CHAPTER THREE:

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION

Information Technology (IT) in its broadest sense encompasses all aspects of computing
technology. IT, as an academic discipline, is concerned with issues related to advocating for
users and meeting their needs within an organizational and societal context through
the selection, creation, application, integration and administration of computing
technologies.

―Information technology is a label that has two meanings. In the broadest sense, the term
information technology is often used to refer to all of computing. In academia, it refers to
undergraduate degree programs that prepare students to meet the computer technology needs
of business, government, healthcare, schools, and other kinds of organizations.

IT is a new and rapidly growing field that started as a grassroots response to the practical,
everyday needs of business and other organizations. Today, organizations of every kind are
dependent on information technology. They need to have appropriate systems in place.
These systems must work properly, be secure, and be upgraded, maintained, and
replaced as appropriate.
3.2. The Computer System
3.2.1. Computer Hardware
The hardware of a computer system consists of primary storage, central processing unit, Input
devices, secondary storage devices, output devices, buses, and communication devices.
The central processing unit manipulates raw data into a more useful form and controls
the other parts of the computer system.

Primary storage temporarily stores data and program instructions during processing, while
secondary storage devices (magnetic and optical disks, magnetic tape) store data and
programs when they are not being used in processing.
Input devices, such as keyboards or the computer "mouse", convert data and instructions
into electronic form for input into the computer.

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Output devices, such as printer, video display terminals, convert electronic data produced by
the computer system and display it in a form that people can understand.
Communication devices provide connections between the computer and communication
networks.
Buses are path for transmitting data and signals between the various parts of the computer
system.
3.2.1. Primary Storage
Primary storage has three functions. It stores all or part of the program that is being executed.
Primary storage also stores the operation systems programs that manage the operation of the
computer. Finally, the primary storage area holds data that are being used by the program.
Data and program are placed in primary storage before processing, between processing steps,
and after processing has ended, prior to being returned to secondary storage or released as
output. Internal primary storage is often called RAM, or Random Access Memory. It is called
RAM because it can directly access any randomly chosen location in the same amount of
time.

Most of the information used by a computer application is stored on secondary storage

devices such as disks, and tapes, located outside the primary storage area. In order for the
computer to do work on information, information must be transferred into primary memory
for processing. Therefore, data are continually being read into and written out of the primary
storage area during the execution of program .Primary storage is actually composed of semi-
conductors. A semiconductor is an integrated circuit made by printing thousands and even
millions of tiny transactions on a small silicon chip. There are several different kinds of
semiconductor memory used in primary storage, RAM, or random access memory, is used for
short term storage of data or program instructions.
RAM is volatile: its contents will be lost when the computer's electric supply is disrupted by
a power outage or when the computer is turned off.

ROM, or Read Only Memory, can be only be read from. It cannot be written to. ROM
chips come from the manufacturer with programs already "burned in" or stored. ROM is used
in general-purpose computers to store important or frequently used programs (such as
computing routines for calculating the square root of numbers).
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 3.2.2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer system where the manipulation
of symbols, numbers, and letter occurs, and it controls the other parts of the computer system.
The CPU consists of central unit and an arithmetic logical unit. Located near the CPU is
primary storage (sometimes called primary memory or main memory) where data and
program instructions are stored temporarily during processing.
Three kinds of buses link the CPU, primary storage, and the other devices in the computer
system. The data bus moves data to and from primary storage. The control bus transmits
signals specifying whether to "read" or "write" data to or from a given primary storage
address, input device, or output device.
1. Arithmetic and Logical Unit

The arithmetic logical unit (ALU) performs the principal logical and arithmetic operations of
the computer. It adds, subtracts, multiplies, and divides, determining whether a number is
positive, negative, or zero. In addition to performing arithmetic function and ALU must
be able to determine when are quantity is greater than or less than another and when two
quantities are equal. The ALU can perform logical operations on the binary codes for letters
as well as numbers.
2. Control Unit
The control unit coordinates and control the other parts of the computer system. It reads a
stored program, one instruction at a time, and directs other components of the computer system
to perform the tasks required by the program. The services of operations required to
process a single machine instruction is called the machine cycle.

The machine cycle has two parts: an instruction cycle and an execution cycle. During
the instruction cycle, the control unit retrieves the program instruction from primary storage
and decodes it. It places the part of the instruction telling the ALU what to do next in a special
instruction register and places the part specifying the address of the data to be used in the
operation into an address register.

