INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module the trainee should be able to:

a) Define terms and concepts used in communication.

b) Explain the purpose of communication

c) Identify the essentials to effective communication

d) Explain the role of information and communication technology in communication.

e) Use terms and concepts used in communication effectively.

f) Apply essentials of communication on a given situation.

DEFINITION
Communication is the process of passing understandable information from one person to another.
This definition emphasizes the following main points.
i) The process of communication involves communication of ideas.
ii) The receiver must get exactly the same idea as originally transmitted by the sender so
as to avoid distortion, exaggeration or dilution of the idea.
iii) Accurate replication of ideas through feedback from receiver to the sender establishes
a two way communication process.
iv) The purpose of communication is to elicit action.
v) There must be a sender, receiver and message for communication to take place.

Communication Terms and Concepts

Communicator (Sender/receiver) - the participants in communication. Typically the roles
reverse regularly. The sender is the person or body responsible for sending the message. The sender
can be an individual, or a group such as a company, a department, or even a government ministry
or a political party. The receiver is the person or body which receives the message. The receiver
can be an individual or an organization-a company or some other large group of people.
Information. This is the material from which the communication will be constructed. It is the
actual content put across to the listener, reader or viewer.
Message. Having defined or decided on the information to be conveyed, the sender puts it into the
best form in a process called encoding. When information has been encoded, it is known as the
message. This simply refers to the form the communication takes i.e. a letter, memo, telephone
call or even something as simple as a smile, a shrug of the shoulders or some other gesture.
Encoding. Encoding is the process by which the sender converts the idea into a message by using
verbal or non-verbal mediums of communication. These can be words, signs, gestures, symbols or
body movements. In order to ensure that the message is well understood, the sender uses words
and non-verbal signals that the receiver is familiar with.
Decoding. This is the process of translating words, signs and symbols into meanings. Successful
decoding is the correct understanding of the intent of the message as transmitted by the sender.
Medium. This is the larger group of ways of communicating within which the particular
communication can be classed. There are three main media:

 Written communication- letters, memos, books and articles, notices and posters.

 Oral communication- that is, any method of using the spoken word, such as meetings,
telephone calls, interviews, lectures and informal discussions.

 Visual communication- a drawing, photograph or other means of putting over a message

by pictorial means.
Channels - the specific mechanism (“pipeline”) used to transmit the message. This is the physical
means by which the message is transmitted. The channel is the vehicle that carries the message to
the receiver.

 For written communication it might be a notice board, an internal mail service, memo,
report, radio or the public postal service.

 For oral communication it might be a personal interview, a committee meeting or a public

telephone system.

 For visual communication it might be a computer printer, a printing press or a fax system.
Noise/ barriers – This is the name given to any factors which prevent the proper exchange of
information apart from those caused by the sender or the receiver. Noise can be physical such as
the sounds of traffic, typewriters or telephone bells which interrupt a meeting or it can be some
other form of interference e.g. a bad telephone connection, poor handwriting in a letter, a computer
failure which causes the loss of documents on a fax line, or even a conflicting message or if the
speaker’s facial expression conveys a different message from that being given orally.
Environment (part of context) - that which surrounds and provides a basis for the
meaning/interpretation of a message:
o Physical (surroundings)
o Temporal (point in time)
o Relational (the existing relationship between communicators - friends, strangers,
etc.)
o Cultural (language and behavior community the communicator(s) come from)
Feedback – This is the receiver’s response to the sender’s message. The responses can be both
verbal and non-verbal. It is an important factor in the communication process because it helps the
sender to know whether the message has been understood or not.
Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be
physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with context. The
sender chooses the message to communicate within a context.
Why Good Communication Skills? Good communication skills are skills that facilitate people
to communicate effectively with one another. Effectual communication engages the choice of the
best communications channel, the technical know-how to use the channel, the presentation of
information to the target audience, and the skill to understand responses received from others. Self-
development, interpersonal skills, mutual understanding, mutual cooperation and trust are also
important to set a complete channel of most effective and winning communication skills.
There are mainly three types of communication skills, expressive skills, listening skills and skills
for managing the overall process of communication. The basic fundamental of all these types of
communication is emotional skills.
Expressive skills are required to convey message to others through words, facial expressions and body
language.

Listening skills are skills that are used to obtain messages or information from others. These help to
clearly understand what a person feels and thinks about you or understand the other person closely.

Skills for managing the overall process of communication help to recognize the required information and
develop a strong hold on the existing rules of communication and interaction.
Importance of communication skills can never be ignored or neglected. These skills are the key to
executing good management skills. With good management skills, you can have a team of members who
together create an ambience of open communication, concise messages, probe for clarifications, recognize
nonverbal signals, and mutual understanding. Good communication involves a set of complex skills.

The Purposes of Communication

According to Camp & Satterwhite (2002), there are four main purposes of communication:
a) Communicating to Inform-We communicate to tell someone about something. To
inform is to pass on information. In the workplace, you are informing when you explain
something to your colleagues, your employees, or your customers.. If you tell an
employee how to operate the copy machine, you are informing; if you tell a customer
how to fill out a form, you are informing. You also inform when you tell another person
what happened. Perhaps you received a phone call from a customer who is angry about
his or her service, and you need to describe the call to your supervisor to learn what to do
next. This situation is another example of communicating to inform.
b) Communicating to Persuade-This aims to influence people and bring them round to
your way of thinking. Communication in the business world is mainly persuasive. In
other words, you are trying to get another person to do or believe something. In business,
you are always selling your ideas, yourself, your products, or your services. Selling and
persuading are nearly synonymous in the business world. You may be trying to persuade
 your supervisor to give you a raise, you may be attempting to persuade a colleague to
change a portion of a project on which you are both working, or you may be trying to sell
a customer your company’s service or product. All of these are examples of persuasion at
work. In order to succeed at persuasion, you must generally give good reasons for the
person you are communicating with to do or believe what you intend.
c) Communicating to Establish Credibility. Establishing credibility is important for
people in business. Credibility is achieved via effective communication. Credibility
enhances an individual’s or company’s reputation. Credible people demonstrate that they
have strong emotional character and integrity; they are known to be honest, steady, and
reliable. Credibility is akin to reputation. Increasingly, at an organizational level,
reputation is becoming more important. Sophisticated customers do not make financial
decisions based solely on an organization’s competitive advantage in the marketplace.
Instead, customers are increasingly sensitive to a company’s reputation. In fact, public
relations have developed as a functional area to manage the reputations of companies.
d) Communicating to establish goodwill. This involves maintaining and forming cordial
and harmonious relationships with people you are communicating your ability to
establish and build relationships affects every aspect of your life. Whether in your social,
academic, or professional life, this ability determines the depth of your relationships with
friends, family members, classmates, and coworkers. Good relationships result in
goodwill which is the favorable reputation that an individual or a business has with
customers. Any communication that helps to develop a better relationship between you
and your receiver builds goodwill.
e) To inquire. This involves obtaining information in various ways,e.g by asking questions
or through formulating questionnaires.
f) Social interaction. We communicate to establish and maintain relationships with others.

g) Transmission of information- transferring ideas and messages from one person to another.

h) Entertainment and relaxation-Channels of mass communication, like radios and televisions

are readily available to provide entertainment through music, theatre and news.

i) Emotional expression.-Communication helps in emotional release.

Main aspects of communication include
i) Source of communication (sender)
ii) Content of communication(message)
iii) The method by which communication is transmitted example telephone, email letter
etc.
iv) The destination of the communication i.e. the recipient.
v) The understanding of the communication and reaction by the recipient.(feedback)

Information Communication Technology (ICT)

Information Communication Technologies can be defined as diverse set of technological tools
and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information.”
This includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular
phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and as well as the
various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance
learning.
There are 6 components to an ICT system
 Data: raw facts and figures.
 Hardware: physical components.
 Software: the name given to computer programs.
 Information: data that is converted to give it a meaning.
 Procedures: a series of actions conducted in a certain order to make sure the system runs
smoothly.
 People: data is entered by humans, for example a keyboard
Role of ICT in communication
 ICT supports the communication and co-operation of people in their organizations and in
the creation and exchange of knowledge.
 ICT supports the external relations of the company i.e communication and co-operation
with customers, suppliers and partners. This will allow for an agile and adaptive ICT
enabled organization with flexible patterns of production. This makes for instance mass-
customization or even mass-individualization possible: large-scale delivery of products
and services tailored to the wishes of the customer.
 Communication technology and virtual reality will support the remote communication
between people with a quality near to face-to-face communication. This supports remote
communication in the form of virtual workshops, virtual classroom or distant learning.
 Information technology supports new forms of electronic documents. Multimedia and
virtual reality is useful technologies in support of information exchange and learning
processes.
 ICT strongly enhances the amount of knowledge in the products of companies. Material
products like cars are currently designed and simulated with aid of the computer. A
prototype of the car is tested and all test information is assembled and processed by a
computer. Developers transform the information into new knowledge, which result in
improvements of the car design and the resulting car construction.
 It is a fast way of transmitting a message e,g use of mobile phones, emails, SMS, etc
 Information received can be stored for future retrieval e.g SMS, emails, etc
 Information transmitted through ICT gadgets can be confidential and secure. Chances of
tampering with it are limited.
 It facilitates a one-on-one communication between two or more persons.
 Large volumes of informational messages can be transmitted at once.
 It is fairly cheap to transmit information.
 It provides proof that information was sent and even received and who sent it.

It requires minimal training to use ICT gadgets to transfer information.

 COMMUNICATION PROCESS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain channels of communication in an organization

b) Describe advantages and disadvantages of each channel of communication.
c) Describe the stages in the communication process
d) Identify barriers to effective communication
e) Explain strategies of overcoming barriers to effective communication
f) Identify basic concepts of transmission and receipt of a message.
g) Explain ethical issues in communication.
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Definition of Effective Communication
 Effective communication is a process through which the sender conveys a message that the
receiver readily receives and understands. It is a two-way process instead of a one-way process.
 A two way information sharing process which involves one party sending a message that is easily
understood by the receiving party. Effective communication by business managers facilitates
information sharing between company employees and can substantially contribute to its
commercial success.
Importance of effective communication
-It makes it easier to implement change.

-It encourages and develops commitment to the organization by the employees at all levels.
-It gets work/things done.
-Enables one to access opportunities
-Helps one to advance socially.
-Motivates members of an organization.
-Allows an organization to discover and fulfill customers’ and stakeholders’ needs thus satisfies
them.
-Enables leaders and managers of organizations to make good, quality decisions on the basis of
the best information available.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
All elements of communication enable effective communication to take place .These include:
i. Sender
ii. Receiver
iii. Message
iv. Channel of communication (means of transmitting message)
 v. Feedback
Communication can take place in the following situations:
i) Formal communication situation-which is characterized by a set of rules, behavior and even
dress code. Invitation to such formal fora is official (e.g. through a notice; the venue is officially
determined; Topics/agenda for discussion are pre-determined; records from the formal gatherings
are taken and kept; communication is done on official language. Example: in official meetings.

ii) Informal communication situation

Is characterized by few rules, unplanned topics of discussion, meetings and even informal dressing.
It takes place in relaxed manner of discussion using informal/unofficial language. There are no
any invitations to such meetings neither nor any records kept.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION MODEL

SENDER Encoding MESSAGE

SENDER MESSAGE
Information to be
transmitted

Decoding

MEDIUMOF MEDIUM
MEDIUM
MEDIUM
Channel of communication
COMMUNICATION

Decoding
Encoding
FEEDBACK RECIPIENT
FEEDBACK/REPLY RECEIVER

STAGES OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

These are:
 1. Conception-The sender conceives or thinks of an idea or feeling in his mind that he wants
to communicate.
2. Encoding-giving the message to be communicated a verbal or non-verbal language.
3. Channel of communication the sender selects the most suitable means to pass the message
to the receiver and vice versa e.g. through letter, oral speech etc.

Factors to consider when choosing a communication medium

i) Cost-in terms of time and money

ii) Speed-urgency of the message
iii) Type of audience example learned or illiterate
iv) Availability of communication medium
v) Subject of the message
vi) Confidentiality.
4. Transmission- sending message to the receiver through the selected channel.
Note: Here communication can be affected by noise.
5. Reception –The receiver receives the message through any of the five senses, i.e. hearing,
sight, touch, taste and smell.

6. Decoding- The receiver gives the received message meaning so as to understand the
language code used.
7. Comprehension- The receiver fully absorbs the meaning and understands the technical
jargon used by the sender.
8. Interpretation - searching out for underlying meaning
9. Feedback- the receiver reacts to the received message by encoding his response and
sending it back to the sender.

SUMMARY OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Sender: He initiates the communication.
Receiver: He receives the target of communication.
Message: What the sender communicates to the receiver.
Channel: means used to transmit the message from the sender to the receiver.

Feedback: Response the sender gets from the receiver.

Noise: Anything that blocks or hinders communication or interpretation of the message especially
in oral communication.
Context – it is the environment (time, place and situation) where communication occurs.

ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
 i) The subject or content of communication
- It is the information that a person would want to be understood by the receiver.
- The choice of subject is guided by questions such as;
 What exactly do I want to communicate?
 What does my audience need to know?
-The choice of subject is guided by facts about the audience such as age, education, personality,
social inclinations such as religion, leadership positions, political inclinations, etc.

ii) The audience

This is the receiver of the message. The audience comprises different backgrounds.

iii) Purpose of communication

- This is the objective of the communication
- It is guided by questions such as:
 Why am I communicating?
 What do I hope to achieve from the audience?
 What do I want the audience to do as a result of my communication?

iv) Appropriate channel

-This is the appropriate choice of vehicle / medium of communication by which the
message is passed on to the audience e.g. spoken or written, a letter or a personal chat, etc.

v) Proper presentation/packaging
-This is presentation of the message in the best way possible, in an orderly and organized
manner so as to achieve the best desired response from the audience.
-This therefore includes factors such as proper choice of words, gestures and proper
organization of ideas in a logical manner and proper use of communication resources, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

These are aspects that must be taken into account while communicating and they include;

1 Clarity
 This is clarity of thought and expression.
The sender first generates an idea in his mind that he wants to communicate. He therefore
needs to be clear of
-the objective of the communication.
-what is to be communicated.
-best medium to convey the message.

All these three above happen in the sender’s mind and they constitute clarity of thought.

 The sender also needs to be clear in terms of expression of the message which can be
achieved in the following ways:
 i)Choose simple and appropriate words that convey straight meaning.

Complex words simple words

Demonstrate show
Subsequent to after

Acquaint inform or tell

ii) Avoid long complex sentences and highly technical language but use simple sentences.
iii) Avoid ambiguous sentences that convey two or more meanings e.g.
John told Tom that he had passed his exams.

(Who passed the exams? Is it John or Tom?

Buy for me two copies of daily nation and the standard.
(Is it two copies of both newspapers or one copy each to be bought?)
iv) Communicate words properly i.e. pronounce and spell words correctly.
v) Speak at moderate speed for the audience to follow.

vi) Accuracy/correctness
 Any information communicated must be correct, factual and up-to-date; devoid of any
errors. Ensure that the source of your message is accurate.
 Send the message at the correct time so that it can be acted upon on time. Outdated, time
barred message is costly and useless.
 Send the message in correct style by adapting to the needs of the receiver. Consider the
receivers background/disposition.
 Send the message to the correct audience to avoid loss of information.

vii) Brevity/conciseness

 Communicate full meaning by using the fewest number of words.

Brevity can be achieved through the following four simple rules:

 Include only relevant facts.
 Avoid repetition. It becomes monotonous and irritates the listener.
 Avoid wordy expressions. e.g.
 Nearby – in close proximity to.
 I love you –I evince the most profound words of affection for you.
 Organize your message well so that it is logical.
NOTE: Do not be too brief to an extent that you do not communicate the full extent
of the meaning/message.

viii) Completeness
  Communication must be complete so that the intended meaning is fully understood. This
removes the gaps in meaning that shall leave the receiver of the message in doubt or start
guessing or imagine what was intended. This irritates the receiver and affects the response
(feedback).
An example is when calling for a meeting, ensure you specify where and when the meeting
will be held; at what time it will begin and directions to the venue if need be. Also indicate
the participants.

ix) Courtesy
 This is communicating messages in a friendly manner irrespective of the medium, verbal
and non-verbal. Courtesy shows a polite behavior that shows respect for your audience.

 To achieve courtesy, practice the following:

i. Use polite/kind language (expressions/words and avoid irritating, abusive,
disrespectful language.)
ii. Communicate on time and give feedback promptly.
iii. For any omission or failure to do something, apologize so as to express your regrets
promptly and make up/correct the omission or failure.
iv. Acknowledge promptly for information received i.e. thank the person sincerely by
use of expressions such as thank you, I appreciate, etc.
v. When encountering other personalities in or outside the office, especially for the
first time, start by excusing yourself i.e. ‘excuse me sir/madam’.
vi. Address people not familiar to you or your seniors by the general respectable
reference of ‘sir’ or ‘madam’.
vii. Knock at the door of any office gently and wait to be ushered in.

x) Logical presentation
The message should be organized logically and presented to the audience in a style that they can
follow easily. The message generally follows the structure of introduction (beginning),
development (middle) and conclusion (ending)

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Often times the free flow of communication breaks down because of barriers.
Barriers in communication are any obstacles or difficulties that come in the way of communication
thus causing a breakdown in communication.

