Ramos has published in the fields of information systems and

404
About the Contributors

tourism, namely, she has authored a book, six book chapters, conference papers and journal articles. At
the level of applied research, she has participated in several funded projects.

Manjula Rao has did her PhD in RV College of Engineering. She completed her M-Tech in NMAMIT,
Nitte. Dr Manjula has got research experience of 10 years and teaching experience of 20 years. She has
published more than 25 research papers published in various journals and conferences.

Aashrit S. is working on IoT. He is currently a student at SRM AP.

Rashid A. Saeed received his Ph.D. in Communications Network Engineering, Universiti Putra
Malaysia (UPM). Currently, he is a professor in Computer Engineering Department, Taif University. He
is also working in the Electronics Department, Sudan University of Science and Technology (SUST).
He was a senior researcher in Telekom Malaysia™ Research and Development (TMRND) and MIMOS.
Rashid published more than 200 research papers, books, and book chapters on wireless communications
and networking in peer-reviewed academic venues. His areas of research interest are around wireless
communication network. He is successfully awarded 13 WO, EP, CN, MY patents in these areas. He
supervised more than 50 MSc/Ph.D. students. Rashid is a Senior Member of IEEE, a Member in IEM
(I.E.M), SigmaXi, and SEC. Rashid co-founder and Technical Committee Chair (TPC) of International
Conference on Computing, Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ICCEEE) in Sudan. ·He is an edi-
torial board member in the journal of advances in computer sciences, and editor in Scientific African
(SCIAF) journal. He is a guest editor in many journals.

Elmustafa Sayed Ali received his M.Sc degree in electronics and communication engineering from
Sudan University of Science & Technology, in 2012. He worked as a senior engineer at Sudan sea
ports corporation (SPC) for five years as a team leader to plan and execute a new projects in wireless
networks (Tetra System, Wi-Fi, WI-Max, and CCTV). He has also worked as a senior lecturer, and a
head of Electrical and Electronic Engineering dept., Faculty of Engineering, Red Sea University. He
has published more than 45 research articles and book chapters on wireless communications systems
and networking in peer-reviewed academic international journals. His research interests include routing
protocols, computer and wireless networks, the IoT applications, underwater communications, and artifi-
cial intelligence (AI) in wireless networks. He is a member of IEEE Communication Society (ComSoc),
International Association of Engineers (IAENG), Six Sigma Yellow Belt (SSYB), Scrum Fundamentals
Certified (SFC), and Sudanese Engineering Council (SEC).

Wasswa Shafik, IEEE member, P.Eng, received a bachelor of science in Information Technology
Engineering with a minor in Mathematics in 2016 from Ndejje University, Kampala, Uganda, a master
of engineering in Information Technology Engineering (MIT) in 2020, from the Computer Engineering
Department, Yazd University, Islamic Republic of Iran. He is an associate researcher at the Computer
Science department, Network Interconnectivity Lab at Yazd University, Islamic Republic of Iran, and
at Information Sciences, Prince Sultan University, Saudi Arabia. He is the author and co-author of more
than 80 papers in IEEE/ACM/IET/CRC press/IGI-Global/Wiley/Springer/Elsevier journals, conference
papers, books and book chapters. His areas of interest are Anomaly Detection, Drones (UAVs), Machine/
Deep Learning, AI-enabled IoT/IoMTs, IoT/IIoT/OT Security, Cyber Security and Privacy. Shafik is the
chair/co-chair/program chair of some Scopus/EI conferences. Also, academic editor/ associate editor

405
About the Contributors

for set of indexed journals (Scopus journals’ quartile ranking). He is the founder and lead investigator
of Dig Connectivity Research Laboratory (DCRLab) and the Managing Executive director of Asmaah
Charity Organisation (ACO).

Archana Sharma, PhD (Computer Science) in Mobile Database, is distinguished Academician with
overall 27+ years of experience of different hierarchy levels in Institutes/Organizations and having suc-
cessfully covered various work areas in academics and excelling in each with commendations as Star
Performer and Distinguished Academician & Researcher Award. Her area of expertise includes Database,
IoT, Cloud and Blockchain. Further, She has authored Text Book for UG/PG Students and published/
presented more than 50 research papers and several Book Chapters in reputed Journals indexed in Scopus.
She has participated and successfully completed various FDPs conducted by ATAL (AICTE Training
and Learning Academic). Her research focus towards the various dimensions of IoT implementations
like Industrial IoT for digital transformation of Industry, Role of IoT and Cloud to build up the Smart
City, Cloud of Things and Blockchain revolution.

Shivam Sharma is associated with Brainware University.