During the execution cycle, the control unit locates the required data in primary storage,
places it in a storage register, instructs the ALU to perform the desired operation, temporary

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stores the result of the operation in the accumulator, and finally places the result into primary
memory. As the execution of each instruction is completed, the control unit advances to and
reads the next instruction of the program.
3.2.3. Input Devices
1. Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common input device. Depending on the number of function keys,
keyboard can be categorized as a standard or enhanced. Standard keyboards have 10
function keys while the enhanced keyboards have 12 function keys.
2. The computer mouse
The "point and click" actions of the computer mouse have made it an increasingly popular
alternative to keyboard and text-based commands. A mouse is a hand held device that is
usually connected to computer by a cable. The computer user moves the mouse around on a
desktop to control the position of the curser on a video display screen. Once the cursor is in
the desired position, the user can push a button on the mouse to select a command. The mouse
can also be used to "draw" images on the screen.
3. Touch Screens
Touch screens are easy to use and are appealing to people who cannot use traditional
keyboards. Users can enter limited amounts of data by touching the surface of a sensitized
video display monitor with a finger or a pointer. With colorful graphics, sound, and
simple menus, touch screen allow the user to make selections by touching specified parts of
the screen.
4. Source data automation
Source data automation captures data in computer readable form at the time and place they are
created. Point of sale systems, optical bar code scanners used in supermarkets, and other
optical character recognition device are examples of source data automation. One of the
advantages of source data automation is that the many errors that occur when people use
keyboards to enter data are almost eliminated. The principal source data automation
technologies are magnetic ink character recognition, optical character recognition, and pen
based input, digital scanner, voice input, and sensors.
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR)

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 This technology is used primarily in cheque processing for the banking industry. The
bottom portion of a typical cheque contains characters that are pre-printed using a special ink.
A MICR reader translates the characters on cherubs that have been cashed and sent to the
bank for processing into digital form for the computer. The amount of the cheque, which is
written in ordinary ink, must be keyed in by hand.
Optical character recognition (OCR)
This device translates specially designed marks, characters, and codes into digital form.
The most widely used optical code is the bar code, which is used as a point of sale systems in
supermarkets and retail stores.
Pen based inputs
Handwriting recognition devices such as pen-based "tablets" and "notebooks" are promising
new input technologies, especially for people working in the sales or service areas or for those
who have traditionally shunned computer key boards. These pen based input devices usually
consist of a flat screen display tablet and a pen like stylus.
With pen-based input, users print directly on to the tablet sized screen. The screen is fitted with
a transparent grid of five wires that detects the presence of the special stylus, which emits a
faint signal from its tip. The screen can also interpret tapping and flicking gestures made
with the stylus. Pen based input devices transform the letters and numbers written by users on
the tablet into digital form, where they can be stored, or processed and analyzed.
Digital scanners
Digital scanners translate images such as pictures or documents into digital form, and are an
essential component of image processing system.
Voice input devices
Voice input devices converts ‘spoken word into digital form. Voice recognition software
compares the electrical patterns produced by the speaker's voice to a set of prerecorded
patterns. If the patterns match, the input is accepted. Most voice system still has limited
"vocabularies" of several hundred to several thousand words and can accept only very simple
commands.
Sensors
Sensors are devices that collect data directly from the environment for input into a computer
system. The sensors continuously measure emission and are linked to microcomputers which
send the data collected by the sensors to the central computer for analysis.
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 3.2.4. Output devices
The major data output devices are cathode ray tube (CRT) terminals (sometimes called video
display terminals, or VDTs, and printers.
1. CRT
The CRT is probably the most popular form of information output in modern computer
system. It works much like a television picture tube, with an electronic "gun" shouting a beam
of electrons to illuminate the pixels on the screen. The more pixels for screen, the higher the
resolution. CRT monitor can be classified as monochrome or color and by their display
capabilities. Some display only text, whereas others display both text and graphics. Typical
CRT display 80 column and 24 lines of text data; Display devices for graphics often utilize
bit mapping. Bit mapping allows each pixel on the screen to be addressed and manipulated
by the computer. This requires more computer memory but permits finer detail and the ability
to produce any kind of image on the display screen.
2. Printers
Printers produce a printed hard copy of information output. They include impact printers (a
standard typewriter or a dot matrix) and non-impact printers (laser, inkjet, and thermal transfer
printers). Most printers print one character at a time, but some commercial printers print an
entire line or page at a time. Impact printers are slower than non-impact printers. Laser
printers for microcomputers can print 4 to 8 pages per minute. Laser printers in large
computers center can print over 100 pages per minute.
3.2.5. Secondary storage

Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is an older device that is still important for secondary storage of large volume
of information. It is used primarily in manufacture batch application and for archiving data.
1. Magnetic Disk
The most widely used secondary storage medium today is magnetic disk. There are two types
of magnetic disks: floppy disks and hard disks. Hard disks are thin steel plates with an iron
oxide coating. In large systems, multiple hard disks are mounted together on a vertical shaft.
Here the read write head (disk and drive) are sealed together. That is why these devices
sometimes are called hard drives. A hard disk is found in the system unit. It is not removable.
2. Floppy disks

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 Floppy disks are a removable magnetic disks primarily used with microcomputers. The two
most common standard sizes are 3.5 inch and 5.25 inch disks that are made up of polyester
film with magnetic coating.
3. Optical Disks
Optical disks, also called compact disks or laser optical disks, stores data at densities many
times greater than those of magnetic disks and are available for both microcomputers and
large computers. Data are recorded on optical disks when a laser device burns microscopic
pits in the reflective layer of a spiral track. Binary information is encoded by the length of
these pits and the space between them.
Optical disks can thus store massive quantities of data, including not only text but also
pictures, sound, and full motion video, in a highly compact form. The optical disk is read by
having a low power laser beam from an optical head scan the disk.
3.2.5. Other Devices

In addition to the main hardware components, we have a number of parts of a computer that
are not mentioned. To state some of them:
1. Motherboard
It is the main board containing the CPU, RAM, ROM and additionally different expansion
slots.
2. Power Supply
Electrical power is needed almost for every components of the PC. And the components will
get their need from the power supply which is found inside the system unit.
3. Bus
A bus is simply an electronic pathway between the CPU and other devices. It can
transmit electronic information (in fact composed of bits) between devices.
4. Port
A port is a socket at the back of the system unit which can be used to plug a cable
from peripheral devices like monitors, keyboards etc.
3.3. COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is a detailed instruction that control the operations of a computer system. Without
software, computer hardware could not perform the task we associate with computers. A
software program is a series of statements or instructions to the computer. The process of
writing or coding programs is termed programming and individuals who specialize in this task

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are called programmers. The stored program concept means that a program must be
stored in the computer‘s primary storage along with the required data in order to execute, or
have its instructions performed by the computer. Once the program has finished executing, the
computer hardware can be used for another task when a new program is loaded into memory.
3.3.1. Types of software
There are two types of software: systems software and application
software.

1. Operating System Software: System software is a set of generalized programs that

manage the resources of the computer, such as the central processor, communications
links, and peripheral devices. Programmers who write system software are called system
programmers.
2. Application software: describes the programs that are written for or by users to apply
the computer to a specific task. Application software is primarily concerned with
accomplishing the tasks of end users. Many different programming languages can be
used to develop application software. Software for processing an order or generating a
mailing list is application software.
Programmers who write Application software are called application programmers. The types of
software are interrelated and can be thought of as a set of nested boxes, each of which must
interact closely with the other boxes surrounding it. The system software surrounds and
controls access to the hardware. Application software must work through the system software
in order to operate. End users work primarily with application software.
Each type of software must be specially designed to a specific machine in order to ensure its
compatibility. System software coordinates the various parts of the computer system and
mediates between application software and computer hardware.
 Types of system software
The system software that manages and controls the activities of the computer is called
operating system. Other system software consists of computer language translation
programs that convert programming languages into machine language and utility program
that perform common processing tasks. Operating system is the system software that
manages and controls the activities of the computer.

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One way to look at the operating system is as the system's chief manager. Operating system
software decides which computer resources will be used, which programs will be run, and the
order in which activities will take place. An operating system performs three functions. It
allocates and assigns system resources, it schedules the use of computer resources and computer
jobs; and it monitors computer system activities.

3.4. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)

A group of related files make up a database. A database management system (DBMS) is
simply the software that permits an organization, to centralize data, manage them efficiently,
and provide access to the stored data by application programs.
The DBMs acts as an interface between application programs and the physical data files. When
the application program calls for data item such as gross pay, the DBMs finds this item in the
database and presents it to the application program. Using traditional data files, the programmer
would have to define the data and then tell the computer when they are.

A collection of programs (SWs) that enables you to enter, organize, select data, and Retrieve
information from database easily. A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software
package designed to store and manages databases.
 Advantages of Database Management System
The advantages of a DBMS are as follows:
 Complexity of the organization's information system environment can be reduced by
central management of data, access, utilization, and security
 Data redundancy and inconsistency can be reduced by eliminating all of the isolated files
in which the same data elements are repeated
 Data confusion can be eliminated by providing central control of data creation
and definitions
 Program data dependence can be reduced by separating the logical view of data from
its physical arrangement
 Program development and maintenance costs can be radically reduced
 Flexibility of information systems can be greatly enhanced/by permitting rapid
and inexpensive ad hoc queries of very large pools of information Access and
availability of information can be increased.