Communication barriers either arise from the sender, receiver, or can be external or physical

BARRIERS CAUSED BY THE SENDER

1 Wrong choice of medium of communication
 The media of communication available are oral, written, visual and audio-visual. If the
sender chooses a medium that is unsuitable or unfamiliar to the receiver, communication
breakdown shall arise e.g. writing a letter to an illiterate person.

2 Choice of language or use of unfamiliar language

If the sender uses a language that is unfamiliar to the receiver, it will cause communication
breakdown. This includes use of gestures or facial expression which are unfamiliar to the
receiver; poor handwriting; use of jargon or unfamiliar accent; poor handwriting or use of
acronyms and abbreviations that are unfamiliar. All these factors cause communication
breakdown.

3 Senders lack of awareness of the receivers needs

If the communication given by the sender is not focused on the receivers needs hence fails
to address the receiver’s concerns, there shall arise a communication breakdown. For
instance if the receiver was asking for a pay rise and better terms of work but the boss
addresses them on matters of proper saving for future, they will not listen carefully hence
will cause communication breakdown.

4 Information overload or underload

If the sender gives too much information so as to make it difficult to pick the right important
information, a situation known as information overload; or gives too little, sketchy and
scanty information so as not to realize the full meaning, a situation known as information
underload, both shall result in communication breakdown.

5 Poor Timing
Information should be sent at the most appropriate time and ensure that the receiver has
enough time to pay careful attention to the message so as to understand it and give
feedback.

6 Poor presentation of information (Disorganized manner of presenting information)

If the sender presents information that lacks good organization, order, or systematic
presentation; or has poor pronunciations and spellings, or mother tongue interference, or
has a general challenge in language like poor grammar, it is bound to send a wrong
impression of the sender to the receiver hence cause communication breakdown.

7 Poor personality
If one is timid or not confident as he communicates, or is poorly/inappropriately dressed
as he communicates; or stutters; or has poor voice projection, the receiver shall have a
negative impression of him (the sender) as being a poor communicator. The audience shall
switch off and choose not to listen to him.

BARRIERS CAUSED BY THE RECEIVER

1 Poor listening skills
 The listener may lack concentration or is just not keen on what is being communicated. He
may also engage in selective listening i.e. choosing on what to listen to and what not to.
This causes communication breakdown.

2 Due to impairment
If the receiver is visually, mentally impaired or has hearing impairment, it causes
communication breakdown.

3 Prejudice
Prejudice means having a preformed attitude towards somebody or something. The
receiver may have a negative attitude towards the sender of the message due to social
differences like age difference, gender or education. This causes communication
breakdown.
4 Defensiveness and fear
The receiver may be defensive of his position hence closed to the information given to him
that is of contrary nature. He may also present a fearful or anxious disposition when
communication is being done e.g. during an interview or examination. This causes
communication breakdown.

5 Lack of feedback If the receiver fails to give feedback to the sender or gives delayed
feedback, it will automatically lead to communication breakdown.
6 Poor or bad emotional disposition of the receiver
Loosely referred to as noise in the mind of the receiver. The receiver must be in the right
emotional state so as to listen and understand the message being communicated to him.

BARRIERS CAUSED BY EXTERNAL FACTORS/PHYSICAL BARRIERS

1 Noise
This is unwanted physical sounds within the environment where communication is taking
place that prevents/disrupts flow of the intended message.

2 Physical distance and time

Physical distance between two people communicating hinders communication. Differences
in time zones between two different geographical regions e.g. Kenya and America which
have 8 hour difference can cause communication breakdown.

3 Too many steps/people in the communication process

 Channeling information through many people causes distortion in meaning and also causes
delay in information delivery and feedback. The information may be lost altogether thus
fail to reach the intended destination.

4 Electronic glitches/hitches
Electronic gadgets are prone to failure in information transmission e.g. computer crash or
hanging; network failure; poor transmission and jamming of communication systems, etc.
all can cause communication breakdown.

5 Use of an inappropriate communication agent

If one uses an unreliable person to pass information or a mechanical breakdown of an
instrument such as a vehicle that is used to relay information, it will cause communication
breakdown.
6 Physical features
These include natural or man-made features such as mountains and hills, valleys, tall
buildings etc. all of which can bar free flow of information.

Strategies for overcoming barriers to effective communication

It is very important to overcome barriers to effective communication. This involves diagnosing
and analyzing situations, designing proper messages, selecting appropriate channels, assisting
receivers of messages in correct decoding and interpretation of the messages and providing for
an efficient and effective feedback system.
1. Clarify Ideas before Communication: The sender should be very clear in his/ her mind
about what he/ she want to say. He should know the objective of his message and, therefore, he
should arrange his thoughts in a proper order.

2. Communicate According to the Need of the Receiver:

The sender of the communication should prepare the structure of the message not according to
his own level or ability but he should keep in mind the level, understanding or the environment
of the receiver.
3. Develop writing skills:
Clearly written messages can help avoid semantic and perception barriers. A well written
communication eliminates the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. When
writing messages, it would be wise to adopt the K.I.S.S. principle which means “Keep It Short
and Simple, thus making the meaning as clear as possible so that it accomplishes the desired
purpose.
4. Use of Simple Language: Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of
ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.
5. Reduction and elimination of noise levels: Noise is the main communication barrier
which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then
eliminate that source.
6. Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between
“listening” and “hearing”. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the
message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is
understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.
7. Emotional State: During communication one should not show their emotions as the
receiver might misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, if the conveyer of the
message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is
not good.
8. Proper Media Selection: The communicators should properly select the medium of
communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or
meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering complex
messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using written means of
communication such as: Memos, Notices etc.

Basic concepts of transmission and reception of message

Transmission this is the transfer of message to the receiver through a selected channel
Reception. It is the physical act of receiving the message through any of the five sense

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
FEEDBACK It is the reaction to the message by the receiver by encoding a response in a
language that the sender can understand and transmitted back to the originator of the message.
This can be

 Verbal. whereby the feedback is given orally in a positive or

negative way
 Nonverbal. whereby the feedback is given using body language in
a positive or negative way
 Written. whereby the feedback is given in a written medium in a
positive or negative way

Ethical issues in communication

 Ethics is defined as moral principles that govern a person’s behavior or the conducting of
an activity.
 Ethics is a science of character of a person expressed as right or wrong conduct/action whose
objective is to establish moral standards and behavioral norms.
What is Ethics in Communication?
Communication ethics is the notion that an individual’s or group’s behavior is guided/governed by
their morals which in turn affects their communication.
Characteristics of ethical communication
 Conveying the point without offending the audience:While communicating to the
audience, conveying the desired message to them in a polite and significant manner is of primary
importance. There are different ways to explain the things to them in a much smoother manner.
 Maintain a relationship with the audience:Maintaining the same wavelength/ level
with the audience is very important for a communicator to ensure the audience feels at home.
Experienced communicators immediately build a relationship based on trust with the audience as
soon as they start speaking.
 Avoid withholding crucial information:In the modern era, information is vital for all
decisions. Hence, it is vital for any organization to be cautious when communicating with the
public. The communicated information should be absolute and all vital information must be
conveyed appropriately. Purposely withholding crucial information might result in the receivers
conceiving a bad image about the organization or the communicator.
 Well organized value system:In order to ensure that this concept is successfully
practiced and understood in an organization, a well-organized value system must be established
throughout the organization by the top management. If an organization functions on the base of
value systems common to both the top management and the employees, mutual respect between
them will be present. A sound and healthy value system can make way for ethical
communication.
 Accuracy of information is necessary:Any information that is to be passed on must be
true and accurate. Communicating without checking the truth of the information can be
highly dangerous for the organization. Identification of the source and testing the information
is necessary before communicating it.
Unethical Issues in Communication
1) Plagiarism- stealing and using someone’s work, especially written and claiming it to be yours.
2) Lying to cover up for mistakes made or taking short-cuts to work on tasks.
3) Sharing confidential information.
4) Bad-mouthing colleagues
5) Selective misquoting of colleagues
6) Use of vulgar, disrespectful language either oral, written or gestural/pictorial.
7) Talking down at employees by those in higher ranks in a manner that demeans, disrespects and
humiliates them. It also includes employees talking at their seniors in a disrespectful manner.
8)Gossiping and rumor mongering.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION
: SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

By the end of the sub-module the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the various types of communication

b) Explain the use of the various types of communication

Types of communication
1. Formal communication: When communication occurs by following the prescribed rules
and procedures of the organization, it is called formal communication. Formal communication is
governed by the established chain of command.
Uses of formal communication
 Issuing instruction. The management uses it to pass forth instructions to staff on various
subjects.
 Inform. Information concerning different issues is conveyed in an organization via formal
channels. This can be vertically or horizontally.
 Coordination. Formal communication tends to be used for coordinating routine
transactions within groups and organizations.
 Persuade.
 Motivate.
Characteristics
 Written and Oral: Formal communication can both be written and oral. Daily works are handled
through oral communication, while the policy matters require written communication.
 Formal Relations: This communication is adopted among those employees where formal relations
have been established by the organization. The sender and the receiver have some sort of
organizational relations.
 Prescribed Path: The communication has to pass through a definite channel while moving from
one person to another. For example, to convey the feelings of a worker to the manager, the
foreman’s help has to be sought.
 Organizational Message: This channel is concerned with the authorized organizational messages
only and the personal messages are out of its jurisdiction.
 Deliberate Effort: This channel of communication is not established automatically but effort has
to be made for its creation. It is decided keeping in view the objectives of the organization.
Advantages
 Maintenance of Authority of the Officers: Formal communication maintains constant relations
among the superiors and the subordinates as a result of whom the dignity of the line superiors is
maintained. Consequently, it is convenient to control the subordinates and fix their responsibility
which is absolutely needed for effective and successful control.
 Clear and Effective Communication: In formal communication, there is a direct contact among
the managers and the subordinates. Both understand the capability, habits, feelings, etc. of one
another. Managers know as to when and under which conditions their subordinates need
information. In this way, this communication is capable of making available timely information.
Hence, it is clear and effective.
 Orderly Flow of Information: The information has to pass through a definite route from one
person to another. Hence, the flow of information is systematic.
  Easy Knowledge of Source of Information: In this type of communication, the source of each
information can be easily located.
Disadvantages/Limitations
 Overload of Work: In a modern business organization much information, many messages and
other things have to be communicated. Under formal communication, they are routed through a
definite channel and this consumes much of the time of the superiors and thus some other
important works are left unattended.
 Distortion of Information: This method can be a hindrance in the flow of information. Sometimes
the distance between the sender and the receiver is so big that the information has to pass through
many hands and by the time it reaches the receiver it is distorted. Thus it fails to serve its purpose.
 Indifferent Officers: The officers do not pay much attention to the suggestions and complaints of
the subordinates. In such a case a subordinate may come lose his faith in the effectiveness of
communication.
2. Informal communication/ Grapevine Communication:
This communication does not follow any prescribed rule or procedure, it is called informal
communication. The basis of informal communication is spontaneous relationship among the
participants. Informal communication is sometimes more powerful and more effective that
formal commutation.
Uses of informal communication
 Supplements formal communication.
 Informal communication is useful in supporting the social functions of groups. This is
because organizations are less explicit in regulating social relationships than they are in
regulating formal communication.
 Giving or getting help
 Giving or getting help refers to joint problem solving for one person’s benefit. This type
of interaction commonly consists of a question-answer exchange. Often these questions
are shouted from a distance and results are in short, simple answers.
 Gets work done. The maintenance of personal networks and social relationships through
informal communication is understood to be a key factor in how people get work done.
Characteristics
Informal or grapevine communication has the following characteristics:
 Formation through Social Relations:
 This communication is born out of social relations who mean that it is beyond the
restrictions of the organization. No superior-subordinate relationship figures therein. A
more sociable superior can gather much information through this channel.
 Uncertain Path: Since it is beyond the restrictions of the organization, it follows no
definite channel. Like a grapevine, it moves in a zigzag manner.
 Possibility of Rumors and Distortion: Responsibility for the true or false nature of
communication does not lie on any individual and, therefore, not much attention is paid
to its meaning while communicating. Consequently, the rumors keep floating.
 Quick Relay: Informal communication makes news spread like wildfire. Not only this,
people start adding something of their own which sometimes changes the real meaning of
the communication.
HOW TO USE THE GRAPEVINE EFFCETIVELY
NOTE: The grapevine can never be stopped or die in an organization. It should instead
be used positively as follows:
 a) Managers should identify the leader(s) of the grapevine and keep them well informed of
the true, positive news of the organization so that they can spread the right information.
This therefore helps to avoid start and spread of rumors or false information.
b) For any false rumor spreading, the management should immediately use official medium
of communication such as notices, emails, smses, etc to contradict the false information
any dispel the fears to the employees.
c) The management should engage workers to some extent in the decision-making activity
process so as to frustrate the rumor-mongers. In this way, the workers shall be kept well
aware of the company’s affairs hence any decision any decisive or contrary rumor shall
not arise and if it does, it will just die.
d) The grapevine should be used positively to energize and even motivate employees by
feeding them with the right, positive information.
Advantages
The informal channel of communication has the following advantages:
(1) Fast and Effective Communication: Under this communication, the messages move fast and their
effect is equally great on the people.
(2) Free Environment: Informal communication is done in a free environment. Free environment means
that there is no pressure of any office-big or small. The reactions of the employees can easily be collected.
(3) Better Human Relations: Informal communication saves the employees from tension. Freedom from
tension helps the establishment of better human relations. This also affects the formal communication.
(4) Easy Solution of the Difficult Problems: There are many problems which cannot be solved with the
help of formal communication. There is more freedom in informal communication which helps the
solution of difficult problems.
(5) Satisfying the Social Needs of the Workers: Everybody wants good relations with the high officers
at the place of his work. Such relations give satisfaction to the employees and they feel proud. But this
can be possible only with the help of the informal communication.
(6) Grapevine channels carry information rapidly. As soon as an employee gets to know some
confidential information, he becomes inquisitive and passes the details then to his closest friend who in
turn passes it to other. Thus, it spreads hastily.
(7) The managers get to know the reactions of their subordinates on their policies. Thus, the
feedback obtained is quick compared to formal channel of communication.
Disadvantages/Limitations
1. Unsystematic Communication: This communication is absolutely unsystematic and it is not necessary
that information reaches the person concerned.
2. Unreliable Information: Most of the information received through this communication is
undependable and no important decision can be taken on its basis.
3. Distort meaning: Something the meaning and the subject matter of the information is distorted in this
system.
4. Spread rumor: In this system, the miss-information or rumor spread rapidly. The original information
may be transformed to wrong information.
5. Misunderstanding: Under this system, generally, the employees do not obey the formal authorization
system. So it creates the opportunity to develop misunderstanding.
6. Maintaining secrecy is impossible: In informal communication system maximum communication is
made by open discussion. So it is impossible to maintain the secrecy of the information.
7. Difficulty in controlling: Under informal communication system no established rules or policy is
obeyed. So it is very much difficult to control the information.
8. Non-cooperation: Informal communication system sometimes develops the adversary culture among
the employees. So they are not to be cooperative with each other and their efficiency may be reduced.
3. Internal communication: Internal communication refers to the flow of information to
the internal participants of an organization. It happens only within the organization. The main
purpose of this communication is to ensure smooth functioning of organizational activities.
Internal communication may be of two types: Vertical communication and horizontal
communication.
i. Vertical communication: When information flows between superiors and subordinate of
an organization, it is known as vertical communication. Vertical communication can be
of three types: Downward communication, upward communication and diagonal
communication.
 Downward Communication: Downward communication occurs when information flows
form superiors to subordinates.
 Upward Communication: Upward communication occurs when information flows form
subordinates to superiors. Purpose: Through upward communication, subordinates convey their
responses, reactions and performance feedback to their superiors.
 Diagonal or cross communication: Diagonal communication occurs when information
flows between persons at different levels who have no direct reporting relationships. Purpose:
Diagonal communication is used to speed information flow, to improve understanding and to
coordinate efforts for the achievement of organizational goals.
ii. Horizontal communication: Where information flows among persons holding the same
position or rank in the organization.
Uses of internal communications
a) Improving the effectiveness of the organization. The more information people have, the
more quickly they get it and the better connections the better the work done.
b) Informs. Information from the management gets to the subordinates and vice versa.
Message communicated could be about policy decisions or requests.
c) Problem solving. This is by providing a channel for everyone's ideas and opinions.
Solutions can be found if communication is encouraged and is effective.
d) It creates a climate of openness within the organization. If everyone feels he/ she has
access to whatever information he/ she needs or wants, and can talk to anyone in the
organization about anything, it encourages good relations among people and promotes
trust.
e) Through downward communication, superiors send organizational goals, policies, job
assignments, orders, instructions etc. to their subordinates.
ADVANTAGES/IMPORTANCE OF INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
i) For better understanding:Between the employer and the employees, and
amongst employees themselves.
ii) Creates greater efficiency:It enables the management to instruct the supervisors
and subordinate staff about any changes of policy that can result in efficiency of
work.
iii) Effective coordination :Employees coordinate more effectively within the
organization that has different departments/sections by engaging in internal
communication. This makes the activities of the organization to run smoothly.
iv) Losses are avoided/minimized: It enables any breakdown within the system to
be reported in time for faster and timely correction.
Limitations in Internal communication
(1) Conflict is one major internal communication disadvantages. Some employees may use the
internal communication benefits to argue with each other or with the management. Conflict
can result in tension and disruption of operations.
(2) Waste of Time. Employees can spend the whole day exchanging office gossip or rumor
mongering. Even though it is important to implement internal communication, proper
systems should be used to ensure information shared by employees is for the benefit of the
organization.
(3) Performance Reviews. Performance reviews are mostly used by management as an internal
communication system to discuss personal goals and employees challenges. However, some
employees sufficient information may not be obtained as some employees may fear
disciplinary actions or warnings

