VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI-590018, KARNATAKA

TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

on

“NANOTECHNOLOGY”
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment for the Award of Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Computer Science & Engineering
Submitted by
MUSKAN (4UB20CS066)
Under the guidance of
Naveen Kumar B.
Associate Professor
UBDTCE Davanagere

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY B.D.T. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
DAVANGERE-577004
(A Constituent College of VTU, Belagavi)
2023-24
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UNIVERSITY B.D.T. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DAVANGERE-577004, KARNATAKA
(A Constituent College of VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Technical Seminar Report entitled
“Nanotechnology” has been submitted by Muskan(4UB20CS066) student of
University B.D.T. College of Engineering, in Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belagavi, during the year 2023-24. It is certified that all corrections
and suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been incorporated in the
report. The Technical Seminar report has been approved as it satisfies the
academic requirements in a respect to work prescribed by said degree.

Naveen kumar B Dr Mohamed Rafi

Associate Professor & Guide Chairman DOS in CS&E
UBDTCE UBDTCE

Smt Geeta
Associate Professor
Technical Seminar Coordinator
UBDTCE

External Viva
Name of Examiner Signature and date
1. 1.

2. 2.
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DECLARATION

I, Muskan, final year student of Computer Science & Engineering,

University BDT College of Engineering, Davanagere hereby declare that the
Technical Seminar Report entitled “Nanotechnology” has been carried out by
me under the guidance of Naveen Kumar B and submitted in partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Computer Science &
Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum during
academic year 2023-2024.

- Muskan (4UB20CS066)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion

of any task would be incomplete without the mention of the people who made it
possible, whose constant guidance and encouragement crowned the efforts with
success.

I would like to profoundly thank University B.D.T. College of

Engineering, Davanagere for providing such a healthy environment for the
successful completion of Technical Seminar.

It gives me immense pleasure to thank Dr Mohamed Rafi Professor and

Head of Department for his constant support and encouragement.

Also, I would like to express my deepest sense of gratitude to my guide

Naveen Kumar, Associate Professor, Department of Studies in Computer
Science & Engineering for his constant support and guidance throughout the
work.

I would also like to thank the Department of Computer Science &

Engineering and all other teaching and non-teaching staff of Computer Science
Department who has directly or indirectly helped me in the completion of the
Technical Seminar.

Last, but not the least, I would hereby acknowledge and thank my parents
and friends who have been a source of inspiration and also instrumental in the
successful completion of the Technical Seminar.

- Muskan (4UB20CS066)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Description Page No.

Abstract 6

Chapter 1: Introduction 7

Chapter 2: Packet Forwarding Models 8

Chapter 3: Forwarding Techniques in Networking 11

Chapter 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanotechnology 14

Conclusion 15

References 16
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ABSTRACT

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer
systems use to communicate over a network Internet is made up of generally two
terms- Interconnection and Network. So, it is a connection to a large collection of
networks. A packet that is to be forwarded may be associated with the same network
as the source host or may belong to a destination host in a different network. Thus, it
depends on the destination how much a packet may need to travel before arriving at
its destination. Packet forwarding is the basic method for sharing information across
systems on a network. Packets are transferred between a source interface and a
destination interface, usually on two different systems. When you issue a command or
send a message to a nonlocal interface, your system forwards those packets onto the
local network. The interface with the destination IP address that is specified in the
packet headers then retrieves the packets from the local network. If the destination
address is not on the local network, the packets are then forwarded to the next
adjacent network, or hop. By default, packet forwarding is automatically configured
when you install the Solaris OS.

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Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that
provides a common basis for the coordination of [ISO] standards development for the
purpose of systems interconnection'. In the OSI reference model, the communications
between a computing system are split into seven different abstraction layers: Physical,
Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. The network
layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network packets, and
reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by
discovering the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network
addresses (typically Internet Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination
node. It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on
the network. It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors. The Data
link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets. Routers are the layer
3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the routing services
within an internetwork.

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Chapter 2: Packet Forwarding Models

Packet forwarding is the relaying of packets from one network segment to another
by nodes in a computer network. The network layer in the OSI model is responsible
for packet forwarding.

There are 3 Packet Forwarding Models. They are

1. Unicast Forwarding Model

2. Multicast Forwarding Model
3. Broadcast Forwarding Model

1. Unicast Forwarding Model

Unicast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information is

sent from one point to another point. In this case there is just one sender, and one
receiver. Unicast transmission, in which a packet is sent from a single source to a
specified destination, is still the predominant form of transmission on LANs and
within the Internet. All LANs (e.g Ethernet) and IP networks support the unicast
transfer mode, and most users are familiar with the standard unicast applications (e.g.
http, smtp, ftp and telnet) which employ the TCP transport protocol.

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Fig: Unicast Forwarding Model

2. Multicast Forwarding Model

Multicast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information is

sent from one or more points to a set of other points. In this case there may be one or
more senders, and the information is distributed to a set of receivers (there may be no
receivers, or any number of receivers).