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 3.5. Telecommunication and network

When computers are networked, two industries—computing and communications—

converge, and the result is vastly more than the sum of the parts. Suddenly, computing
applications become available for business-to-business coordination and commerce, and for
small as well as large organizations. The global Internet creates a public place without
geographic boundaries— cyberspaces—where Ordinary citizens can interact, publish their
ideas, and engage in the purchase of goods and services. In short, the impact of both
computing and communications on our society and organizational structures is greatly
magnified. Telecommunications and network technologies are internetworking and
revolutionizing business and society. Businesses have become networked enterprises.

The Internet, the Web, and intranets and extranets are networking business processes and
employees together and connecting them to their customers, suppliers, and other business
stakeholders. Companies and workgroups can thus collaborate more creatively, manage their
business operations and resources more effectively, and compete successfully in today‘s
fast-changing global economy.

By definition, the term network means an interconnected or interrelated chain, group, or

system. Using this definition, we can begin to identify all kinds of networks: a chain of
hotels, the road system, and the names in a person‘s address book or PDA, the railroad
system, the members of a church, club, or organization. The examples of networks in our
world are virtually endless, and computer networks, though both valuable And powerful, are
just one example of the concept.

Telecommunications is the exchange of information in any form (voice, data, text, images,
audio, and video) over networks. Early telecommunications networks did not use computers
to route traffic and, as such, were much slower than today‘s computer based networks. Major
trends occurring in the field of telecommunications have a significant impact on management
decisions in this area. You should thus be aware of major trends in telecommunications
industries, technologies, and applications that significantly increase the decision alternatives
confronting business managers and professionals.

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The Business Value of Telecommunications Networks
What business value is created when a company capitalizes on the trends in telecommunications
we have just identified? Use of the Internet, intranets, extranets, and other telecommunications
networks can dramatically cut costs, shorten business lead times and response times, support e-
commerce, improve the collaboration of workgroups, develop online operational processes,
share resources, lock in customers and suppliers, and develop new products and services.
These benefits make applications of telecommunications more strategic and vital for businesses
that must increasingly find new ways to compete in both domestic and global market.

The explosive growth of the Internet is a revolutionary phenomenon in computing and

telecommunications. The Internet has become the largest and most important
network of networks today and has evolved into a global information superhighway.
We can think of the Internet as a network made up of millions of smaller private
networks, each with the ability to operate independent of, or in harmony with, all the
other millions of networks connected to the Internet. When this network of networks
began to grow in December 1991, it had about 10 servers. In January 2004, the Internet
was estimated to have more than 46 million connected servers with a sustained growth

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rate in excess of 1 million servers per month. In January 2007, the Internet was
estimated to have more than 1 billion users with Web sites in 34 languages from
English to Icelandic. The Net doesn‘t have a central computer system or
telecommunications center. There are, however, 13 servers called root servers that are
used to handle the bulk of the routing of traffic from one computer to another. Each
message sent has a unique address code, so any Internet server in the network can
forward it to its destination. Also, The Internet does not have a headquarters or
governing body. International advisory And standards groups of individual and
corporate members, such as the Internet Society( www.isoc.org) and the World
Wide Web Consortium ( www.w3.org ),promote use of the Internet and the
development of new communications standards.

These common standards are the key to the free flow of messages among the widely
different computers and networks of the many organizations and Internet service
providers (ISPs) in the system. One of the unique aspects of the Internet is that nobody
really owns it. Anyone who can access the Internet can use it and the services it offers.
Because the Internet cannot be accessed directly by individuals, we need to use the
services of a company that specializes in providing easy access.
Internet service provider

An ISP is a company that provides access to the Internet to individuals and organizations.
For a monthly fee, the service provider gives you a software package, user name, password,
and access phone number or access protocol. With this information (and some specialized
hardware), you can then log onto the Internet, browse the World Wide Web, and send and
receive e-mail.

In addition to serving individuals, ISPs serve large companies, providing a direct

connection from the company‘s networks to the Internet. These ISPs themselves are
connected to one another through network access points. Through these connections, one ISP
can easily connect to another ISP to obtain information about the address of A Web site or
user node.