Salaja Silas is currently working as a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineer-
ing, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences. She received her Bachelor of Engineering Degree in
computer science and engineering with Distinction from the University of Madras, India in 2000. She
received her Master of Engineering Degree with Distinction from Madurai Kamaraj University, India
in 2002. She completed her Ph.D. in computer science and engineering in 2012. Her research interests
include computer networks, pervasive computing, cloud computing and data analytics. She has a good
number of publications in peer-reviewed journals and is a reviewer in the Journal of supercomputing
and Journal of Cluster Computing, Springer publications.

Arun Raj V. is currently working as an Assistant Professor/ECE, Mepco Schlenk Engineering Col-
lege (Autonomous), Sivakasi.

Sanath Kalyan Veereju received his B.Tech degree in and Electronics and Communications Engi-
neering from Gayatri Vidya Parishad College for Degree and PG Courses (A), Visakhapatnam, Andhra
Pradesh, India in 2020. Currently he is pursuing his Master Degree in Embedded Systems Design from
National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra.

Joumana Younis received her PhD degree in Information and Communication Technology, Managerial
Innovation from the CNAM University France; Doctorate in Business Administration (DBA) in Human
Resources at ASMP University - France. Executive Doctorate in Business Administration (EDBA) in
Entrepreneurship at Montpellier University - France. Former Dean of the Faculty of Sciences at Jinan
University. Actually she is the Dean of Business Administration at Jinan University for undergraduate,
graduate, and post-graduate degrees, in addition to the DBA program in partnership with ASMP.

406
407

Index

5G Networks 135, 137-139, 141, 144-149, 151-155, D

157-162, 171-172, 351-352
Data Availability 48
A Data Privacy 23, 38, 40, 206, 219, 231
Data Security 26, 36, 38, 72, 90, 116, 230-231, 239,
Artificial Intelligence (AI) 11, 22, 46, 48, 115-117, 245, 248, 286, 342
122, 128, 130, 146, 159, 205, 339-340 Data Transparency 230
Attacks 24, 33, 36, 78-79, 85-88, 96, 144-145, 174, 178, Deep Learning 18, 31, 35, 38, 45-48, 51, 82, 91-92,
189-191, 193, 197-199, 202-203, 220, 228, 231 116, 119-120, 125, 127, 130, 156, 161, 172-173,
189-194, 196-198, 200, 202-204, 269, 287, 339-
B 340, 342-344, 346-347, 350-352
Deep Learning Algorithm 189
Big Data 17, 19, 22-24, 33, 35-36, 55-56, 60-62, 69- Devices 2, 5-7, 9-12, 15, 18, 22-27, 29-30, 32, 50,
74, 83, 89, 94-96, 98, 100, 103, 124, 133, 140, 55-59, 61-67, 70, 75, 78-79, 81, 84-88, 90, 93,
149, 172, 186, 203, 207, 230, 238, 245-249, 305, 95, 100-101, 103-104, 108, 111-112, 121, 124,
342, 344, 347, 352 131-132, 135-137, 140-141, 143-148, 151-161,
Blockchain 23, 73, 77-78, 82-83, 89-90, 92-93, 95-97, 173, 183, 189-192, 196, 198, 204-205, 215-220,
133, 159, 205-214, 217-236, 239-241, 243-249, 224, 237, 251-257, 259-260, 263, 266-268, 276,
350 280, 282, 284-285, 288, 293-301, 304, 306, 343
Digital twin 19-37, 47, 126, 337
C Digitisation 19
Disease Diagnosis 38, 63, 72, 92, 204
Centralized 62, 66, 99-101, 103, 107-111, 113, 140- Distributed 5-6, 10, 14, 16-17, 47, 55, 72, 99-101, 103,
142, 161, 206, 208, 212, 221, 237, 239-240, 242, 106-107, 110-114, 133, 143-144, 156-158, 209,
251, 269, 298, 320 212, 219, 221, 228, 231-233, 251, 260, 269, 275,
Cloud Computing 22, 54-55, 59-60, 62, 65, 71-73, 87, 277-278, 280, 287, 307, 312
91, 93, 148, 153, 156, 159, 171, 173, 178, 207, Distributed Energy Sources 307
219, 246, 260, 262, 344, 347 Drug Traceability 228, 230, 239, 242-244, 247-249
Cognitive Radios 135, 138-139
Communication 4-6, 23-26, 31, 33, 54-56, 63-66, 71,
76, 81-82, 84, 86, 94, 99-108, 111-113, 124, 135,
E
137-142, 145-146, 150, 152, 154-155, 157, 159- Electronic Health Record (EHR) 239, 249
160, 170, 172-173, 175-179, 183, 185, 188, 198, Elliptic Curve Cryptography 174-176, 179, 185, 188
203, 206-208, 215, 220, 223, 233, 245, 249-254, Energy 2, 4-6, 8-11, 17, 27, 29-30, 33-36, 55, 77-78,
256-259, 279, 282, 290, 294, 298, 303, 323-324, 80-81, 83, 89-91, 93-96, 98-99, 112-113, 115-117,
326, 332, 339, 350, 352 121-134, 137-138, 148, 150, 154, 158, 170, 178,
Control Strategies 263, 266, 268-269, 276, 281 181, 187-188, 206-209, 214-216, 221-222, 228,
Conversion Technology 282 245, 250-252, 254, 256-258, 261, 263-270, 272-
Cryptographic Hash Function 249 315, 317-322, 330, 333, 336, 339-345, 348, 350