One example of an application which may use multicast is a video server sending out
networked TV channels. Simultaneous delivery of high quality video to each of a
large number of delivery platforms will exhaust the capability of even a high
bandwidth network with a powerful video clip server. This poses a major salability
issue for applications which required sustained high bandwidth. One way to
significantly ease scaling to larger groups of clients is to employ multicast
networking.

Fig: Multicast Forwarding Model

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3. Broadcast Forwarding Model

Broadcast is the term used to describe communication where a piece of information is

sent from one point to all other points. In this case there is just one sender, but the
information is sent to all connected receivers.

Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANs (e.g. Ethernet), and may be used to
send the same message to all computers on the LAN (e.g. the address resolution protocol
(arp) uses this to send an address resolution query to all computers on a LAN, and this is
used to communicate with an IPv4 DHC server). Network layer protocols (such as IPv4)
also support a form of broadcast that allows the same packet to be sent to every system in
a logical network (in IPv4 this consists of the IP network ID and an all 1's host number).

Fig: Broadcast Forward Model

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Chapter 3: Forwarding Techniques in Networking

Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to its destination. Forwarding
requires a host or a router to have a routing table. When a host has a packet to send or
when a router has received a packet to be forwarded, it looks at this table to find the
route to the final destination.

Forwarding Techniques

1. Next-hop Method versus route method

2. Network specific Method versus host specific method

3. Default Method

1. Next-hop Method versus route method

One technique to reduce the contents of a routing table is called the next-hop method.
In this technique, the routing table holds only the address of the next hop instead of
information about the complete route (route method). The entries of a routing table
must be consistent with one another.

Next hop is a routing term that refers to the next closest router a packet can go
through. The next hop is among the series of routers that are connected together in a
network and is the next possible destination for a data packet. More specifically, next
hop is an IP address entry in a router’s routing table, which specifies the next
closest/most optimal router in its routing path. Every single router maintains its
routing table with a next hop address, which is calculated based on the routing
protocol used and its associated metric.

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Fig: Next-hop method versus route method

2. Network specific method versus Host specific method

A second technique to reduce the routing table and simplify the searching process is
called the host-specific method. Here, instead of having an entry for every destination
host network connected to the same physical network (host-specific method), we have
only one entry that defines the address of the destination network itself.

Host-specific routing is used for purposes such as checking the route or providing
security measures.

Fig: Network specific versus Host specific Method

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3. Default Method

Another technique to simplify routing is called the default method. Host A is

connected to a network with two routers. Router R1 routes the packets to hosts
connected to network N2. However, for the rest of the Internet, router R2 is used. So
instead of listing all networks in the entire Internet, host A can just have one entry
called the default (normally defined as network address 0.0.0.0).

Fig: Default Method

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Chapter 4: Advantages and Disadvantages of Forwarding

Advantages of Forwarding

 Allows BIG-IP to participate in networks using asymmetric routing. By default,

BIG-IP tracks connections to ensure that packets are received in the proper
order and respects TCP conventions by dropping any unexpected packets. IP
forwarding bypasses these checks.
 Allows BIG-IP to pass ICMP messages (such as ping).
 Allows access to routable networks on either side of the BIG-IP without using
address translation.
 Allows BIG-IP to pass IP protocols other than TCP and UDP.
 Allows you to use composite services that employ techniques to randomly
allocated ports, such as call-backs and redirection.
 Does not require significant planning or configuration.

Disadvantages of Forwarding

 Prevents BIG-IP from acting as a security device. Since all traffic can pass
through BIG-IP without examination, higher functions of BIG-IP may be
bypassed by not directing traffic to them.
 Is the least efficient traffic path through BIG-IP. All other traffic functions are
evaluated before IP forwarding, so traffic that uses IP forwarding can be slow
and the processing of these packets can, in turn, slow down all other queued
traffic.
 Requires routable addresses on all networks connected to BIG-IP.

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Conclusion

When transmitting data from a sender to a receiver, we encounter networking terms

like routing, forwarding, and switching. Each plays a critical role in end to end
delivery of data. In short, routing is the process of moving data between two devices.
Forwarding is the process of collecting data from one device and sending it to another
device. Switching involves collecting data from one device and sending it to multiple
devices based on the MAC address of the packets.
Both routing and forwarding are performed by the network layer. The device that
collects data and sends it to another device is known as the forwarding device. Some
popular forwarding devices include routers, switches, and hubs.
The next hop method is the most straightforward technique, which sends the packets
received in a router to the next gateway in the direction of the destination. In the
network- specific method, the entries in the routing table consist of destination networks
connected with routers. Finally, in the case of the host-specific method, the routing table
contains information about all the destination hosts in the destination network.

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References

1. https://www.baeldung.com/
2. https://www.brainkart.com/
3. https://practice.geeksforgeeks.org/

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