4. External communication: Where an organization communicates with external or outside

parties. External parties include customers, suppliers, investors, bankers, insurance companies,
government agencies, local communities etc. the main purpose of external communication is to
exchange information with the outside parties. External communication employs the use of
letters, PR, advertising, emails, presentations etc.
Uses of external communication
(Assignment)
Advantages/IMPORTANCE OF EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

i) Good reputation:As an organization communicates effectively with its

customers or other institutions, it establishes a good reputation for itself and
increases its prestige.
ii) Improvement in public relations:Effective communication with the general
public and other relevant institutions about activities of an organization makes
them to get interested to deal with that organization.
iii) Choice of customers:As an organization talks to the outside people and
institutions, it gets to know their preferences/likes and dislikes hence produce
goods and services according to the choice of customers.
iv) Is a job requirement:Some jobs such as public relations, sales and marketing,
labour relations, etc require one to have exceptional communication skills to talk
to the customers and clients e.g. sales representatives, lawyers, public relations
officers, researchers, etc must engage in external communication with their
clients.
v) Better business prospects:Because of good communication to the outside
people, an organization can attract more customers interested to do business with
it hence increase volume of its business.
vi) Government requirement:Various institutions require government licensing and
other related legal or government approval so as to carry out their businesses.
They therefore must engage with various relevant government agencies such as
KRA, police department, immigration department, various licensing agencies, etc
to get relevant services and this is mandatory external communication.
Limitations
 Marketing budget:The main disadvantage in external communication would be the
marketing budget. The person has to spend and invest to communicate about his business. It
can also create and makes the competition stronger. The competitors would be more
conscious on what we do. Missing information or mistakes in the content can cause negative
impacts. So we have to more and more focused and conscious.
 Public backlash:The public impression of an organization can define the success or failure of
the company in the long-run. One misplaced quote, or badly worded newsletter will not only
ruin an expensive external communications plan, but also has the potential to affect corporate
revenue. Therefore, those in charge of external communications for the company need to be
aware of their audience and the company image they wish to convey.
5. Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication is an exchange of
information between two or more people. Successful interpersonal communication is when the
message senders and the message receivers understand the message.

FORMS OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

a) Focused Interaction: This happens when there is an actual encounter between two persons
and they are fully aware that they are communicating either verbally or non-verbally.

b) Unfocused Interaction: This occurs when one observes or listens to other people who are
communicating without them being aware that they are being listened to or observed. The one
who observed or listened to the others makes judgment about the persons he listened to or he
observed.

Advantages

Interpersonal communication can serve many advantageous purposes.

 It allows us to influence the behavior, attitudes, and opinions of others.
 It allows for more effective, efficient cooperation, and can help us forge or maintain a social
bond.
 It can help us learn, and relate to the problems or situations that other individuals face.
 It can help us negotiate, ask for help, offer aid, ask forgiveness, apologize, or achieve
reconciliation.
 We may also use interpersonal communication in order to relax and play.
 Is effective to building strong relationships with others.
 Allows others to feel close and connected. When speaking face-to-face, you are able to
observe the other person’s body language and tone of voice, both valuable clues to the true
meaning of the message.
 Most desired method to discuss issues that are highly sensitive.
 Conflict resolution.

Limitations
On the other hand,
  Interpersonal communication takes time, something that most people have little of in this day
and age. It is quicker to send a text or email if you only need to share basic information that
is impersonal in nature.
 Interpersonal communication is also limited by geography. It is not always feasible to speak
face-to-face with everyone you need to communication with during the day.
 Although once the most desired method of communication, interpersonal communication is
being used less frequently due to the technology now available to everyone.
Uses of interpersonal communication
 Give and collect information.
 Influence the attitudes and behavior of others.
 Form contacts and maintain relationships.
 Make sense of the world and our experiences in it.
 Express personal needs and understand the needs of others.
 Give and receive emotional support.
 Make decisions and solve problems.

6. Intra-personal communication
Intrapersonal communication is an individual's internal use of language or thought. It can be
useful to envision intrapersonal communication as occurring in the mind of the individual. The
individual communicates in his/ her mind through the process of thinking and feeling.
Intrapersonal communication enables an individual to shape self-concept and develop one’s
convictions. It helps one to think, plan, analyze and interpret ideas and messages. It also provides
the opportunity to think of new ideas and be creative about new decisions, approaches and
solutions.
Intrapersonal communication can encompass:
You use it when you:
i.Think things through
ii.Interpret events
iii.Interpret messages of others
iv.Respond to your own experiences
v.Respond to your interactions with others

Uses of intrapersonal communication

1. Enables one to effectively communicate with others.
In order to successfully communicate with others you must first learn to communicate with
yourself. Intrapersonal communication is the most basic level of communication. You must
understand who you are and what you think of yourself.
2. Increases focus, concentration and performance. If you believe you cannot do something,
your brain will tell your body exactly that and it will shut down. When you stay encouraged and
positive, your body will also respond in a positive way.
3. Enables one think things through.
4. Enables one interpret messages and events.

Advantages
 Self-awareness It allows the person to be aware of every aspect of their own personality.
Through introspection, the person becomes aware of the qualities that help shape his
 personality which in turn makes him aware of his motivations, aspirations, and expectations
from the world. If one's understanding of self is absolute, it would help in easily communicating
his wants and needs to others.
 Self-confidence A self-aware state makes one secure and increases confidence.
 Self-management The fact that one is conscious of the indwelling strengths and shortcomings,
it equips him to manage his daily affairs efficiently using his strengths to the maximum which
in turn compensates for his weaknesses.
 Self-motivation The absolute knowledge of what one wants out of life will enable the person
to strive to achieve those aims and goal while continuously motivating themselves. Yes I can!
 Focused The qualities of self-motivation and self-management will help develop deeper
concentration and direct his focus towards the task at hand.
 Independence Self-awareness allows the person to be independent.
 Adaptability The person is highly adaptable to his surroundings as the knowledge of his own
qualities allows him to confidently and calmly take decisions and change his approach
accordingly in response to situational stimuli.
Disadvantages
 Wrong assumptions Since there is absence of a feedback, that is, the conversation is in a one-
way flow, it could lead to the development of misconceptions and faulty assumptions.
 Incorrect decisions Prejudices formed based on wrong assumptions made by an individual
could lead to incorrect choices or decisions. Yes! No!
 Categorical thinking There is a possibility of an individual categorizing and viewing certain
individuals or events with a biased opinion causing one's thought pattern to be one-tracked and
lopsided.
 Over-thinking Over analysis of situations and prolonged thinking about them will lead to the
imagination of unrealistic and unnecessary scenarios, and in extreme cases, may even lead to
self-doubt.
 Arrogance Due to an independent nature and specific approach towards an issue, one may be
incorrectly perceived as being arrogant. This is further reinforced by one's tendency to pay
attention to every minute detail.
N/B: To overcome the disadvantages of intrapersonal communication, it is vital to be aware of
one's own surroundings as well. Also, the development of interpersonal communication in
addition, could help in overcoming demerits.
 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of this sub-module unit the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the various forms of communication

b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each form of communication.

Different Forms of Communication

i.VERBAL/ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication includes sounds, words, language and speaking. Language is said to have
originated from sounds and gestures. There are many languages spoken in the world. The basis
of language formation is: gender, class, profession, geographical area, age group and other social
elements. Speaking is an effective way of communicating and is again classified into two types
viz. interpersonal communication and public speaking.
Good Oral communication is an inseparable part of business communication. In a business, you
come across people from various ages, cultures and races. Fluent oral communication is
essential, when with dealing people in business meetings. Also, in business communication self-
confidence plays a vital role which when clubbed with fluent communication skills can lead to
success.
Public speaking is another verbal communication in which you have to address a group of
people. Preparing for an effective speech before you start is important. In public speaking, the
speech must be prepared according to the type of audience you are going to face. The content of
your speech should be authentic and you must have enough information on the topic you have
chosen for public speaking. All the main points in your speech must be highlighted and these
points should be delivered in the correct order. There are many public speaking techniques and
these techniques must be practiced for an effective speech.
Types of oral communication
1. Face-to-Face
Face-to-face is still the preferred communication channel if clarity of message is of primary
importance.
Advantages
 Face to face communication allows you to interact with the listener in a back-and-forth
discussion.
 It also allows you to utilize nonverbal gestures, facial expressions and personal charisma
to enhance the message.
 Fast feedback.
Disadvantages
 A drawback is the potential that a conflict could become more heated or emotional in a
face-to-face channel.
 Tension or stress is also more likely if you have personal conflict with the other person.
 No permanent record. Not admissible in court. Cannot be used as evidence.
 Frequent interruptions.
2. Telephone
Landlines or mobile telephones are useful communication tools in businesses where distance and
travel prevent face-to-face conversation.
Advantages
 The telephone still allows immediate interaction between two parties in the
communication.
 Mobile phones also expand your ability to communicate with distant workers or offices.
Disadvantages
 There is lack of nonverbal or facial expressions. This can inhibit the ability to interpret
the context or emotion of a message sender.
 The phone is also less personal than a face-to-face meeting.
 No permanent record except in where there is the recording of the conversation.
 Prone to disturbances such as static which hinder audibility.

Advantages of Oral Communication

Verbal Communication has the following advantages:
1. Saving of Time
Under this form of communication the messages are communicated immediately without
consuming any time. Oral communication is the best option during an urgent condition and when
immediate action is necessary.
2. Saving of Money
It saves money as it needs no help of any particular media.
3. More Effective
As there is direct touch/ contact of the sender and receiver message transmission proves to be
more effective. The sender of message can also exercise his personal influence over the receiver
of message.
4. Knowledge of Reaction of Message
An important advantage of oral communication is that under this method of communication, the
sender of message can judge the reaction of the message on its receiver. He comes to know
whether the receiver of the message will follow it or not.
6. Increase in Productivity and Efficiency
Verbal communication is more effective. It increases the productivity and efficiency of
workers because they clearly understand it and follow it.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

Oral communication has the following disadvantages:
1. Lack of Proof of Message
The greatest disadvantage of oral communication is that there is no proof of the message
communicated.
2. Not Suitable for Future Reference
 Since there is nothing in writing supporting the messages communicated orally, it is not suitable
for future reference. If there is any dispute on any point of the message, it cannot be helped in
any way.
3. Not Suitable in Case of Distance
If the receiver and the sender of the message are far from each other, this method of
communication is not suitable because it will increase the cost of communication.

ii.NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication is the way in which we express our feelings, emotions, attitudes,
opinions and views through our body movements. Body language is a non-verbal way of
communication. Body posture and physical contact convey a lot of information. Body posture
matters a lot when you are communicating verbally to someone. Folded arms and crossed legs
are some of the signals conveyed by a body posture. Physical contact, like, shaking hands,
pushing, patting and touching expresses the feeling of intimacy. Facial expressions, gestures and
eye contact are all different ways of communication. Reading facial expressions can help you
know a person better.
Creative and aesthetic non-verbal communication includes singing, music, dancing and
sculpturing. Symbols and sign language are also included in non-verbal communication.

When we communicate, non-verbal cues can be as important, or in some cases even more
important, than what we say. Non-verbal communication can have a great impact on the listener
and the outcome of the communication.
Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures
displayed through body language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the
communicators (proxemics). These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional information
and meaning over and above spoken (verbal) communication.
Non-verbal Messages Allow People To:
 Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may nod their heads
vigorously when saying "Yes" to emphasis that they agree with the other person, but a
shrug of the shoulders and a sad expression when saying "I'm fine thanks,” may imply
that things are not really fine at all!
 Convey information about their emotional state.
 Define or reinforce the relationship between people.
 Provide feedback to the other person.
 Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signaling to others that they have
finished speaking or wish to say something.

Non-verbal communication includes:

 Body Movements (Kinesics)
 Posture
 Eye Contact (occulesics)
 Para-language
 Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics)
 Facial Expressions
  Physiological Changes
1. Body Language or Body Movements (Kinesics)
Body movements include gestures, posture, head and hand movements or whole body
movements. Body movements can be used to reinforce or emphasize what a person is saying and
also offer information about the emotions and attitudes of a person. However, it is also possible
for body movements to conflict with what is said. A skilled observer may be able to detect such
discrepancies in behavior and use them as a clue to what someone is really feeling.
Research work has identified the different categories of body movement/ gestures that are
detailed below with each category describing the purpose they commonly serve:
 Emblems: these gestures have direct verbal translations, like nodding the head for ‘yes’,
shaking the head for ‘no’ or waving the hand for ‘hello’. They may be used in place of
words.
 Illustrators: Gestures which accompany words to illustrate a verbal message are known
as illustrators. For example, the common circular hand movement which accompanies the
phrase 'over and over again', or nodding the head in a particular direction when saying
'over there'.
 Affect Displays: These are facial expressions or gestures which show the emotions we
feel. These are often unintentional and can conflict with what is being said. Such
expressions give strong clues as to the true emotional state of a person.
 Regulators: Gestures used to give feedback when conversing are called regulators, for
example head nods, short sounds such as 'uh-huh', 'mm-mm', and expressions of interest
or boredom. Regulators allow the other person to adapt his or her speech to reflect the
level of interest or agreement. Without receiving feedback, many people find it difficult
to maintain a conversation.
 Adaptors: these are unconscious movements of the body that originate from the nervous
state of our mind. E.g. in an interview, when the candidate is nervous or uncomfortable
with the questions asked, he/ she may unconsciously crack knuckles, shake legs or tap the
foot