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Internet Applications
The most popular Internet applications are e-mail, instant messaging, browsing the sites on
the World Wide Web, and participating in newsgroups and chat rooms. Internet e-mail
messages usually arrive in seconds or a few minutes anywhere in the world and can take the
form of data, text, fax, and video files. Internet browser software like Netscape Navigator and
Internet Explorer enables millions of users to surf the World Wide Web by clicking their way
to the multimedia information resources stored on the hyperlinked pages of businesses,
government, and other Web sites. Web sites offer information and entertainment and are the
launch sites for e- commerce transactions between businesses and their suppliers and
customers.

The Business Value of the Internet

The Internet provides a synthesis of computing and communication capabilities that adds
value to every part of the business cycle.
Most companies are building e-business and e-commerce Web sites to achieve six major
business values:
 Reduce transaction costs through online sales and customer support.

 Attract new customers via Web marketing and advertising and online sales.
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  Increase the loyalty of existing customers via improved Web customer service and
support.
 Develop new Web-based markets and distribution channels for existing products.

 Develop new information-based products accessible on the Web.

 Generate new revenue from online sales.

Telecommunications Network Alternatives

Telecommunications is a highly technical, rapidly changing field of information systems
technology. Most business professionals do not need a detailed knowledge of its technical
characteristics. However, it is necessary that you understand some of the important
characteristics of the basic components of telecommunications networks. This understanding
will help you participate effectively in decision making regarding telecommunications
alternatives.
Telecommunications network
Generally, a communications network is any arrangement in which a sender transmits a
message to a Receiver over a channel consisting of some type of medium.
Telecommunications network, it consists of five basic categories of components:
The five basic components in a telecommunications network:
(1) Terminals,
(2) Telecommunications processors,
(3) Tele communications channels,
(4) Computers, and
(5) Telecommunications software.

Figure 3.3: The five basic components in a telecommunications

network

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  Terminals, such as networked personal computers, network computers, or information
appliances. Any input/output device that uses telecommunications networks to
transmit or receive data is a terminal, including telephones and the various computer
terminals.
 Telecommunications processors, which support data transmission and reception
between terminals and computers. These devices, such as modems, switches, and
routers, perform a variety of control and support functions in a telecommunications
network. For example, they convert data from digital to analog and back, code and
decode data, and control the speed, accuracy, and efficiency of the communications
flow between computers and terminals in a network.
 Telecommunications channels over which data are transmitted and
received. Telecommunications channels may use combinations of media, such as
copper wires, coaxial cables, or fiber-optic cables, or use wireless systems like
microwave, communications satellite, radio, and cellular systems to interconnect the
other components of a telecommunications network.
 Computers of all sizes and types are interconnected by telecommunications networks
so that they can carry out their information processing assignments. For example, a
mainframe computer may serve as a host computer for a large network, assisted by a
midrange computer serving as a front-end processor, while a microcomputer may act as
a network server in a small network.
 Telecommunications control software consists of programs that control
telecommunications activities and manage the functions of telecommunications
networks. Examples include network management programs of all kinds, such as
telecommunications monitors for mainframe host computers, network operating
systems for network servers, and Web browsers for microcomputers.
Types of Telecommunications Networks
Wide Area Networks: Telecommunications networks covering a large geographic area
are called wide area networks (WANs. Networks that cover a large city or metropolitan
area (metropolitan area networks) can also be included in this category. Such large networks
have become a necessity for carrying out the day-to-day activities of many business and

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government organizations and their end users. For example, WANs are used by many
multinational companies to transmit and receive information among their employees,
customers, suppliers, and other organizations across cities, regions, countries, and the world.
Metropolitan Area Networks: When a wide area network optimized a specific geographical
area, it is referred to as a metropolitan area network (MAN). Such networks can range
from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications
channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single
organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might
also be owned and operated as public utilities. Your local cable provider or a local telephone
company is probably operating on a MAN. MANs will often provide means for
internetworking of local area networks.

Local area networks (LANs) connect computers and other information processing devices
within a limited physical area, such as an office, classroom, building, manufacturing plant, or
other worksite. LANs have become commonplace in many organizations for providing
telecommunications network capabilities that link end users in offices, departments, and other
workgroups. LANs use a variety of telecommunications media, such as ordinary telephone
wiring, coaxial cable, or even wireless radio and infrared systems, to interconnect
microcomputer workstations and computer peripherals.
LANs use a variety of telecommunications media, such as ordinary telephone wiring, coaxial
cable, or even wireless radio and infrared systems, to interconnect microcomputer
workstations and computer peripherals. To communicate over the network, each PC usually
has a circuit board called a network interface card.

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