Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 959–968

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review of daylighting design and implementation in buildings MARK

Ing Liang Wong
School of Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, 70 Cowcaddens Road, Glasgow, G4 0BA, UK

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Daylighting design has become prevalent in modern buildings in the effort to create a more sustainable living
Daylight environment. Past and recent bodies of research emerged are mainly focused on the different methods of
Daylight factor predicting and measuring daylight level and various range of daylighting technologies available. Despite a wide
Glazing range of developed and commercially available daylighting systems have been reported, their applications have
Daylighting system
been limited by a lack of studies on their utilisations and high initial costs. Computer simulations have been
Window
Skylight
frequently used in the past to investigate daylighting performance due to reliable and accurate predictions.
However, additional simulation time and variable level of skills and knowledge required are major drawback of
computer simulations. This paper includes and pools information on all major daylighting design topic in the
built environment. The study critically reviews and compares daylighting design principles, strengths and
weaknesses of different range of daylighting systems and calculation methods, such as, scale model with
artificial sky, full scale model for field measurement, numerical modelling and manual calculation procedures
with the aid of diagrams or tables. Such information could be of useful for engineers, researchers and designers
to assess the suitability of applying these systems and technologies in different building types and examine the
potential of energy and cost savings.

1. Introduction various methods used to measure and predict daylighting performance

have been reported in the past, most daylighting technologies and
The sun is the biggest source of light and energy on earth and the methods used are tailor-made or designed for specific cases only. By
light we received today comes from the sun in two ways: either directly contrast, this paper includes and pools information from different
as sunlight, or modified and redistributed by the atmosphere as diffuse literature sources and databases (such as, Elsevier, Taylors and
skylight. The light from the sun not only enables us to see, but provides Francis, and Springer), compares different methods and strategies for
energy and power to the whole ecosystem on earth. The combination of predicting or measuring daylight level, and examines the strengths and
the direct sunlight and the diffuse skylight can be defined as daylight weaknesses of different daylighting technologies. Such information
[1]. The quality and intensity of daylight vary according to geographical would be of useful for engineers, researchers and designers to assess
latitude, season in a year, time of day, local weather, sky conditions, the suitability of applying these systems and technologies in different
and building geometry. In the UK, the availability of daylight is crucial building types and examine the potential of energy and cost savings.
as we cannot rely on direct sunlight alone for lighting the interiors of
buildings [2]. Despite artificial lighting has long being used to supple- 2. Daylighting as an alternative to artificial lighting
ment lighting in the interiors of buildings, reports suggest negative
effect of artificial lighting on health [3–8]. Using natural light, it can Artificial lighting contributes to significant carbon emissions and as
help to maintain a good health, cure some of the medical ailments [9], a result, leads to global warming. Literature revealed that electric
and reduce psychological sadness related to the Seasonal Affective lighting consumes up to 40% of the annual building energy consump-
Disorder [10,11]. Compared to artificial light, daylight offers better tion [14,15], 20–30% of the total energy use in commercial buildings
conditions for seeing as it contains consistent alterations of intensity, [16], one third of the electricity bill [17] or 35% of the total electric load
direction and spectral composition; thus, it brings positive implication in conventional office buildings [13]. In built environment, we benefit
biologically and physiologically to all living things on earth [12], such from solar energy in various ways, such as, heating and lighting.
as, as natural means for human body to produce vitamin D [11] and Passive solar energy design in buildings, which uses building elements
hormone [13]. The advantages of daylighting designs and applications for collecting, storing and distributing solar energy, is becoming
in the built environment have been largely documented. Despite important. Space heating and daylighting are the most direct and

E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.061
Received 11 July 2016; Received in revised form 24 February 2017; Accepted 9 March 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I.L. Wong Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 74 (2017) 959–968

Nomenclature FR correction factor for window framing (unitless)

GL daylight transmission coefficient of the glass (unitless)
A total area of enclosing room surfaces, in m2 IRC Internally Reflected Component (unitless)
Ag glazed area of windows (excluding frames or obstruction), M maintenance factor, allowing for the effects of dirt
in m2 MF correction factor for window dirt (unitless)
DFave average daylight factor, in % MG activity coefficient of the study site (unitless)
DFwinave average daylight factor for vertical window, in % R average reflectance of surrounding room surfaces, area A
DFsklave average daylight factor for skylight, in % SC Sky component (unitless)
ERC Externally Reflected Component (unitless) T transmittance of glass, including the effect of dirt
FC correction caused by the remoteness of a point illumi- θ angle of visible sky, measured in section from the centre of
nated by natural light from an opening (unitless) the window opening, in degree