2. Posture
Posture can reflect people's emotions, attitudes and intentions. Research has identified a wide
range of postural signals and their meanings, such as:
Open and Closed Posture: Two forms of posture have been identified, ‘open’ and ‘closed’,
which may reflect an individual's degree of confidence, status or receptivity to another person.
Someone seated in a closed position might have his/her arms folded, legs crossed or be
positioned at a slight angle from the person with whom they are interacting. In an open posture
you might expect to see someone directly facing you with hands apart on the arms of the chair.
An open posture can be used to communicate openness or interest in someone and a readiness to
listen, whereas the closed posture might imply discomfort or disinterest.
Mirroring: Notice the way a loving couple relate to each other. You might like to observe a
close relationship in person or on television. You will see that the partners' postures will match,
as if one partner is a mirror reflection of the other. For example, if one partner drapes an arm
over the back of a chair this might be replicated in the other person's position. If one partner
frowns, it could be reflected in the other partner's facial expression. This 'mirroring' indicates
interest and approval between people and serves to reassure others of interest in them and what
they are saying.
 3. Eye Contact (occulesics)
This is the science of the movement/ grammar of our eyes. Eye contact serves three main
purposes:
 To give and receive feedback: Looking at someone lets them know that the receiver is
concentrating on the content of their speech. Not maintaining eye contact can indicate
disinterest. Communication may not be a smooth process if a listener averts their eyes too
frequently.
 To let a partner know when it is their 'turn' to speak: This is related to the above
point. Eye contact is more likely to be continuous when someone is listening, rather than
speaking. When a person has finished what they have to say, they will look directly at the
other person and this gives a signal that the arena is open. If someone does not want to be
interrupted, eye contact may be avoided.
 To communicate something about a relationship between people: When you dislike
someone, you tend to avoid eye contact and pupil size is often reduced. On the other
hand, the maintenance of positive eye contact signals interest or attraction in a partner.
Eye grammar (what eyes communicate)
i. Staring eyes. Too much eye contact which show superiority or lack of respect, a
threatening attitude or a wish to insult.
ii. Too little eye contact. It indicates dishonesty, impoliteness, insincerity, and also shyness.
iii. Withdrawal of eye contact. This is considered a sign of submission.
4. Para-language (paralinguistic)
Para-language relates to all aspects of the voice which are not strictly part of the verbal message,
including the tone and pitch of the voice, the speed and volume at which a message is delivered,
and pauses and hesitations between words.
These signals can serve to indicate feelings about what is being said. Emphasizing particular
words can imply whether or not feedback is required.
 A voice that has tremors will not make feel very positive about the speaker.
 A high speed of talking in interviews or negotiations or presentations will not instill
confidence in the interviewers or audience.
5. Closeness and Personal Space (Proxemics)
The study of personal space is termed proxemics.
Every culture has different levels of physical closeness appropriate to different types of
relationship, and individuals learn these distances from the society in which they grew up.
When someone violates an appropriate distance, people may feel uncomfortable or defensive.
Their actions may well be open to misinterpretation.
In Western society, four distances have been defined according to the relationship between the
people involved.
The Four Main space zones/ distances
 Intimate Distance (touching to 45cm)
 Personal Distance (45cm to 1.2m)
 Social Distance (1.2m to 3m)
 Public Distance (3m)
These four distances are associated with the four main types of relationship - intimate, personal,
social and public.
Each of the distances are divided into two, giving a close phase and a far phase, thus making
eight divisions in all. It is worth noting that these distances are considered the norm in Western
Society:
 Intimate Distance: Ranges from close contact (touching) to the 'far' phase of 15-45cm.
In British society, it tends to be seen as an inappropriate distance for public behavior and,
as mentioned above, entering the intimate space of another person with whom you do not
have a close relationship can be extremely disturbing.
 Personal Distance: The 'far' phase of personal distance is considered to be the most
appropriate for people holding a conversation. At this distance it is easy to see the other
person's expressions and eye movements, as well as their overall body language.
Handshaking can occur within the bounds of personal distance.
 Social Distance: This is the normal distance for impersonal business, for example
working together in the same room or during social gatherings. Seating is also important;
communication is far more likely to be considered as a formal relationship if the
interaction is carried out across a desk. In addition, if the seating arrangements are such
that one person appears to look down on another, an effect of domination may be created.
At a social distance, speech needs to be louder and eye contact remains essential to
communication, otherwise feedback will be reduced and the interaction may end.
 Public Distance: Teachers and public speakers address groups at a public distance. At
such distances exaggerated non-verbal communication is necessary for communication to
be effective. Since subtle facial expressions are lost at this distance so clear hand gestures
are often used as a substitute. Larger head movements are also typical of an experienced
public speaker who is aware of changes in the way body language is perceived at longer
distances.
6. Facial expression
 When we communicate with others, we look mostly at their face. This is not a coincidence as
many signals are sent with the 90-odd muscles in the face. The way the head tilts also changes the
message.
 The eyes are particularly important, and when communicating we first seek to make eye contact.
We then break and re-establish contact many times during the discussion.
 Eyebrows and forehead also add significant signals, from surprise to fear to anger.
 The mouth, when not talking can be pursed, downturned or turned up in a smile.
Advantages of non-verbal communication
1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement an oral message by adding to its
meaning. You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the oral message especially if the
oral message is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to
lips to indicate need for quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual
meaning of the specific words.
5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. pointing a direction while stating
directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication uses gestures, facial expressions,
eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it is very
much helpful for illiterate people.
 7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people exchange message through the
movements of hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph,
sign etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the
receiver very fast. For this reason it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like signs and
symbols can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
Disadvantages of non-verbal communication
1. Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. This is
because this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver. No dictionary can accurately classify them. Their meaning vary according to
culture and context.
2. Continuous: It is possible to stop talking in oral communication, but it is generally not
possible to stop nonverbal cues. Also, spoken language has a structure that makes it easier to tell
when a subject has changed, for instance or to analyze its grammar. Nonverbal does not lend
itself to this kind of analysis.
3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a
hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to keep up
with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
4. Culture-bound: Different cultures have different meanings and interpretations of
different non-verbal messages.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation
and necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of the
messages.
6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-
verbal communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc. for
communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners.
It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a public tool for
communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or
structure like verbal. In most instances, people unconsciously and habitually engage in non-
verbal communication by moving the various parts of their bodies.
9. Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon
sign, power point presentation, cinema etc. are very much costly compared to others form of
communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch,
sign, sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility in
distortion of information in non-verbal communication.

iii.WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication is writing the words which you want to communicate. Good written
communication is essential for business purposes. E-mails, reports, articles and memos are some
of the ways of using written communication in business. Written communication can be used for
formal business communication and also for informal communication purposes. Mobile SMS is
an example of informal written communication.

3. E-mail
This is the use of computer hardware and associated software to transmit electronic mail over a
network.
Advantages
 E-mail is a vital communication channel in geographically dispersed companies.
 E-mail allows for more flexible response times. You can send a message one day and
receive a response in a few hours or the next day. It allows for conversation that isn't time-
pressured, but can serve for fast turnaround times.
 It also allows for the inclusion of files, such as documents or images.
 Permanent record.
 Prior planning before prior.
Disadvantages
 E-mail is less personal than either face-to-face or phone.
 Lack of instant clarifications.
 Feedback can be slow.
4. Letters, memos, e-mail, notices, reports etc. (Written communication)
Written communication expresses facts and ideas in writing in a clear, convincing and organized
manner. Some of the various forms of written communication that are used internally for
business operations include memos, reports, e-mail, letter, bulletins, job descriptions, employee
manuals.

Advantages of Written Communication

1. The written communication can be edited and amended many times before it is
communicated. This is one of the main advantages of using writing as the major means of
communication in business activity.
2. No need of Personal Contact
In written communication there is no need of personal contact:
3. Economical
If the receiver and sender of the message are far apart, it is economical to communicate
the message in writing because communicating by post is cheap and quite economical.
4. Written Proof
Written communication provides a proof for future reference. If there is any dispute the
message may be referred to.
Disadvantages of Written Communication
Written communication has the following disadvantages:
1. Delay
There is delay because the message is writing is communicated after a certain process is
completed. It is prepared, edited, proofread etc. before the written communication is delivered.
Consequently, the message is delayed.
 2. Lack of Secrecy
There is no secrecy in written communication. Secrecy cannot be maintained because these
messages can be accessed by anyone.
3. Costly
Written communication involves heavily expenditure. If the receiver and sender of message are
near to each other, it is fairly costly to communicate in writing.

iv.VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Visual communication is visual display of information, like, photography, signs, symbols and
designs. Television and video clips are the electronic form of visual communication.
Advantages of visual communication
i.Conveys information in a fast manner
Visual communication is very fast as far as conveying a message is concerned. A graph for
example, showing company’s expenditure in a financial year, can be understood just at a glance,
compared to paragraphs of text or a speech to convey the same information.

ii.Better understanding and retention

A picture is retained in our memory longer than words or quotes. Research shows that people
remember visuals the best, followed by speech, accompanied by reading.
iii.Impactful
A graphic of any kind can elicit a stronger reaction from the reader. Compare saying "Nature is a
wonderful thing" to an audience, to an image of young, cuddly animals. The image will move
people emotionally and be more effective.
iv.Effective
It is a much more efficient way of communicating - not just in time required for relaying
information, the effort is much less too. For example, if I had to describe the usage of a pen to a
group of people, it would be much easier for me to do so with a pen at my aid, and the point
would get across better when those present actually see the pen being written with.
v.Removes ambiguities
Ambiguities are more common with only oral communication, especially now with
globalization, as people from diverse backgrounds and linguistic abilities are working together.
A visual, on the other hand, makes everything very clear. For example, if I say "The Kremlin is a
colorful, domed structure", some would imagine it to be like a grand cathedral, whereas a few
others would think of it shaped liked an igloo. But with a picture, everyone would instantly know
how it actually looks.
vi.Captivates and retains audience attention
When visuals are used instead of a simple speech, it makes a person more involved and
connected, as visuals are able to pull down most barriers of communication, and open up people.

Disadvantages of visual communication

1. Costly: The visual methods of communication are more costly than those of other methods. To
draw maps, charts, diagram is costly. That is why only large companies or organization can use
this technique. High quality images, pictures and graphics, require additional resources to
produce. Besides, using lower quality visuals has been proven to reduce credibility.

2. Complex presentation: Sometimes visual presentation of information becomes complex. Thus

the receivers cannot understand the meaning of the presentation.
3. Incomplete method: This technique is considered as an incomplete method. Visual presentation
is not sufficient to communicate effectively and clearly but also it can be successfully used with
oral communication. Also only a small amount of information can be conveyed via a graphic. A
very detailed visual will look cluttered, overwhelm the reader, and reduce its impact.
4. Time consuming: Making a graph or pie chart requires more time and effort, as it involves
selecting, compiling, and presenting a large amount of information in a visually-pleasing
manner. Whereas oral communication takes no time to exchange information.
5. Distracting. Visuals can be distracting, shifting the focus away from the presentation itself. For
example, using a fancy, illegible font can actually distract members of the audience from what is
being said. A visual can also close up the viewer, if it is too disturbing or controversial.
6. Problem for general readers: General people are not prefers to communicate through visual
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or listeners.
It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere.

v.Audio-visual communication
This is the use of both a sound and a visual component for communication. It involves the use of
slide-tape presentations, films, television programs, church services and live theater productions.
Disadvantages
 Technical Problems
Regardless of your equipment, there are many things that could go wrong that may disrupt your
presentation. A bulb might burn out on your projector or it might be blurry or hard to focus.
When using a PowerPoint presentation, font and colors may show up differently on screen or the
music and sound might not play. CDs can skip. DVDs may be scratched or not compatible with
your player.
 Distractions
Visual aids are more of a distraction if used throughout the entire presentation versus during key
points. Special effects and light from the projector can draw attention away from the speaker.
Too much information can also be distracting, because the audience will be trying to read and/or
take notes while the speaker has moved on to the next subject. There also may be too many
slides for the audience to interpret or the audio and visual may not match up. An entertaining
video can take the focus off the speaker and the presentation, while a dry video and low lighting
can put students to sleep.
 Expensive
Professionally created audiovisuals are expensive. Slides, videos, and films cost money unless
borrowed from a library. The equipment used e.g. video cameras, computer hardware and
software can be very costly.
 Time
Audiovisual presentations can take a considerable amount of time to prepare. It takes time to
produce your own video or slides. Films may be difficult to obtain, or it can take time to get
permission to use them. Posters and transparencies may require extensive preparation. Creating a
PowerPoint presentation can also be time consuming.
 Space
If you choose to use an audiovisual aid, the size of the room should be taken into consideration.
It is critical that all students are able to see or hear your presentation. If the room is too large for
everyone to see the visual aid, or if part of your audience is forced to view the presentation at
odd angles, some students will struggle to keep up with your lesson.
 Convenience
Certain audiovisual aids such as VCRs for older video recordings can be bulky and difficult to
transport.
Advantages of Audio Visual Aids in Communication
 To reinforce stated facts
 To aid the understanding of ideas
 To clarify relationships or physical layouts
 To introduce the audience to a new topic area

Useful guidelines to consider when designing visual aids include:

 Use graphs to highlight a comparison.
 Use line charts to highlight a trend.
 Keep the visual device clear – avoid unnecessary clutter.
 Use meaningful titles to avoid ambiguity.
 Use colors carefully – thy must be clear under all lighting conditions
 CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Specific Objective
By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to;
a) Explain the meaning of communication
b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the channels of communication

Meaning of channel of communication

This is the description of the flow of information from one source to the other.
1 DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
This is the flow of communication from a superior in authority to the subordinate(s) at lower levels
of the organizational hierarchy.
Downward communication normally takes the form of orders, individual instructions, policy
statements, etc.
Messages in downward communication channel can be presented in documents such as
memorandum reports letters notices circulars interviews policy directives formal meetings.
Downward communication can either be oral or written.
ADVANTAGES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION CHANNEL
 It establishes and maintains order in an organizational structure hence maintains
respect in the organization.
 Orders and requests are executed on time as they come from a superior source.
 The superior communicates what he himself knows is correct or accurate.

DISADVANTAGES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

 Superiors normally under communicate or over communicate due to assumptions that
the subordinates do not know or by withholding vital, relevant background
information for their own benefit.
 Delay in conveying of information can result if it is passing through various
hierarchical offices. Information may get lost as it moves down the organizational
ladder.
 Information may get distorted as it goes through the long chain of officers in the
organization.
 It can result in a build-up of resistance from the subordinates because it portrays
authoritarianism/dictatorship.
 The subordinates are rarely involved in decision making hence loss of team work and
can spark resistance.
1 UPWARD COMMUNICATIONS
It is the flow of information from a lower rank of employees to the higher management offices.
This can be in form of reports, grievances or letters.
It can either be verbal or written.
METHODS THROUGH WHICH UPWARD COMMUNICATION TAKES PLACE

 Social gatherings that are informal.

 Reports
 Open door policy where the subordinates have the opportunity to walk into the
manager’s office to talk to him.
 Letters/direct correspondence from an employee to the higher authority.
 Complaints and suggestion boxes.
  Guidance and counseling sessions sort by subordinates from the superiors on their
personal or work related issues.

ADVANTAGES OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

 It is a way of providing feedback to the higher authorities so as for them to know if directives
issued were understood and executed.
 Managers get opportunity to receive constructive ideas, suggestions and even objective
criticism to promote the organization.
 It cultivates greater harmony and cohesion between subordinates and the management hence
creating a conducive atmosphere for work.
 It is an outlet for pent-up emotions as subordinates get opportunity to vent their problems and
grievances to the management.
 Since subordinates feel part and parcel of the decision making process and recognized, it
helps the organization to introduce any new scheme without antagonizing them (employees).

DISADVANTAGES OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

 Subordinates may withhold flow of information up the organizational ladder for various
reasons such as fear, sabotage, etc.
 It may create close familiarity between the subordinates and management hence cause
disrespect and disharmony in the organization by workers disrespecting and by-passing
immediate supervisors and directly reporting to the top management.
 Most employees are reluctant to initiate upward communication because of fear.
 Upward communication is prone to deliberate distortion of facts through editing as one
reports to the boss.
 Employees normally feel that by communicating their problems and inadequacies to their
superiors, it may reflect on their own incompetence.

3 HORIZONTAL/LATERAL COMMUNICATION

This is communication between departments or people of the same level/rank in an organization. It is

the most common channel of communication utilized in an organization and either is formal or
informal.
ADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
 It promotes understanding and cohesion within an organization.
 It enhances coordination within departments.
 It enhances efficiency in an organization.
 Workers respect each other as they are of the same rank.
 Some decisions are made at lower levels of the organization without going to the top hence
work moves fast.