Index

Energy Efficiency 29, 115-117, 121-129, 131-132, M

216, 222, 256, 258, 268, 275, 285, 287, 296, 309,
318-319, 333 Machine Learning (ML) 22, 82, 115-117, 120, 122,
Energy Harvesting 9, 282-286, 289-292, 295-306 339-340
Energy Optimization 10, 117, 122, 124, 131, 282 MANET 250, 252-253, 259-260
Energy Storage 83, 96, 121, 130, 263-264, 266, 269- Merkle Tree 235-236, 242, 249
270, 272-274, 276, 278-282, 285, 289-290, 296 Multivariate Analysis 151-152, 161, 169
Energy Supply Chain 282-283
Energy-efficient devices 75 N
F Network 4, 12, 18-20, 22-26, 29, 31-32, 35-36, 40, 51,
55-57, 59, 63-68, 73, 77, 80-82, 84-86, 88, 91-93,
Flow Analyzer 151, 153, 161-162, 164 95, 100-101, 103-113, 119-120, 122, 124-125,
130, 133, 135, 137-153, 155-162, 164, 166-173,
G 175, 178-181, 183, 186-187, 189-199, 202-204,
206, 208-209, 211-213, 215-216, 219-222, 225-
Global emission 115 227, 231-233, 235, 241, 243, 246, 249-260,
Governance 4-5, 19-20, 24, 30, 44, 53, 62, 71, 79, 262, 264, 268-269, 272-273, 281-284, 286-287,
89-90, 129, 207, 209, 226, 243, 248, 276, 308, 289-290, 293, 301-306, 313, 321, 325, 332-333,
328-329, 332, 334-335, 341, 352 342, 351-352
Government Initiatives 307 Network Connectivity 19, 77, 103, 147
Network Function Virtualization 151-152, 157, 159,
H 170
Networks 4, 11, 14, 17, 25, 29, 31, 35-36, 45, 54-56,
Healthcare 11, 19-20, 22-23, 26, 35, 38-53, 55, 61, 63, 63, 65, 67, 78, 81, 93-96, 101, 105-106, 111,
70-73, 77-79, 81-82, 89-93, 95-97, 116, 131, 134, 113, 115-116, 119-120, 125, 133-135, 137-162,
137-138, 143, 146, 153, 157, 170, 173, 189-190, 164, 170-173, 175-176, 178-180, 187-193, 199,
204-207, 209, 212, 217-219, 226-228, 230-231, 203-204, 209, 215, 218-220, 225, 227-228, 233,
237-250, 291, 341-344 241, 246-247, 249-250, 253-254, 256-263, 279,
Healthcare System 38-42, 44-51, 71, 217, 231, 237, 239 282, 285-287, 290-291, 293-295, 300-306, 321,
342-343, 346, 350-352
I Node Collaboration 250
Node Cooperation 250, 253, 256-257, 260
Information and Communication Technology 4, 54,
206, 339 P
Infrastructures 6, 12, 14, 36, 77-81, 112, 131, 141, 147,
169, 176, 264, 325, 328, 330-333 P2P 99, 101, 104-106, 108-114, 209, 212, 221, 224
Innovation 5, 8, 14, 16, 60, 63, 78, 92, 95, 226-227, Photovoltaic System 263
245, 248, 323, 328-330, 332-334, 336-338 Power Converters 263, 266-268, 276
Intelligent Services 75, 79, 257, 341 Prediction 9, 24, 36, 38-39, 44-46, 52-53, 63, 69, 76,
Internet of Things (IoT) 1-20, 22-36, 54-59, 61-74, 76, 82, 91, 116, 122-123, 126, 130, 132-133, 152, 166,
78-82, 84-89, 91-101, 103-106, 108, 111-113, 122, 171-172, 186, 192, 222, 282, 287, 296, 301-302,
135-138, 140-141, 143-150, 152-157, 171-173, 343, 346-347
189-193, 195-200, 202-205, 207, 214-218, 220, Predictive Analysis 19, 121, 129
226, 243-244, 246, 248, 250-258, 260-262, 282- Privacy 13, 17, 23, 32, 38, 40, 47-50, 64, 72, 75-79,
287, 294-297, 299-306, 324, 330, 332-333, 347 82-83, 85-87, 89, 91-94, 96-97, 111, 156, 177,
IoT enabled 19, 23, 30, 35, 73, 99, 103 179, 188, 190, 203, 205-208, 211, 216, 219-220,
IT connectivity 19-20 231, 237-238, 243, 245-249, 286, 333, 342, 352