efficient way of passive solar energy design approach. Daylighting, numerous design parameters that have to be considered, such as, view
which is an important strategy in modern architecture by which natural factor, aperture size and room depth [36]. Nevertheless, experiments,
light can be brought into a room via building opening to replace or numerical studies and simplified procedures are common methods
supplement artificial lighting, can contribute to the reduction of the used to determine interior illuminance. In early 1980s, BRE had
building energy consumption and enhance visual comfort [18–20]. The developed simplified procedures to characterise lighting performance
exploitation of daylight has been recognised as a valuable means of in the interiors of day lit buildings [30]. The amount of daylight inside a
achieving energy efficiency in buildings and improving visual quality of room can be measured by comparing it with the total daylight available
interior building spaces. Previous studies indicated that, by employing outside the room. This ratio is called daylight factor (DF), which can be
daylighting, reduction of 223 million tonnes of CO2 emissions [21,22] measured in percentage (%). Two types of DF can be calculated: DF at a
or 24,000 MW of energy demand [23] could be achieved. However, given position (Point DF) and DF over a given floor area (Average DF,
excessive daylight exposure could cause glare, overheating problems DFave). DF can be accurately determined by Eq. (1), which is expressed
and thermal discomfort to building occupants. Surveys show that, the as the ratio of indoor daylight illuminance to outdoor daylight
luminous comfort of building occupants is affected by the quality of illuminance under the standard overcast sky [2,13,22,28,30,37–41].
daylighting [24,25]. The benefits of daylighting can only be realised if
visual needs and comfort criteria are carefully considered in building Indoor illuminance from daylight
DF = × 100%
design [26]. Duncan and Hawkes [27] discussed passive solar energy Horizontal unobstructed outdoor illuminance (1)
design for non-domestic buildings, highlighting the importance of
The value of DF depends on building types, window sizes, frames
lighting energy consumption in non-domestic buildings and the
and position, types of glazing, transmission characteristics of glazing,
potential of daylight for meeting lighting demands. The opportunities
cleanliness of glazing, and interior room surface reflectance [30]. DF
for exploiting daylight in non-domestic buildings have been examined,
can be measured using scale model with artificial sky [38] or field
as well as the factors that needed to be considered if exploitation of
measurement in a real building [42]. It can also be predicted using
daylight was to be successful [24]. Methods and guidance for good
computer simulation programs or calculated using simple manual
daylighting design have also been discussed, which include examples,
procedures [2]. DF is made up of three principal components: sky
explanations and practical exercises of how daylight can be successfully
component, internally reflected component and externally reflected
used in a variety of building types [28,29].
component [2,12,28,36,37], which can be calculated separately and
Daylight in a building does not by itself lead to energy saving.
added together. These components can be calculated using Building
Daylighting can only contribute to cost and energy savings if lighting
Research Station (BRS) daylight table, Waldram Diagram, BRS
control strategies or photo sensors can be integrated to dim or switch
Daylight Factor Protractors [2], pepperpot diagram [28] or numerical
off artificial lighting when sufficient daylight is available. The use of
formulas [37]. The resulting DF need to be corrected to allow for
various control strategies, such as, manual, timed and automatic
deterioration of room reflectances, types of glazing, dirt on glass and
lighting controls has also been explored. Building Research
the window frame [37]. The calculated DF excludes the effects of
Establishment (BRE) [30] and Chartered Institution of Building
building orientation or direct sunlight from both indoor and outdoor
Services Engineers (CIBSE) [31] provided guidance on different types
illuminance [38,39], whilst the overcast sky on which it is based is very
of lighting control suitable for various types of installation. Despite
much a worst-case condition.
lighting energy savings and subsequent payback period as a result of
Point DF can only be used once the window size, shape and position
lighting control application are difficult to assess [32,33], potential
have been decided, which may be too late to alter glazing areas at this
energy savings for different types of daylight responsive dimming
stage. It is higher near the openings, but decreases significantly further
technologies can be accurately predicted using computer software
away from the openings [42]. Compared with Point DF, DFave is easier
and validated by field measurements [33–35]. Reduction of artificial
to calculate and considerably less dependent on window shape and
lighting energy inside building spaces using lighting controls was
position, as it can be simply related to glazing area [38]. Derived from
revealed in studies [34]. For examples, annual lighting energy savings
Eq. (1), DFave is the ratio of average interior illuminance to external
of more than 5000 kWh [35] were predicted for a high-rise building or
global horizontal illuminance under standard overcast sky conditions
up to 41.5% [19] for a large space industrial building. However, lack of
[38] and can be used to represent the arithmetic mean of DF obtained
simplified evaluation tools, which are capable of providing information
throughout the room [2]. To date, DF is still the most frequently used
on the suitability and the cost-effectiveness of daylighting, can still be
parameter to characterise the daylight situation in a building [22].
considered as one of the main reasons why building professionals are
Almost all national standards and international directives recommend
reluctant to incorporate daylighting features in their design [34].
DF as criteria for sufficient daylight quantity assessments [43].
Minimum values of DFave are normally recommended for different
3. Measurements, estimation and predictions of daylight building interior spaces, ranging from less than 2% (artificial lighting
performance dominates daytime appearance) to more than 5% (fully day lit where
daytime artificial lighting rarely needed). Such recommendations have
It is difficult to characterise indoor daylighting because of the been widely discussed in a number of publication, such as, DETR Good