DISADVANTAGES OF HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

 Workers may become too friendly to each other and stall/delay operations of the
organization.
 Workers may not respect each other hence non takes orders/instructions from the other as
they are of the same rank.
 OFFICIAL ETIQUETTE, PROTOCOL AND DIPLOMACY
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the meaning of etiquette, protocol and diplomacy.

b) Explain the importance of official etiquette

c) Explain the accepted protocol and diplomacy

Etiquette
Definition
Etiquette is defined as the code of ethical behavior regarding professional practice or action
among the members of a profession in their dealings with each other. It includes conventional
requirements as to social behavior and conduct as established in any class or community or for
any occasion.
Communication Etiquette therefore involves courteous and well-thought out interaction
between individuals or groups that includes informed speech, attentive and active listening and a
sincere grasp or understanding of what is being communicated.
In the business world, good manners are essential for getting ahead. Proper etiquette can help
people land jobs, get promotions and establish excellent relationships with others. The most
successful businessmen and women know how to turn on the charm and exhibit their best
business etiquette to get the job done professionally and effectively (Houston Chronicle (2015).
Need/ importance for Etiquette
 Etiquette makes you a cultured individual
 Etiquette teaches you the way to talk, walk and most importantly behave in the society.
 Etiquette is essential for a lasting first impression. The way you interact with your
superiors, parents, fellow workers, friends speak a lot about your personality and up- bringing.
 Etiquette enables the individuals to earn respect and appreciation in the society. No one
would feel like talking to a person who does not know how to speak or behave in the society.
Etiquette inculcates a feeling of trust and loyalty in the individuals. One becomes more
responsible and mature. Etiquette helps individuals to value relationships.
Communication etiquette
1. Acknowledge communications: When someone communicates with you, respond in a
way that indicates you got the message and will act appropriately. In some cases, the response
will simple be a thank you.
2. Provide follow up on previous communications: When you have had a communications,
there is an expectation of something being done. You take the action as communicated. The
remaining thing to be done is to communicate what has been done.
3. Be respectful in all communications: There is never a time when you should be
disrespectful of those you communicate with – even if you are responding to communications
that were disrespectful to you.
4. Communicate new information to those who need the information: Whenever you obtain
information that is generally not known by others, provide people with this information. The key
is to think of who needs to know the information and what parts of the information would be
useful to these people.
5. Communicate through the appropriate media: Tough sensitive issues should be
communicated in person. Information that is primarily factual can be communicated
electronically. Communications that require discussion does not work well electronically.
6. Communicate through channels: You should rarely communicate directly to those above
your functional leader or client unless approved by the person above you. The only time when
skipping of your boss might be appropriate is when there is an ethical or similar issue where your
boss is uninvolved.
7. Use the correct titles: You need to learn how to address different people. Some will have
titles. Some will prefer to be addressed formally (Mr., Ms).
8. Telephone Etiquette- It is essential to learn how one should interact with the other person
over the phone. Telephone etiquette refers to the way an individual should speak on the phone.
Never put the other person on long holds. Make sure you greet the other person. Take care of
your pitch and tone.
9. Politeness. Remember to always say please and thank you when you interact with others,
in person or over written correspondence. Being polite makes you pleasant to work with and
shows respect.
Protocol
Protocol is a system of rules that explain the correct conduct and procedures to be followed in
formal situations. Most of the communication encounters in business are formal.
Communication protocol therefore means standard procedures that are adhered to in
communication activities in an organization.
A company needs an overall communication protocol to establish a minimum standard of
dialogue and interaction which is directly proportional to the scenario at hand. To put it more
simply, the more important the issue, the higher the level of effective communication required.
With an effective communication protocol in place, what your clients will see is excellence in
service and they will be aware of the stage in which some process or activity they are interested
in has reached.
A complete communication protocol consists of the following:
a) It shows who is included in the communications.
b) It indicates what will be communicated. It shows how far or deep the communication will go.
c) It gives guidelines on when to communicate.
d) It tracks of the communication in order to ensure that it is maintained and effective.
e) It explains why a certain level or depth of communication required for a given issue.
f) It shows the channel to use e.g. phone, e-mail, posting on website, face to face presentation e.t.c.
Diplomacy
Definition:
a) It is the art of dealing with people in a sensitive and effective way. It involves the skill in
handling affairs without arousing hostility.
We all need to know what to say and how to say it in any situation. We need to know how to
communicate with diplomacy, tact and confidence.
The way in which we communicate can elicit positive or negative emotions. If we communicate
aggressively, without respect or sensitivity, or angry emotions we will prevent effective
communication from taking place. Communicating with diplomacy and tact is an approach that
combines strength and sensitivity and keeps negative emotions at bay.
Why be diplomatic?
In modern day and age, one has to practice diplomacy as it is essential to get one’s way in a
world that is highly competitive. What you say matters a lot. One has to be careful while
conveying issues as they would have an impact on one’s surroundings. Building up of personal
relationships depends upon your choice of words and how you convey them to the concerned
person.
It is essential to be diplomatic as what we convey does influence others actions. Much has to be
accomplished in our daily lives, and we need to interact with others in order to achieve it. We
may have to convince others and also get our way.
In the arena of international politics, much is conveyed diplomatically. Countries have to foster
relations between each other and naturally they have to be very careful in their public dealings.
Diplomacy plays an important role in striking deals. Senior leaders of various countries do not
convey much in their talks. They have to be careful in what they say. They do not reveal or
convey everything. They play with words. In fact, they do a lot of “sweet talk”.
How to be diplomatic in communication.
1. Think before you communicate. Even if you are angry or felling offended, think before
you say or do anything. Try to keep calm and evaluate the situation objectively and assess
the factual information before you without including emotions.
2. Use decisive language. Speak clearly in simple language so that the person or people you
are addressing won’t misunderstand your points.
3. Be non-confrontational. Avoid language that could be heard as confrontational or overly
aggressive.
4. Avoid highly emotional situations. If you are involved in a discussion that’s already
emotionally charged or argumentative, suggest to the parties involved to take a break and
return to it after calm has returned.
5. Choose a diplomatic posture. Use neutral body language to put your points across.
Maintain eye contact. Avoid waving your hand when you talk as this can be viewed as
aggressive or distracting. Do not engage in smiling all the time as it indicates lack of
serious intent. People will not take you seriously.
6. Stand your ground. Be firm in your responses and opinion but allow some degree of
flexibility.
Advantages of being diplomatic
 One strikes deals.
 One is able to win over people.
 Keeps enemies at bay.
 Settle disputes amicably.
 Also it makes you more closer to people as you are less likely to offend them
Telephone etiquette
1. When talking hold the mouthpiece an inch away from your lips and the earpiece
close to the ears.
2. Speak politely, confidently and in a positive and friendly tone.
3. Always be prepared to receive a call. To give and to receive information. Have a
paper, pen or pencil, telephone directory and an appointment book near or at
hand.
4. When you pick the receiver, you should first introduce your company, the
department or even you if desirable. Say a pleasant ‘good morning’ or ‘good
 afternoon’. It adds a cordial note to the response. Listen carefully without
interrupting the caller.
5. If part of the message is not clear, politely ask the caller to repeat it.
6. Avoid mumbling words together or talking through the nose or teeth.
7. Avoid clichés like ‘yes’, ‘ah’, ‘I see’, etc.
8. Do not shout into the telephone. Do not speak too low. Try to be as natural as
possible. Try to speak as if the person you are speaking to is sitting next to you.
9. In long distance calls, it is good to be loud but shouting should be avoided at all
costs.
10. In telephonic communication. Time is the most vital factor and so do not waste
time in idle personal talk. But at the same time do not sound abrupt also.
WRITING SKILLS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain paragraph development.

b) Explain the importance of punctuation marks.

c) Explain the courtesy in writing

Good writing skills are essential for effective communication. Learning to write well takes time
and practice.

PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation is the system of signs or symbols given to a reader to show how a sentence is
constructed and how it should be read.
Sentences are the building blocks used to construct written accounts. They are complete
statements. Punctuation shows how the sentence should be read and makes the meaning clear.
Every sentence should include, at least, a capital letter at the start, a full stop, exclamation mark
or question mark at the end. This basic system indicates that the sentence is complete.

1. Full stop (.)

 Used to end sentences (declarative sentences)

 Used after initials or abbreviations e.g. S.K Juma

note; its omitted from abbreviations consisting of initial letters that make pronounceable words
e.g. UNEP, COMESA ,UNESCO.

2. Comma (,)

 To indicate a short pause.

 To set off a noun of address e.g. Mr. Kaunda, please pass the salt.

 To indicate omission of a verb.

 To separate direct speech from the rest of the sentence.

 To separate items in a list.

3. Colon (:)
 To introduce an examples or series of items.

 To join two independent clauses where the second explains the first.

 To introduce a quotation.

4. Semi colon (;)

 To join together two independent clauses in place of commas.

 To introduce a list.

 To introduce an explanation.

5. Question mark

After a direct question.

6. Quotation marks/ inverted commas ("")

 To enclose direct words of a speaker.

 In titles of books , magazines , newspapers etc.

7. Exclamation mark (!)

 To end sentences that express strong feelings like anger, excitement, joy etc.

8. Ellipsis (....)

 To indicate a pause or gap e.g. I WA

 To indicate missing words, sentence without altering the original meaning.

9. Parent-hoses /brackets (British English)

 For asides and clarifying information e.g. she was his sister ( from his father's first marriage)

 To certain further thoughts or qualifying remarks.

10. Brackets []

 They are used for technical explanations or to clarify meaning.

11. Braces {}
 To contain two or more lines of text or listed items to show that they are considered as a
unit.

 Used in mathematical expressions.

12. Apostrophe

 To indicate the omission of a letter/ letters from a word e.g. wasn't.

 In the possessive case e.g. the cat's basket.

 In plural of lowercase letters e.g. mind your P's and A's.

13. Dash

 To separate words into statement.

 To mean to.

 To introduce a summarizing statement.

 To indicate a word or phrase repeated foe emphasis.

14. Hyphen

 To join two or more words together into a compound noun e.g. in-law, part-time. Back - to-
back. Well -known.

 To combine a root word and a prefix e.g. post -dated, co-pilot.

15. Capitalization

 The first word in a sentence.

 The pronoun I

 First word of a direct quotation.

 Proper nouns and adjectives derived from them.

 Title of books.

 All nouns and pronouns referring to God.

 Abbreviations of degree and personal title.

 Words used as form of address e.g. Dear, Madam.

COURTESY IN WRITING
Communicating in a business environment involves communicating with individuals. In both
written and oral communication, it is possible to be courteous while being direct and business-
oriented. The writer should be aware of the reader’s feelings. Most people respond more readily
to a positive interaction, according to a study conducted by the University of North Carolina that
found 52 percent of those interviewed said they “lost work time worrying about incidents of
rudeness.”
Strategies used:
 Proper salutations
Everyone appreciates having the correct salutation attached to their name. If a person is a doctor
or if a woman is married, they expect to have the correct salutation in a business letter. E.g. Mr.,
Mrs., Miss, Dr, Hon e.t.c.
 Proper greetings
The standard and most widely accepted way that a greeting is used to open a letter is “Dear,”
followed by the proper salutation, and the person’s last name. If you write a letter without using
this standard opening, it may immediately alienate your reader. Also, the greeting of “To Whom
it May Concern,” often comes off as cold or distant.
 Proper tone
You should always try to use the appropriate tone or attitude in your business correspondence.
The better you know someone, the more informal the tone can be. However, in most business
settings, the tone should remain somewhat formal. This formal tone relays the fact that your
message is courteous, but should also be taken seriously. The proper tone should make the reader
comfortable, while maintaining a certain level of respect.
 ClarityCourteous writing should be respectful, clear, and concise. Clarity is important
because it does not waste valuable time. Confusing messages will often be perceived as wasteful
by the reader. Clarity of thought and purpose is another essential element of a courteous letter.
 Use Nondiscriminatory Language
Nondiscriminatory language is language that treats all people equally. It does not use any
discriminatory words, remarks, or ideas. It is very important that the business writer
communicate in a way that expresses equality and respect for all individuals. Discriminatory
language can come between your message and your reader. Make sure your writing is free of
sexist language and free of bias based on such factors as race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual
orientation, and disability. Use neutral job titles.E.g. use the word Chairman but not Chairperson
 Stress the Benefits For the Reader
Write from the reader's perspective. Instead of simply writing from the perspective of what the
reader can do for you, write in a way that shows what you can do for the reader. A reader will
often read a document wondering "What's in it for me?" It is your job to tailor your document
accordingly.
Stressing reader benefits will help you to avoid sounding self-centered and uninterested.
 Use positive words and avoid negative words.

Paragraph development
What is a paragraph?
A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write
good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages.
Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can
have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose
your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).
The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph
The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to
transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if
you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting
evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as
long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then
perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a paragraph
To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity,
Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits
overlap. Using and adapting the following elements to your writings will help you construct
effective paragraphs.
A. Unity
The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or
major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.
B. Coherence
Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader.
C. A topic sentence
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is
going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the
fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last
sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the
topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is
a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it).
Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily
summarize what the paragraph is about.
D. Adequate development
The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately.
Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers
should be wary of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the
paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.
Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:
 Use examples and illustrations
 Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
 Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
 Use an anecdote or story
 Define terms in the paragraph
 Compare and contrast
 Evaluate causes and reasons
 Examine effects and consequences
 Analyze the topic
 Describe the topic
 Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
How do I know when to start a new paragraph?
You should start a new paragraph when:
 When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs.
If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea
should have its own paragraph.
 To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a
debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
 When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short
"break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing more readable. You would
create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
 When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your
introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions
and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's
purpose.
.ESSAY WRITING
An essay is a short piece of writing that generally shows the author's view on a particular subject.
There are many different kinds of essays, including narrative, descriptive, argumentative and
persuasive.

Types of essays
Narrative Essays
The first important thing to remember about a narrative essay is that it tells a story. The author
may write about
 an experience or event from his or her past
 a recent or an ongoing experience or event
 something that happened to somebody else, such as a parent or a grandparent
The second important thing about a narrative essay is that the story should have a point. In the
final paragraph, the author should come to an important conclusion about the experience that has
just been described.
Descriptive Essays
The purpose of a descriptive essay is to describe a person, place, or thing in such vivid detail that
the reader can easily form a precise mental picture of what is being written about. The author
may accomplish this by using imaginative language, interesting comparisons, and images that
appeal to the senses.
Informative/Explanatory Essays
An Informative/Explanatory essay teaches or informs your reader about a subject. This type of
essay can explain how something works, how to perform a task, the steps in a procedure, or why
something is the way it is. Ultimately, the reader should have a better understanding of the
subject after reading your paper.
Argumentative essay
The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic;
collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise
Manner.
The following steps, however, can be used to write any kind of essay.
 I.Establish Your Topic
1. Your may be assigned a topic or be asked to choose from among a few topics. The
assignment may contain certain key words that will suggest the content and structure of your
essay. For example, you may be asked to
 Analyze
 Argue
 Compare and contrast
 Describe
 Discuss
 Summarize
If you do not understand what you are being asked to do, check with your teacher.
2. You may be asked to find a topic on your own. Most people find this difficult. Give
yourself plenty of time to think about what you'd like to do. Trying to answer questions you have
about a particular subject may lead you to a good paper idea.
 What subject(s) are you interested in?
 What interests you most about a particular subject?
 Is there anything you wonder about or are puzzled about with regard to that
subject?
3. Be sure your topic is narrow enough so that you can write about it in detail in the number
of pages that you are allowed. For example, say you are asked to write a 1-page essay about
someone in your family. Since you only have a limited number of pages, you may want to focus
on one particular characteristic of that person, or one particular incident from that person's life,
rather than trying to write about that person's entire life. Having a narrow focus will help you
write a more interesting paper.
4. One method for narrowing down your topic is called brainstorming. Brainstorming is a
useful way to let ideas you didn't know you had come to the surface.
 Sit down with a pencil and paper, or at your computer, and write whatever comes
into your head about your topic, no matter how confused or disorganized.
 Keep writing for a short but specific amount of time, say 3–5 minutes. Don't stop
to change what you've written or to correct spelling or grammar errors.
 After a few minutes, read through what you have written. You will probably
throw out most of it, but some of what you've written may give you an idea you can develop.
 Do some more brainstorming and see what else you can come up with.
II.Organize Your Ideas
1. Develop an outline to organize your ideas. An outline shows your main ideas and the
order in which you are going to write about them. Click here to see some sample outlines.
 Write down all the main ideas.
 List the subordinate ideas below the main ideas.
 Avoid any repetition of ideas.
III.Write a First Draft
1. Every essay or paper is made up of three parts:
 Introduction
 Body
 Conclusion
 2. The introduction is the first paragraph of the paper. It often begins with a general
statement about the topic and ends with a more specific statement of the main idea of your paper.
The purpose of the introduction is to
 let the reader know what the topic is
 inform the reader about your point of view
 arouse the reader's curiosity so that he or she will want to read about your topic
3. The body of the paper follows the introduction. It consists of a number of paragraphs in
which you develop your ideas in detail.
 Limit each paragraph to one main idea. (Don't try to talk about more than one idea
per paragraph.)
 Prove your points continually by using specific examples and quotations.
 Use transition words to ensure a smooth flow of ideas from paragraph to
paragraph.
4. The conclusion is the last paragraph of the paper. Its purpose is to
 summarize your main points, leaving out specific examples
 restate the main idea of the paper
IV.Revise the First Draft
A. Try to set aside your draft for a day or two before revising. This makes it easier to view
your work objectively and see any gaps or problems.
B. Revising involves rethinking your ideas, refining your arguments, reorganizing
paragraphs, and rewording sentences. You may need to develop your ideas in more detail, give
more evidence to support your claims, or delete material that is unnecessary. For more advice on
revising and a sample revision, click here.
C. Read your paper out loud. This sometimes makes it easier to identify writing that is
awkward or unclear.
D. Have somebody else read the paper and tell you if there's anything that's unclear or
confusing.
V.Proofread the Final Draft
1. Look for careless errors such as misspelled words and incorrect punctuation and
capitalization.
2. Errors are harder to spot on a computer screen than on paper. If you type your paper on a
computer, print out a copy to proofread. Remember, spell checkers and grammar checkers don't
always catch errors, so it is best not to rely on them too much.
FUNCTIONAL WRITING
Functional writing is writing that is meant to fulfill real life purposes, such as: making a request
or giving advice, inviting someone for a visit or to a function, applying for something e.t.c.
Functional writing includes the writing of business letters, memorandum, notices, agenda,
minutes, advertisements, e-mail, facsimile and press releases.
A. Business letters/ E-mail
Functions of a business letter
 To provide a convenient and inexpensive means to communicate without personal
contact.
 To seek or give information
 To furnish evidence of transactions entered into.
 To provide a record for future reference
Types of business letters
1. Letters of inquiry
2. Letters answering a request
3. Claim and adjustment letters
4. Credit letters
5. Collection letters
6. Sales letters
7. Employment letters
8. Social letters
9. Memorandum