408
Index

Q Smart City Ecosystem 75-76, 206

Smart City Services 23, 54, 85-87, 90, 96, 99-100, 109,
Quality of Life Experience 75 205-207, 215, 217, 226, 228, 339, 352
Quality of Service 139-140, 146, 151, 155, 157, 174, Smart Energy 9-10, 91, 94-95, 98, 115, 122, 131, 148,
176-177, 209 339, 348
Smart Environment 1, 10
R Smart Healthcare 11, 39, 47-48, 50, 53, 63, 71-72, 82,
90-92, 95-97, 134, 138, 146, 153, 157, 217-219
Renewable Energy 10, 83, 90, 96, 115-117, 121, Smart Living 6-7, 62
124-125, 127-128, 130-134, 178, 221, 263-266, Smart Mobility 7-8, 62, 70, 73, 207
268-270, 273, 275-281, 297, 307-313, 317-318, Smart Power 9, 90-91, 96
321-322, 343 Smart Security 7, 69-70, 89, 156, 213
Smart Vehicles 174, 219
S Software Defined Networking 149, 151-152, 159,
170, 172-173
SDIot 135, 140, 149 Stakeholder 65, 241, 249
Security 4-7, 15, 17, 23-26, 30-32, 36, 38, 40, 47-48, Sustainability 13, 23, 30, 51, 55, 65, 76, 78, 90, 92,
55, 57, 63, 66, 69-70, 72-79, 83-98, 101, 105, 99, 115, 157, 161, 171, 205-206, 216, 263, 270,
111-112, 116, 132, 135, 137-138, 141-145, 148- 300, 308-309, 322-324, 326, 329-334, 337, 340,
149, 155-156, 158-160, 171, 174-180, 183-185, 342, 348, 352
187-191, 193, 197, 202-208, 211, 213, 216, 220, Sustainable Development 27, 29, 76, 78, 89, 91, 95,
224, 227, 230-231, 236-241, 245-246, 248-249, 121, 131, 228, 277, 307-308, 315, 319, 321-322,
257, 261, 286, 304, 328, 333, 340-343, 345-347, 337, 341, 343
350, 352
Sensor 9, 11, 22, 25, 28, 30-31, 54-55, 58, 63, 70, 78, T
81-82, 95, 103, 124, 140-141, 147, 156, 180, 193,
196, 219, 250-255, 258-262, 282, 285, 287-290, Time Series Analysis 151, 153
293-295, 300-306, 347, 349 Traffic Management 4, 32, 82, 99, 146, 151-153, 156,
Services 10-11, 13, 15, 17, 23-24, 26-28, 31-33, 35, 159-160, 171, 206, 214, 219, 341, 343, 346, 350
38, 41-42, 54-57, 59-60, 62-64, 67-68, 72, 75-76,
78-80, 85-90, 93, 95-96, 99-101, 103, 105-109, V
111-112, 123, 128-130, 138-140, 149-152, 156-
160, 170, 177, 182, 185-186, 197, 199, 205-207, Virtual Environment 22
213-217, 223, 226-228, 237-238, 242, 250, 253,
257, 299, 318, 323, 328-334, 339-342, 345-347, W
349-350, 352
Smart Administration 1, 4 Water Supply Management 28
Smart Antenna Systems 135, 139 Wind Energy System 263, 270
Smart Application 1 Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) 11, 250-254, 257-
Smart Cities 1, 11-12, 17-18, 20, 22-23, 25-26, 28-32, 260, 262, 283-284, 289-291, 294-295, 302, 304
34-37, 54-55, 63-66, 69-73, 75-84, 87-97, 99-100,
111-114, 128, 135, 137-138, 141-143, 148-149,
158, 172, 174-179, 182-183, 185, 187-190,
205-209, 213-216, 227-229, 250, 252-253, 256,
261-262, 285, 297, 300, 302, 306-308, 323-324,
332, 334-347, 349-352

409

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