Use a standard business letter format and template

The most widely used format for business letters is "block style," where the text of the entire
letter is justified left. The text is single spaced, except for double spaces between paragraphs.
Typically margins are about 1 inch (25.4 mm) on all sides of the document, which is the default
setting for most word-processing programs. If you are using Microsoft Word, you can turn to its
built-in Letter Wizard for additional formatting assistance (look on the Tools menu).
Parts of a business letter
1. Letterhead
It is also known as heading or address. It appears at the top of the page. It contains the name of
the company, address, logo, telephone number etc.
2. Date
It enables quick reference in future and helps in prompt action and filing. It consists of the day,
month and year.
3. Reference
It written below the dateline close to the left margin. It serves to identify either the department or
the section from which the letter is being sent or the particular file in which the correspondence
is to be found. The purpose of the reference is to enable replies to be linked with the previous
correspondence and also to send replies to these letters to the proper official or department.
4. Inside address
It contains the name and address of the firm or the individual to whom the letter is written. It
helps the outward clerk to write the same address on the cover. It should be written below the
reference line.
5. Salutation
This is the greeting part which commences the letter and precedes the message erg Dear Sir,
Dear Madam, Dear Mr. Kariuki etc.
6. Body of the letter
This is the part containing the message or the information. It consists of:
 Reference or subject
It is a brief one-line mention of the major theme of the letter right in the beginning. It is written
below the salutation.
 Opening paragraph
It shows the intent of the letter.
 Main paragraph
It contains the subject matter of the letter. It should be clear, simple and correct.
 Closing paragraph
It must motivate the action that the writer wants from the reader.
7. Complementary close
It is a polite way of ending a letter e.g. Yours Faithfully, Yours sincerely etc.
8. Signature
It is the assent of the writer to the subject matter of the letter and is a practical necessity. It
contains the writer’s name, status, department etc. it is just below the complementary close.
9. Enclosures
A note should be made about the enclosures.
10. Carbon copies
Letters sent outside the organization may be brought to the attention of senior official for their
information. This is done by sending a carbon copy of the original to the official concerned. It is
indicated by typing on the originals the abbreviation ‘c.c’ and the name of the person to whom
the letter is sent at the foot of the page on the left hand side.
B. Memorandum
A memo is:
 a short document used for communicating inside an organisation
It contains To, From, Date, Subject Headings and Message sections
Elements of a memo
Memos should have the following sections and content:

1. Main heading. The heading ‘memo’ or ‘memorandum’ makes clear the purpose of the
document and ensures that it stands out.
2. 'To' section. Contains the name of the receiver.
3. ‘From' section. Contains the name of the sender.
4. 'Date' section.
5. A Subject Heading. It should be brief and exact. It makes clear immediately what the
memo is about.
6. First paragraph. This provides a background, context or reason for the information or
instructions contained in the second paragraph. It should be kept short.
7. Second paragraph. This is the actual message, information, instructions or reminder and
should follow logically from the first paragraph.
8. Initials of the sender. In some organizations the writer will add his/ her initials at the foot
of the memo.
C. Press release
A press release, news release, media release, press statement or video release is a written or
recorded communication directed at members of the news media for the purpose of announcing
something newsworthy. Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors and
journalists at newspapers, magazines, radio stations, television stations or television networks.
Steps follow in coming up with a good press release
1. Grab attention with a good headline.
The beginning of a press release -- just as with a magazine article, book or promotional pamphlet
-- is the most important. A strong headline will pull in journalists seeking good stories. Your
headline should be as engaging as it is accurate.
2. Get right to the point in the first paragraph.
Because reporters are busy people, you must assume that they will only read the first sentence
and then scan the rest. Get the message of your press release out quickly. Every important point
should be addressed in the first few sentences. The subsequent paragraphs should be for
supporting information.
3. Include hard numbers.
Include in the press release hard numbers that support the significance of your product or
announcement. If you're claiming a trend, you need proof to back it up. Quantify your argument
and it will become much more compelling.
4. Make it grammatically flawless.
Proofread your press release -- and let a few other people proofread it as well -- before sending it
out. Even a single mistake can dissuade a reporter from taking you seriously.
5. Include quotes whenever possible.
Including a good quote from someone in the company or close to the product/event can give a
human element to the press release, as well as being a source of information in its own right.
6. Include your contact information.
A common oversight that can render a press release ineffectual is a lack of contact information
for reporters to follow up with. Whether you or someone else at the company is the point of
contact, don't forget to include an email address and phone number on the release (preferably at
the top of the page).
7. One page is best -- and two is the maximum.
As with most good writing, shorter is usually better. Limit yourself to one page, though two
pages are acceptable. This will also force you to condense your most important information into
a more readable document -- something journalists are always looking for.
8. Provide access to more information.
You must limit your press release to one page (or two, if you must), but that doesn't mean you
can't show people how to learn more. Providing relevant links to your company's website, where
prospective writers can learn more about your mission and what you've already accomplished is
a crucial element to the release. Don't make journalists/ writers search on their own for more
information -- guide them as quickly as possible to your website, and keep their interest piqued.

D. Advertisement
A paid, non-personal communication from an identified sponsor using mass media to persuade or
influence an audience.
Tips for writing effective advertisements
 Know your advertising objective
Start with the end in mind. What do you want the reader to do? Do you want them to call you?
Do you want the reader to send an application in? Do you want them to buy something? Once
you know your objective that everything in your ad should be designed to accomplish that
objective.
A lot of people think that what they want is exposure to as many people as possible. If you have
lots of money to spend then that could be a good idea. But, if you are concerned about your
budget and you want to minimize your cost per sale then I suggest you are better off with an ad
that is geared toward creating a response.
 Get Their Attention
Potential clients get flooded with marketing messages every day. If you want to stand out from
the crowd you will need to craft a headline that will grab their attention.
You need to get their attention but it also needs to be relevant to your product or service and be
truthful.
 Use Plain English

Eliminate big words with lots of syllables and technical jargon because too many people will not
be able understand you.
 Write About The Benefits
Features describe and benefits sell. Don't make the mistake of writing only about the features of
your product. Write also about the benefits.
E. Notice writing
A notice is a very short piece of writing which is usually formal in style. It is widely used by
individuals and organizations to announce events and celebrations, births and deaths, occasions
like inaugurations or sales, to issue public instructions, to make appeals and to extend invitations.
Most notices are meant to be pinned up or pasted on special boards meant for this specific
purpose only. There must be one or more such notice board in the school and other organization.
Whereas notices issued by the Government departments and other big organization also appear
in various newspapers.
How to Write a Notice?
Writing an effective notice is a kind of art that can be acquired with practice with keeping some
basic points in mind while writing them out. Your notice should give complete information and
must be written in a clear and thought through style and easily understandable language.
Content that a good effective notice must include in it are:
 Name of the Organization, Institution or Office issuing it.
 Date of issuing of a particular notice.
 The heading ‘Notice’ to make it very clear.
 A suitable description/ eye-catching caption or heading to hold the immediate attention of
the reader.
 Purpose for which it has been written like calling a meeting, drawing attention, making
an appeal or informing general public about some issue of concern etc.
 Details of schedule i.e. date, time, venue, programme, duration etc. in case the notice is
about an event to be organized in the near future.
SUMMARY
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Define summary.

b) Explain steps of summary writing.

Def 1: A summary is a condensed version of a larger reading.

Def 2: A summary is a shortened version of a text that highlights its key points.

The primary purpose of a summary is to give an accurate and objective representation of what
the work says.
To summarize, you must read a passage closely, finding the main ideas and supporting ideas.
Then you must briefly write down those ideas in a few sentences or a paragraph.
A summary is not a rewrite of the original piece and should not be long. To write a summary,
use your own words to express briefly the main idea and relevant details of the piece you have
read. Your purpose in writing the summary is to give the basic ideas of the original
reading. What was it about and what did the author want to communicate?
A summary:
1. Is an essential condensation in your own words.
2. Answers the question “what is the author really saying?”
3. Is the result of careful “listening” to the author.
4. Remains faithful to the author's emphasis and interpretation.
5. Does not disagree with or critique the author's opinions.

Importance of summarizing
 The process of summarizing enables you to understand the original text better.
 It enables anybody who does not want to read the entire text have to know what it is all
about.
 The knowledge you gain by summarizing makes it possible for you to analyze and
critique the original text.

General rules/ considerations in summary writing

1. You should not include your own ideas or interpretations. Do not put in your opinion the
issue or topic discussed in the original piece
2. Do not rewrite the original piece.
3. Keep your summary short.
4. Use your own words.
5. Refer to the central and main ideas of the original piece.
6. Read with who, what, when, where, why and how questions in mind

Steps in summary writing

1. Skim (read quickly) the text. Don't take any notes this time -- just take in the minimum
about the basic plot of the book or article. You'll be able to concentrate on the smaller things
later.
 Think of the focus while you're reading. Get down the most basic of questions: Who?
What? When? Where? Why? How? This bare bones thinking can help you to effectively and
quickly write a pertinent summary.
2. Read the text thoroughly. In order to write an accurate summary, you must understand
what you're reading. Try reading with the author's purpose in mind.
 Take notes and highlight as you read. Take note of the subheadings, even if there aren't
any. Dividing it into sections in your mind will help you organize your summary.
 Consider why you have been assigned the text. Write down the author's main point and
the main points of each section. Look for the writer's thesis and underline it. This is the main
idea of the work.
3. Outline the article. This serves as the skeleton of your summary. Write down the main
points of each section, but do not go into minor detail. synopsis
 It'll benefit you to write it in your own words now; that will save you time translating
later. If you can't get around copying from the original, put quotation marks around it. Only do
this with incredibly important sentences that cannot be reworded.
4. Start writing the summary with a clear identification of the work. This automatically
lets your readers know your intentions and that you're covering the work of another author.
Clearly identify (in the present tense) the background information needed for your summary i.e.
the type of work, title, author, and main point.
5. Summarize the piece as a whole. Omit nothing important and strive for overall
coherence through appropriate transitions. Write using "summarizing language." Your reader
needs to be reminded that this is not your own work. Use phrases like the article claims,the
author suggests, etc.
Present the material in a neutral fashion. Your opinions, ideas, and interpretations should be left
in your brain -- don't put them into your summary. Be conscious of choosing your words. Only
include what was in the original work.
Be concise. This is a summary -- it should be much shorter than the original piece. If you're
working on an article, give yourself a target length of 1/4 the original article.
6. Conclude with a final statement. The final statement should reflect the significance of
the book or article from the author's standpoint. Be careful not to include in the conclusion any
of your own assumptions or opinions.
7. Check for accuracy. Check whether the summary is making the same points as the
article itself. Make sure you have not omitted anything important
8. Revise your work. Make sure that the wording is appropriate and there is use of
transitions to make it as easy to read as possible. Look out for spelling, grammar, and
punctuation errors. Your credibility will seriously be questioned if your summary contains these
mistakes.
 REPORT WRITING SKILLS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain features of a good report.

b) Explain types of report.

c) Explain format of a report.

Definition:
1. A report refers to information that has been carefully gathered and logically presented.
2. A report is a document which investigates a specific subject according to a prescribed/
given format and for a clearly defined readership/ audience who normally are those in superior
positions within a company or organization.

Features of a good report

a) Factual. A good report should be based on facts and not imagination. The facts should be
accurate.
b) Clarity. A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts.
The report writer must proceed systematically. He should make his/ her purpose clear, define his/
her sources, state the findings and finally make the necessary recommendations. The report
should be divided into short paragraphs giving them headings, and insert other suitable signposts
to achieve greater clarity.
c) Objective. It should be impartial. It should not have personal opinion, bias or prejudice.
d) Orderly / structured in a predetermined fashion. Its contents should be clearly and
logically arranged.
e) Detailed. All relevant information should be included in the report.
f) Precise. In a good report the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it.
Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the report.
g) Brevity. A good report should be brief. But brevity should not be achieved at the cost of
clarity or completeness.
h) Grammatical accuracy.
Types of reports
1. Oral Report
Oral Report- is a presentation of factual information to an audience by word of mouth.
2. Written report
Written reports are a written document describing the findings of some individual or group and
are often used to display the result of an experiment, investigation, or inquiry.
3. Management reports
These are reports used by business managers to monitor the success of their businesses and
operations. These reports may include financial, labor and traffic reports.
4. Operations procedure
This is a prescribed procedure to be followed routinely. It is a particular course of action
intended to achieve a result.
5. Formal reports
They are official in nature. They contain information resulting from investigations. They are
about major issues of importance. They are mostly used by a committee or a working party. The
findings are directed at the appointing authority.
6. Informal reports
They are not official in nature. They are produced by junior clerks and personnel.
7. Routine reportsThese are reports submitted on a fixed time span e.g. daily basis, weekly
basis, monthly basis or even annually. They may cover petty expenses on daily basis or
attendance of workers on daily basis. They may also cover various divisions or units of
production on a daily basis.
8. Statutory reports
These are those reports which have a legal status and they are required by law e.g. auditor
general’s, financial reports or chairman’s report to the annual general meeting of the company’s
stakeholders.
9. Financial reports
These are reports prepared by the manager of the finance department or the controller of finance.
They provide valuable information on the financial structure, the effectiveness of the use of
capital, the need and ways of reorganizing capital resources etc.
Role/ uses of reports in an organization
1. Reports facilitate decision making and planning
Reports provide reliable data which can be used in the planning and decision making process. It
acts as a source of reliable information for long term planning and decision making.
2. Reports facilitate framing of personnel policies
Certain reports relating to employees are useful while preparing personnel policies such as
promotion policy, training policy and welfare facilities to employees.
3. Reports used give information to shareholders
Some company reports are prepared yearly for the benefit of shareholders. Annual reports for
example, are prepared and sent to all shareholders before the AGM because they give
information about the progress of the company.
4. Reports are a used for internal communication
Reports acts as an effective means of communication within the organization. They provide
feedback to employees and are prepared for the information and guidance of others connected
with the matter / problem.
5. Reports disclose unknown information
Reports provide information, which may not be known previously. The committee members
collect data, draw conclusions and provide information which may be new to all concerned
parties.
6. Report gives Information to employees
Reports are available to managers and departments for internal use. They are widely used by the
departments for guidance. Report provide a feedback to employees and are useful for their self-
improvement.
 7. Report gives reliable permanent information
The information provided by a report is a permanent addition to the information available to the
office. We have census reports (prepared since last 100 years) which are used even today for
reference purpose.
8. Reports give complete & updated information
A report provides complete, factual and an up-to-date information about a particular matter or
subject.
STEPS TO TAKE IN PREPARATION FOR REPORT WRITING
All reports need to be clear, concise and well structured. With careful planning, the writing of a
report will be made much easier. The following are the steps to take in report writing.
Step One: Understanding the purpose of the report
You must understand the purpose of your report as described in your report instructions.
Consider who the report is for and why it is being written. Understand the terms of reference,
scope and purpose of the report.
Step Two: Gathering and selecting information
Once you are clear about the purpose of your report, you need to begin to collect data relevant to
the report. Data may come from a variety of sources, and may be collected using data collection
tools like questionnaires, interviews schedules or by surveying.
Step Three: Organizing your material
Once you have gathered information you need to decide what will be included and in what
sequence it should be presented. Begin by grouping together points that are related. These may
form topics/ sections or chapters. Choose an order for your material that is logical and easy to
follow.
Step Four: Analyze your material
Before you begin to write your first draft of the report, take time to consider and make notes on
the points you will make using the facts and evidence you have gathered. Ask yourself what
conclusions can be drawn from the material? What are the limitations or flaws in the evidence?
Do certain pieces of evidence conflict with one another? Relate the information you have
gathered to the problem or issue described in the report brief.
Step five: Write the draft
Use short words and sentences. Avoid use of jargon. Avoid ambiguity.
Step six: Revise and proof read the draft (Refer to notes on paragraph development)
GENERAL REPORT FORMAT GUIDELINES
When you write a report, you will want to make it easy to read and understand. Here are some
guidelines to apply to any report you write.
 Use lists: Whenever you can, help your reader by using lists. Give your lists visual
emphasis by bullets.
 Use headings and subheadings: Use headings and subheadings to guide your reader
through the organization of the report and list them in the table of contents. Each section should
have a clear topic statement to let the reader know what will be included in the section.
 Use clear typefaces, such as Times New Roman or Arial: Avoid using more than one
typeface in a document. Bold section headings for emphasis.
 Use white space to enhance your information: Dense blocks of text are difficult to read
and will make it more difficult for your readers to find the information they need. For further
information on this topic, see the OWL resource on document design, HATS.
 The structure of a report
I.Preliminaries
 Title Page/ cover page
 Executive Summary
 Terms of Reference
 Table of contents
 Acknowledgements
II.Body
 Introduction
 Methods
 Findings
 Discussion
 Conclusion
 Recommendations
III.Appendices
IV.Bibliography
V.Glossary of Technical Terms
1. Title Page
It explicitly describes the purpose of the report. It may include could be your name, the date and
for whom the report is written.
2. Executive Summary
It gives an overview of subject matter, methods of analysis, findings, and recommendations in
brief detail.
3. Terms of Reference
This section gives precise indication of the area covered by the report. Under this heading you
could include a brief explanation of who will read the report (audience) why it was written
(purpose) and how it was written (methods).
4. Table of contents
It lists the different chapters and/or headings together with the page numbers. Your contents page
should be presented in such a way that the reader can quickly scan the list of headings and locate
a particular part of the report. You may want to number chapter headings and subheadings in
addition to providing page references. Whatever numbering system you use, be sure that it is
clear and consistent throughout.
5. Introduction
The introduction sets the scene for the main body of the report. It explains the aims and
objectives of the report in detail. It identifies any problems or limitations in the scope of the
report gives and a description of research methods, the parameters of the research and any
necessary background history.
6. Methods
Information under this heading may include: a list of equipment used; explanations of procedures
followed; relevant information on materials used including sources of materials and details of
any necessary preparation; reference to any problems encountered and subsequent changes in
procedure.
7. Findings
This section should include a summary of the results of the investigation or experiment together
with any necessary diagrams, graphs or tables of gathered data that support your results. Present
 your results in a logical order without comment. Discussion of your results should take place in
the main body (Discussion) of the report.
8. Discussion
This is where you discuss the findings. The facts and evidence you have gathered should be
analyzed and discussed with specific reference to the problem or issue. If your discussion section
is lengthy you might divide it into section headings. Your points should be grouped and arranged
in an order that is logical and easy to follow. Use headings and subheadings to create a clear
structure for your material. Use bullet points to present a series of points in an easy-to-follow list.
As with the whole report, all sources used should be acknowledged and correctly referenced.
9. Conclusion
It describes that section of the report which interprets the facts and observations presented in the
findings. No new material should be introduced in the conclusion.
10. Recommendations
This section is used to put forward a future course of action concerning the topic under
investigation.
11. Appendices
This is where youinclude all the supporting information you have used or is contained in the
body of the report. This might include tables, graphs, questionnaires, surveys or transcripts.
12. Bibliography
It lists all published sources referred to in your report. It is listed alphabetically. There are
different styles of using references and bibliographies. Refer to the study guide Referencing and
Bibliographies and check your departmental handbook for guidelines. Texts which you consulted
but did not refer to directly could be grouped under a separate heading such as 'Background
Reading' and listed in alphabetical order using the same format as in your bibliography.
13. Acknowledgements
Where appropriate you may wish to acknowledge the assistance of particular organisations or
individuals who provided information, advice or help.
14. Glossary of Technical Terms
This is a brief, clear description of each term used. You can also include in this section
explanations of the acronyms (short forms), abbreviations or standard units used in your report.
Audience analysis (check ex book notes)
Data collection
Data collection refers to the gathering of information to serve or prove some facts. Data
collection is aimed at proving or refuting some facts.
Purpose of data collection
 To obtain information
 To keep on record
 To make decisions about important issues
 To pass on information to others
Sources of data
There are two major sources of data. These are primary sources and secondary sources.
i.Primary sources
This is information gathered directly from respondents. They provide first-hand information or
original data. e.g. Interviews, diaries, letters, journals, original hand-written manuscripts,
newspaper and magazine clippings, government documents, etc.This is through questionnaires,
 interviews, focused group discussions, observation and experimental studies. It involves creating
new data.
ii.Secondary sources
This is data gathered and recorded by someone else prior to and for a purpose other that the
current project. This is data that is being reused usually in a different context e.g. textbooks,
review articles, biographies, historical films, music and art, articles about people and events from
the past
Data collection instruments/ tools
Questionnaires, interview schedules e.t.c
Data analysis
Data analysis refers to examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and making
deductions and inferences. The methods or statistics used for data analysis are influenced by the
stated objectives, research questions or hypothesis, and the research design used.
Reading skills
Improving your reading skills will reduce unnecessary reading time and enable you to read in a
more focused and selective manner. You will also be able to increase your levels of
understanding and concentration.
Reading for study
You already use a range of reading styles in everyday situations. The normal reading style that
you might use for reading a novel is to read in detail, focusing on every word in sequence from
start to finish. If it is a magazine you are reading, you might flick through the pages to see which
articles are of interest. When you look in a telephone directory for a particular name, you
purposefully ignore all other entries and focus your attention on spotting the name you want.
These everyday reading skills can be applied to your studies.
To improve your reading skills you need to:
 have clear reading goals;
 choose the right texts;
 use the right reading style;
 use note taking techniques.
 Reading goals
Clear reading goals can significantly increase your reading efficiency.
Use your reading goals to help you identify the information that is relevant to your current task.
 Choosing a text
Assess the text to see if it contains information that is relevant to your reading goals.
 Reading style
Scanning
Scanning is where you pass your eyes speedily over a section of text in order to find particular
words or phrases that are relevant to your current task. You can scan:
 the introduction or preface of a text;
 the first or last paragraphs of chapters;
 the concluding or summarizing chapter of a text;
 the book index.
Skimming
Skimming is the process of speedy reading for general meaning. Concentrate on identifying the
central or main points. Use this technique to:
 pre-view a selection of text prior to detailed reading;
 refresh your understanding of a selection of text following detailed reading.
Detailed reading and note taking
Once you have selected useful information, you can begin to read in detail. Note taking
techniques provide a useful aid to reading. Use:
 Underlining and highlighting to pick out what seem to you the most central or
important words and phrases. Do this in your own copy of texts or on photocopies - never on
borrowed texts;
 Keywords to record the main headings as you read. Use one or two keywords for each
main point. Keywords can be used when you don't want to mark the text;
 Questions to encourage you to take an active approach to your reading. Record your
questions as you read. They can also be used as prompts for follow up work;
 Summaries to check you have understood what you have read. Pause after a section of
text and put what you have read in your own words. Skim over the text to check the accuracy of
your summary, filling in any significant gaps.
CONDUCTING MEETINGS AND MINUTE WRITING
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Define terms and concepts use.

b) State the types of minutes.

c) Explain challenges of meeting and minutes writing

Definitions
 A meeting is a gathering of two or more people that has been convened for the purpose of
achieving a common goal through verbal interaction, such as sharing information or reaching
agreement. Meetings may occur face to face or virtually, as mediated by communications
technology, such as a telephone conference call, a skyped conference call or a videoconference.
 Formal or informal deliberative assembly of individualscalled to debate certain issues and
problems, and to take decisions.

Formal meetings are held at definitetimes, at a definite place, and usually for a definite duration
to follow an agreed upon agenda. The opposite is true for informal meetings.

Minutes
They are notes recounting the transactions occurring at a meeting or official proceeding. Minutes
describe the events of the meeting, starting with a list of attendees, a statement of the issues
considered by the participants, and related responses or decisions for the issues.
Role of Meetings
Meetings are an important organizational tool as they can be used to:
 Develop ideas
 Solve problems
 Make decisions
 To understand a situation, exchange ideas and experiences
 To inform, explain, present ideas
 To give and get feedback on new ideas
 To give training
 To plan and prepare for action
 To resolve differences and misunderstandings
 To generate enthusiasm and seek cooperation
 To review past performance and evaluate it
 To create a feeling of continuity and solidarity in a body’s working.
Types of meeting
Types of meetings will naturally vary between different organisations. Below are some type of
meetings that take place in an organization:
a) Annual General Meeting (AGM)
 A formal meeting, held annually, where, those responsible for running the company (the
directors) meet with those who own it (the shareholders). The AGM for a company must be held
annually.
b) Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM)
This is a general meeting which is called to deal with urgent matters which require resolution
between AGMs.
c) Board meetings
Meetings held by directors of companies or institutions.
d) Committee meetings
These are meetings involving a group of people who have been drawn from the larger group for
the purposes of managing specific issues.
e) Management meetings
Management meetings can take many forms depending on the structure of the organisation.
These meetings involve managerial decision making at various levels. For example, some
meetings will involve the senior management team, while others will involve middle
management or will cover both groups.
f) Departmental meetings
These are periodic meetings attended by all departmental staff to discuss and address
departmental issues (e.g. reviewing performance, setting objectives, reporting on the outcome of
actions taken and discussing any other matters in connection with departmental operations).
g) Steering group meetings
A steering group may be formed to take a high-level overview of a project. The group is usually
composed of senior executives, project leaders and possibly external advisors to the organisation.
h) Team briefings
These are meetings held by the team leader to discuss issues with members of the team (e.g.
progress reviews, allocation of tasks, setting objectives, performance and motivational issues).
i) One-off informal meetings
These are meetings that take place anywhere at any time. They may be informal discussions
between one or two employees or a small group.
Role/duties of the chairperson
i.To prepare the agenda. This is a list of items to be discussed.
ii.To declare the meeting formally open at the appropriate time.
iii.To introduce each item for discussion together with the member who is to talk about it where
necessary.
iv.To ensure that the meeting works through each agenda at a reasonable pace.
v.To make sure that no one is allowed to dominate the discussion by seeking the views of everyone
in the meeting.
vi.To intervene if the discussion becomes heated or if personal animosity or abuse seems likely.
vii.To supervise voting procedures, count votes and announce the results.
viii.To ensure that a minutes of the previous meeting are produced by the secretary and circulated to
each member for agreement at the next meeting.
Roles/ duties of the secretary
i.To send out notices of the meeting in good time to all the members.
ii.Together with the chair person, they draw agenda and to send copies of it to the members in
good time before the meeting.
iii.To circulate among members any documents that might be necessary to enable them to
contribute fully to the discussion of the matters listed on the agenda.
iv.To make arrangements for the accommodation of members who have to travel a long distance to
attend the meetings.

Planning a meeting
Planning improves participation by ensuring that discussion is on a single topic and that the
members are well prepared for the meeting. This is the responsibility of the Chairperson,
Secretary and Executive, depending on the type of organization.
Planning should include the following:
1. Notification: Everyone should been notified of the date, time and venue of the meeting.
2. Preparing the agenda: The agenda is a list of the most important issues for the members
to discuss. It is drawn from the Matters Arising from the previous meeting and from the
discussions of the Executive or Secretariat.
How to Conducting a meeting
1. The chair calls the meeting to order at the scheduled start time even if someone is running
late.
2. Respect the schedules of your meeting participants and end the meeting on time as well.
If you can't cover all of the points within the allotted time, move it to the agenda of the very next
meeting.
3. Ask a secretary or other meeting participant to take minutes at every business meeting so
that everyone will recall what was discussed and decisions made.
4. Pass out a written meeting agenda to each participant to clarify the direction of the
meeting. Pass out the previous meeting's minutes as well.
5. Introduce any guests in attendance at your business meeting before you get started.
6. Summarize the purpose of the meeting and what you want to accomplish at the very
beginning. Then start with the first item in your agenda.
7. Follow your agenda closely and do not allow meeting participants to veer off of the order
of issues to discuss.
8. Prohibit meeting participants from insulting, talking over, talking loudly, belittling or
raising his voice to other members at the meeting. This causes productivity to suffer. If someone
is being repeatedly violating these basic rules of conduct at your meeting, ask him to leave.
9. Transition to each new item on your agenda with finality and do not backtrack. Moderate
the meeting if necessary by giving each member the go-ahead to speak his mind on the issue.
Ask each person to limit her point to two minutes or less.
10. Leave time at the end of the meeting for a short question and answer session to clarify
points of confusion during the meeting or to allow a particularly vocal participant who has a
relevant and important point to voice his thoughts briefly.
11. End your meeting on a positive note that inspires action. Summarize what each member
must do from this point forward to accomplish the goals and issues discussed.
Advantages of Meetings:
i.It Saves time:
This is because one can meet a large number of people at a time.
ii.Improve decision:
 Improved decision can be taken through meeting. This is because every matter is discussed
considering the pros and cons of an issue. A Proverb says, “Two heads are better than one.”
iii.Information Sharing
A key advantage of meetings, from those held within the office among staff to meetings between
a company and its clients, is that they provide an opportunity to share information. This could be
as simple as sharing updates on financials or recognizing new employees to more complex
issues, such as contract negotiations, new client presentations or addressing problems with an
account. An actual meeting pinpoints a time and place to have in-depth discussions without other
distractions or work getting in the way.

iv.Social and emotional support: Members get personal support from each other when they meet
and exchange ideas.
v.Feeling of being consulted: Members get the feeling that they have been consulted and this is
useful in getting their intelligent and willing cooperation.
vi.Idea development: Ideas are systematically thought about, analyzed and improved in the
meeting
vii.Various interest groups represented: In a meeting many interest groups can be represented and
minorities can also be given due attention.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive:
Meetings are expensive to arrange – they require a venue, paperwork, prior communication, and
travelling by the attendees.
2. Open to disruption:
3. Formalities: There are many formalities to hold on a meeting. Agenda, minutes,
regulations are needed for a valid meeting.
Challenges faced in conducting of meetings
i.Not finishing on time
Meetings often run overtime and consequently many agenda items don't get adequate coverage
or don't even get covered at all.
ii.Difficulty in making decisions
Some meetings seem to drag on as group members struggle to reach consensus and make
decisions. The responsibility for coming to decisions rests squarely with the chair or leader.
iii.Dominant Participants
Dominant participants often suppress collaborative problem solving and creativity among
participants. The chairperson needs to see all that members are given equal opportunities to
contribute.
iv.Silent Participants
Some people are quiet in meetings for different reasons. Some people are reticent/ reserved by
nature. Others are fearful that their opinions will be ridiculed and dismissed. Some are not
comfortable speaking in the presence of strangers.
v.Rehashing Decisions
Issues that were discussed and decided on in previous meetings sometimes re-emerge to be
rehashed. This can be very discouraging to the group or committee. Some reasons for this
include:
 People were not aware that a conclusive decision was actually made regarding a specific
issue.
  People recall that a decision was made, but the record of it is not available.
 Dominant participants pushed through a decision in a previous meeting and silent
participants begin to speak up afterwards.
vi.Key persons don't attend
When key members and/or staff don't attend meetings, decisions may be made that are later
questioned and not implemented as hoped. As a chairperson, you can help ensure that key
players attend meetings and provide input when needed.
Challenges in minute writing
 It is difficult to know exactly what has been agreed upon when members are not sticking
to the point and lots of different suggestions are being at once.
 The discussion moving from one agenda to another before it has been exhaustively
discussed.
 Everyone talking at once, such that you can’t follow the discussion
 Where there is a long and confusing discussion and you don’t know which bits are
important to write down.
 Where the secretary wants to contribute at the same time write the minutes.
 Being nervous about getting minutes writing right.

Twelve Qualities of an Effective Meeting

 Well-prepared

 People understand and carry out their roles

 Efficient and effective meeting process

 Safe, stimulating environment

 Participants able to contribute freely

 Full potential of the group is utilized

 Time is used well

 Minimal amount of wheel-spinning

 Clear agreement reached

 Consensus fully supported

 An energized team leaves the room to implement the decisions made

 Clear understanding of who will do what, by when, to follow through on meeting

agreements

 Everyone participates
The characteristics of a good agenda:-
1. The names of expected attendees.
2. The exact place date.
3. The starttime for starting the meeting.
4. Rough indication of the meeting next time.
5. The time expected to be end.
6. Objective of the meeting.
7. Issues discussed and resolved.
8. Action will taken.
Types of minutes
How you write your minutes should be determined by how they will be used.
Minutes can be informal or formal depending on their purpose and audience.
1. Action minutes
These are written by internal groups, such as teams or project groups, which meet on a regular
basis and the minutes they produce minutes that emphasize action points without worrying about
keeping a detailed account of how or why decisions were made. The purpose of these minutes is
to provide a record of decisions that require action. Brief notes with lists of action points might
be all that is required. As the audience is internal, the style might be informal with action points
listed in a table, and discussion and decisions noted as bullet points.
Often, the minute-taker will be a member of the team or group, and is free to participate in the
discussion.
2. Discursive minutes
Here, discussions and decisions are recorded in paragraphs of full text with full sentences.
Usually, decisions are recorded as having been taken by the committee, or by the members. It is
rare to name individuals.
The minute-taker in this case is usually a formally appointed secretary. The secretary has a
range of tasks which includes assisting in setting the agenda; calling for, collating and
distributing papers; following up on action points; and providing briefings to the Chair. The
secretary is not expected to contribute to the discussions, leaving him/ her free to accurately and
objectively describe what took place at the meeting without bias or distraction.
3. Verbatim minutes
These minutes offer a word-for-word account. The minute-taker is expected to record what was
said by all parties. All statements are directly attributed to a named individual. Verbatim
minutes are used to capture what passed at disciplinary panels. As with discursive minutes, the
minute-taker is not expected to contribute as this may compromise his/her role as an independent
and objective observer.
Tense
Minutes should be written in the past tense. As they are a record of a discussion that has taken
place, they always refer to an event in the past:
 It was noted that
 The Chair reported
 The Committee agreed that it would
Members noted that the papers couldbe viewed

Minute writing
Structuring minutes
As with any piece of writing, it is important to structure your minutes to make them coherent and
ensure that they flow. Structuring your minutes will not be difficult: as minutes are a
conventional type of document, there is a standard structure with certain items that are expected
regardless of the type of minutes you are writing.
The structure of minutes is provided by the agenda which provides an outline of what will be
discussed and in what order. Regardless of when an item was actually addressed in the meeting,
the minutes should record the discussion and decisions under the appropriate item on the agenda.
The standard items of all minutes are:
 Title: the name of the meeting/ committee/ board, date, location and time;
 List of thosein attendance: Members present, absent with apology, absent without
apology and any guest/s in attendance.
 Preliminaries
This is the introductory part of the meeting. The chairperson calls the meeting to order (time
when the meeting starts id indicated). A prayer may be said. The chairperson mentions the
apologies and welcomes the members.
 Minutes of the previous meeting: These will be read at the meeting where members will
either agree that they were a true record of the previous meeting, or they will note corrections to
be made to the minutes. Here one member proposes and another seconds that they are a true
record.
 Matters arising: confirmation that action points from the previous meeting have been
completed.
 Business of the day: Agenda
 Any other business: this covers discussion of items that were not listed on the agenda;
 Adjournment: there being no other business the meeting was adjourned.
 Date of next meeting: With time and location if appropriate.
 Signing spaces: For the chairperson to sign and indicate the date.
INTERVIEWS
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain purposes of interview.

b) Explain types of interviews.

c) Explain how to conduct yourself during the interview

Definition: An interview is a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the
interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer in order to obtain information from
the interviewee. It suggests a meeting between two or more people for the purpose of getting a
view of each other. It is a formal oral communication in which individuals interact for the
purpose of knowing each other.
Purposes of interviews in an organization
1. Selection of personnel/ Employment purposes
Job or employment interviews are used to select suitable persons on the basis of their
qualifications and experience.
2. Evaluation of workers
Some companies conduct interviews for periodic evaluation of workers.
3. Determining reasons for exit
Organizations conduct exit interviews to determine a person’s reasons for leaving a company.
4. To seek information and ideas
Interviews are used as a tool to seek information and ideas that concern a particular issue of
importance to the organization. They are helpful in writing reports.
5. Interviews in media organizations are done by presenters who are seeking a person’s
ideas or views on issues of importance to the public.
6. Security agencies conduct interviews known as interrogations. This is for the purpose of
getting information that is required concerning a case.
Types of interview
1. Job interviews
The interviewer who is a prospective employer wants to learn about the interviewee who is the
jobseeker and vice versa.
2. Information interview
Interview seeks information that will contribute towards a decision or basic understanding.
Information flows mainly in one direction.
3. Persuasive interviews
One person (the persuader) tells another about a new idea/ product/ service or explains why the
other should act on the recommendations. Usually the persuader asks about the other persons
needs and shows how the product or concept is able to meet those needs. The persuader must be
skilled enough to be convincing.
4. Exit interviews
The interviewer usually a superior/ boss try to understand why the influence is leaving the
organization or transferring to another department or division.
The departing employee can often provide some understanding (insight) into whether the
business is being handled effectively or whether things could be improved. The interviewer tends
to ask the questions while the interviewee answers.
5. Evaluation interviews
Interviews are often involved in the periodic evaluation that some companies make of their
workers. They may be inducted to gather information on matters e.g. worker attitudes, working
conditions, managerial effectiveness, and worker plans.

6. Counseling interview
Here, a supervisor talks with an employee about their personal problems that are interfering with
work performance. The interviewer is concerned about the welfare of both the employee and the
organization. The goal is to establish the facts, convey the company’s concern and steer the
person towards a source of help.
7. Conflict-resolution interview
The goal is to bring two parties close together, cause adjustments in perception and attitudes and
create a more productive climate.
8. Disciplinary interviews
A supervisor tries to correct the behavior of an employee who is flouting the organization rules
and regulations. The interviewer (supervisor) must not only get the employee to see the reason
for the rules and agree to comply but must also review the facts and explore the person’s attitude.

Interviewer’s preparation for an interview

As an interviewer you should make the following preparations:
1. Have a clear picture of the company profile and the nature of the job for which the
interview is being held.
2. Know the type of personality, character or temperament required for the job.
3. Send interview invitation letters well in advance so as to enable the interviewee prepare
adequately. Also mention the documents the interviewee should carry.
4. Make proper seating arrangement for the interviewee in the waiting room.
5. Find a quiet interview room free of interruptions.
6. Give each member of the interview panel a copy of the candidate’s curriculum vitae. This
will help in preventing confusion and time wastage.
7. Decide in advance which member of the panel will initiate the interview.
How to conduct the interview
1. Welcoming the candidate
Welcome the candidate in exactly the same way you would welcome a friend who visits you at
your office or home. Give the candidate a warm smile and toke to him/ her in a friendly tone of
voice.
2. Contents of the interview
Start talking to the candidate by asking relevant question on things such as qualifications,
experience, skills, attitude, character, drive, aspirations, previous employment, willingness to
travel etc.
3. Parting
Thank the candidate for having come for the interview. It is desirable to give him/ her a specific
date in which the results would be communicated.
Interviewee’s preparation for the interview
1. Know yourself
Know about your abilities, drive, skills, qualifications etc.
2. Know about the company
Know the profile of the company (probably from its website). Find out as much as possible about
its activities, growth, future prospects etc.
3. Prepare for the questions
Anticipate the questions that you will probably be asked and prepare answers to them.
4. Prepare the questions that you would like to ask
If the interviewer does not offer you full information about the company and the job, you may
ask questions to gain this information.

Arriving for the interview

1. Dress appropriately
You should be dressed for the occasion. Your clothes as well as general appearance should be
neat. Finger nails should be clean, shoes polished and hairstyle appropriate. Lotions, cream and
perfumes should be used sparingly. The accessories should complement your suit or dress.
2. Take with you your certificates
Take your certificates and other papers that might be of use during the interview.
3. Arrive for the interview on time.
This is of utmost importance. Try to arrive at the interview venue ten to fifteen minutes before
the scheduled time. This will give you enough time to relax and prepare for the interview.

How to conduct yourself during the interview

1. Do not be nervous or agitated when entering the interview room. See carefully where you
are going and do not trip over the carpet or the doormat.
2. Greet the interviewer (s) politely.
3. Do not sit down until you have been asked to. Then sit in a natural composed manner.
4. When the interviewer starts conversation, pay attention to what he/ she says. Do not
interrupt. Only respond at the appropriate time.
5. Give relevant answers to questions asked. Neither give too long or too short answers.
6. Do not try to make an exhibition of your knowledge. Don’t boast of your capabilities.
7. If there is something you do not know, admit it straight away. Do not lie.
8. Remain calm and friendly throughout the interview. Do not lose temper.
9. Be positive in your attitude. Express your enthusiasm for the job and the company.
10. Don’t keep shifting in your seat. Do not bite or chew your fingernails, or smoothen your
hair or keep adjusting the knot of your necktie. These are signs of nervousness.
11. When you are asked questions about your previous job, be frank but avoid criticism of
your former employer or colleagues. Mention only the positive, pleasant, and constructive
aspects of your earlier employment.
12. When the interview is over, don’t forget to thank the interviewer. You may even tactfully
ask when the results will be made known to you.
13. If the job is offered, you may accept it immediately or ask for time to think over it,
depending upon your circumstances.
Public Relations and Customer Care

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

By the end of the sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain roles of PR.

b) Explain types of customers.

c) Explain customer care skills.

Definition of public relations

It is the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual
understanding between an organization and its publics.

Public Relations is the discipline which looks after reputation, with the aim of earning
understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour.

Role of PR
 Internal communications
Communicating with employees. E.g. via in-house letters or suggestion boxes.
 Corporate PR
Communicating on behalf of the whole organization. E.g. via press releases, conferences, ethical
statements, visual identity and images.
 Media relations
Communicating with journalists, specialists and editors from local, national, and trade media,
including newspapers, magazines, radio, TV and web-based communication. This is via press
releases, photo calls, video news releases, off-the-record briefings and press events.
 Business to business communication
Communication with other organizations e.g. suppliers and retailers. This could be through
exhibitions, trade events and newsletters.
 Public affairs
Communicating with opinion formers like politicians and monitoring the political environment.
This is via presentations, briefings, private meetings and public speeches.
 Community relations/ corporate social responsibility
Communicating with local community, elected representatives, head teachers etc. this is via
exhibitions, presentations, letters, meetings, sport activities and other sponsorships.
 Investor relations
Communicating with financial organizations and individuals. This is via newsletters, briefings
and events.

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 Strategic communication
Identification and analysis of a situation, problem and solutions to further the organization’s
goals. This is via researching, planning and executing a campaign to improve ethical reputation
of the organization.
 Crisis management
Communicating clear messages in a fast changing situation or emergency. E.g. a PR officer
dealing with media after major rail crash on behalf of the police, hospital or local authority.
 Events management and exhibitions
Organizing complex events and exhibitions. E.g. annual conference, press launches and trade
shows.
 Issues management
Monitoring political, social, economic and technological environment.
 Copywriting
Writing for different audiences to high standards of literacy. This is writing press releases,
newsletters, web pages and annual reports.
 Publications management
Overseeing print/ media processes, often using new technology e.g. leaflets, internal magazines
and websites.
Qualities and Skill Sets of a PRO

 Professional approach
 Networking skills
 Interpersonal skills
 Written and oral communication skills
 Analytical skills
 Emotional intelligence
 Innovating and troubleshooting skills
 Organization and management skills
 Leadership qualities
 Creativity
 Storytelling traits
 Curiosity
 Knowledge of current affairs
 Result oriented
 Self-disciplined
 Tech-savvy
 Competitive
 Constructive thinker

Customer care
The work of looking after customers and ensuring their satisfaction with one's business and its
goods or services. Modern consumers are aware of their right to a high standard of customer
care.

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A customer (sometimes known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is the recipient of a good,
service, product, or idea, obtained from a seller, vendor, or supplier for a monetary or other
valuable consideration.

Types of customers
1. Loyal Customers- These types of customers are less in numbers but promote more sales
and profit as compared to other customers as these are the ones which are completely satisfied.
These customers revisit the organization over times hence it is crucial to interact and keep in
touch with them on a regular basis and invest much time and effort with them. Loyal customers
want individual attention and that demands polite and respectful responses from supplier.
2. Discount Customers- Discount customers are also frequent visitors but they are only a
part of business when offered with discounts on regular products and brands or they buy only
low cost products. More is the discount the more they tend towards buying. These customers are
mostly related to small industries or the industries that focus on low or marginal investments on
products. Focus on these types of customers is also important as they also promote distinguished
part of profit into business.
3. Impulsive Customers- These customers are difficult to convince as they want to do the
business in urge or caprice. They don’t have any specific item into their product list but urge to
buy what they find good and productive at that point of time. Handling these customers is a
challenge as they are not particularly looking for a product and want the supplier to display all
the useful products they have in their tally in front of them so that they can buy what they like
from that display. If impulsive customers are treated accordingly then there is high probability
that these customers could be a responsible for high percentage of selling.
4. Need Based Customers- These customers are product specific and only tend to buy
items only to which they are habitual or have a specific need for them. These are frequent
customers but do not become a part of buying most of the times so it is difficult to satisfy them.
These customers should be handled positively by showing them ways and reasons to switch to
other similar products and brands and initiating them to buy these. These customers could
possibly be lost if not tackled efficiently with positive interaction.
5. Wandering Customers- These are the least profitable customers as sometimes they
themselves are not sure what to buy. These customers are normally new in industry and most of
the times visit suppliers only for confirming their needs on products. They investigate features of
most prominent products in the market but do not buy any of those or show least interest in
buying. To grab such customers they should be properly informed about the various positive
features of the products so that they develop a sense of interest.

Role of customer care

 Satisfied Shareholders
Good customer care leads to satisfaction of consumers and shareholders. Satisfactory response
from consumers means increased sales, which ultimately leads to increased satisfaction of
shareholders. They tend to invest more in your organization, which can dramatically improve the
return on investment of your business.

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 Increased Business Growth
Quality service can boost your business growth. Quality services can help you expand your client
base but great customer service is the key to retain your clients.

 Successful Business Strategies

Encouraging consumers for feedback and comments is an integral part of quality customer
service. Following consumers’ feedback for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses is probably
the best way to understand the expectations of consumers and adopt successful business
strategies.

 Reduced Risk of Business Failures

Understanding the expectations and mindset of consumers can considerably reduce the risk of
business failures and losses.

 Consumer Satisfaction
If your customers are happy, your investors and business partners will be happy as well, and this
ultimately leads to higher profits. With a strong client base you can win the trust of investors and
make the most of every viable business opportunity.

 Reduced Employee Turnover

With increased sales and higher profits due to effective customer service, you can offer
employees good salary packages and additional bonuses, thus reducing employee turnover.

 Stronger customer loyalty

 Reduced marketing costs
Customer care skills

1. Listening skills
Listen intently. This shows that you care and want to offer the right solution.

2. Communication skills
Communicate effectively. Know when to listen, when to speak and how to speak.

3. Be calm and have patience

Try to manage your emotions and stay calm. This will help deal with disgruntled and confused
customers. When you stay calm your customer will feel respected.

4. Honesty
Being honest and transparent with your customers proves that you truly care about their
happiness and satisfaction even when the message you are sharing is not positive.

5. Body language

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Maintaining a good body language is important when talking to a client. Smiling frequently and
expressing happiness and laughter in your conversation helps to improve the customer’s
experience.

6. Empathy
It is important not only to understand what a customer says, but how a customer feels. An
important skill is being able to recognize and understand a person’s emotional state. If you
struggle to convey empathy, think about being in the customer’s position. How would you feel if
you were in her position? How would you like to be treated by an employee? These questions
will help you to identify with and better assist your customers.

7. Taking responsibility
A big part of working in customer service is being able to say, “I’m sorry,” whether it’s for a late
shipment or the poor quality of a product. You have to be able to sincerely apologize to a
customer on behalf of your company, even when the problem was not your fault.

Human relation skills

 Get to know other workers/ colleagues.

Interact with your coworkers. Join employee recreational and social activities. Listen to the
things your coworkers share about their personal lives and interests.

 Don’t try to change everything.

Know and understand the organization before you think about changing something. Listen to
others. Talk to coworkers about your ideas and get some feedback before you suggest changes.

 Be honest.
One of the most important things you own is a good reputation. Honesty with your coworkers
will build up your reputation. It’s one of the best ways to gain and keep respect.

 Avoid gossip.
Don’t listen to other people gossiping about coworkers. Most importantly, never gossip about
others. When you gossip, people wonder what you say about them and often avoid you.

 Be positive and supportive.

Listen to the ideas of other people. When someone makes a mistake, don’t criticize. It’s irritating
to have someone else point out a mistake. When you realize you’ve made a mistake, admit it and
try to do better next time.

 Show appreciation.
Be sure you thank a coworker who does something to make your job easier. Let coworkers know
you appreciate their contributions to the team. People like to be recognized and praised.

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 Return favors.
A coworker might help you out by exchanging a day off with you. Return that favor. A sure way
to make people dislike you is to only take and never give.

 Live in the present.

Avoid talking about the way things used to be. People don’t want to hear about how great your
old job was or how great former coworkers were.

 Ask for help and advice when you need it.

People like to feel needed. Your coworkers can be a great resource. When you aren’t sure what
to do, they can give you advice and assistance.

 Avoid battles.
Let coworkers in conflict work out their own differences. Don’t take sides in their arguments.
This is a sure way to develop problems with coworkers. When you take sides, other people
usually resent your interference. Often both sides become unhappy with you.
Interpersonal skills

1. Verbal communication
Effective verbal communication begins with clarity. This often requires nothing more than
slowing down and speaking more thoughtfully. Many people feel rushed to respond to questions
and conversations immediately, but it is better to pause for a moment in consideration, especially
if the question merits it.

2. Non-verbal communication
Your body language is constantly speaking. Everything you do or don’t do says something about
you and how you are feeling. Your facial expressions (especially eye contact), your posture, your
voice, your gestures with your extremities and even the way you position yourself physically in a
room or amongst colleagues is constantly revealing your true attitude, for better or for worse.

3. Listening skills
This is the ability to hear attentively and process information correctly. Effective listening
enables one to interpret a message and respond appropriately.

4. Manners
Good manners tend to make many other interpersonal skills come naturally. With business
becoming increasingly more global, even for small businesses, manners are more important than
ever. A basic understanding of etiquette translates to other cultures and their expectations.

5. Negotiation
This term means having the ability to discuss and reach an agreement in a professional manner.

6. Problem solving
This is a very important skill for business people to have as constant problems are a common
result within organizations. The key aspects of successful problem solving are being able to
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identify exactly what the problem is, dissecting the problem so that it is fully understood,
examining all options pertaining to solutions, setting up a system of strategies and objectives to
solve the problem, and finally putting this plan into effect and monitoring its progress.

7. Responsibility and accountability

Responsibility and accountability are two reliable indicators of maturity. Saying you are going to
do something and then actually doing it is a sign of responsibility. This builds trust between
yourself and those they rely on you and it encourages others to seek your counsel and assistance.