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Practice Guide 245, The Code of Practice on daylight (BS 8206 Part 2), daylighting design involving alteration to window parameters or
CIBSE Window Design Manual and BREEAM [28,38,44,45]. DFave can glazing type to receive optimum daylight in building spaces [34,56].
be calculated based on the theory of the split-flux principle that divides It is also necessary to consider occupation density, room configuration
the flux entering the interior through window over its lower parts of the and building type in order to reach a right balance between daylighting
room surface areas and total internal surface areas [46], which can be strategies and the climate [57]. Analysis shows changes to façade
determined by Eqs. (2)–(5) [13,28,29,36–38,40,47–50]. design and configuration could impact on daylighting performance
Ag θT level in office buildings [58]. Li and co-researchers [45,59] had
DFave = identified building area and orientations, window area, glass type,
A (1 − R2 ) (2)
shading and external obstruction as five key factors affecting the
TMAg θ daylighting performance level of office buildings and residential flats
DFave = in subtropical Hong Kong. Sky conditions, façade orientation, obstruc-
A (1 − R2 ) (3)
tion and transparency ratio of window glazing are other factors
DF = DFwinave + DFsklave (4) affecting daylighting performance [60]. Distance from the adjacent
DF = (SC + ERC + IRC + FC ) × MF × FR × GL × MG (5) buildings and height of adjacent buildings influence the amount of
direct and diffuse daylight reaching the windows as well [11]. Visible
A variety of aids and methods used for calculating the availability of sky angle and no-sky line position are two methods used to measure
daylight and the effect of sun shading is shown in Table 1. These mainly the impact of external obstruction on the amount of daylight received
refer to indicators developed to quantify the amount of skylight or in a room [49,55]. Simulations show significant energy saving by
sunlight reach a window. Majority of these indicators are less suitable altering building parameters (room and window sizes) and layout as
and rarely used nowadays since they still involve plotting obstruction well as implementing electric lighting management [32].
from reference points using transparent direction finder and building
layout plans with different scales. Such aids and methods have actually
4. Innovative daylighting systems
posed a difficulty for architects, where Poole [51] has called for the
need to standardise calculation method for providing consistent and
In the last 30–40 years, different daylighting technologies have
practical guidance for designers and engineers.
been developed to improve daylighting performance in building inter-
Performance indices other than DF used to assess the daylight
iors. Littlefair and colleagues from BRE have been pioneering the work
performance and availability inside buildings have been discussed,
in developing daylighting design strategies and technologies in build-
compared and critically analysed [28,29,41,44,49,52]. It was concluded
ings [29,54,61]. They have looked that both design and technological
that, DF is the most frequently used indices and widely accepted by
approaches, such as, layout and parametric changes to building designs
international standards, despite improvement has been done by
as well as the application of daylight ‘harvesting’ technologies. Also
developing other indices [13,41,43]. However, one significant weak-
known as daylighting system, these are actually devices located near or
ness of DF is that it is not suitable for direct sunlight calculation and
at the openings of building envelope, which can reflect and redirect
the calculation was highly influenced by building properties [13]. To
incoming natural light flux into interiors for improving lighting
overcome the limitations of DF for direct sunlight calculation, Vertical
conditions [1]. Two common types of daylighting systems are side-
to Horizontal illuminance (VH Ratio) has been used as a function of the
lighting and top-lighting [22,62]. Conventional vertical window open-
light decrease on a vertical plane (41, 52); while Daylight Autonomy
ing is a common example of side-lighting; while opening in the roof or
(DA) has been used to measure how a certain illuminance level can be
ceiling element of buildings is an example of top-lighting. Daylight can
maintained by the use of daylight alone and can be expressed as a
be delivered into a building through conventional vertical windows,
percentage of occupied time, either annually or on a month-by-month
clerestory windows or rooflights as well as a number of remote
basis [46].
distribution systems [31,49]. For a conventional vertical window, light
Parameters, such as, depth, size and area of a room, window or roof
levels drop off rapidly when the distance from the window increases.
light are critical at the initial design stage and limitations to room
The greater the depth of a room, the poorer it is illuminated by daylight
parameters were studied. Advice on suitable design and position of
[18]. Al-Obaidi and Rahman [63] critically investigate optimum design
windows and rooflights [28], practical guidance on daylighting design
requirements of top-lighting system, which conclude that system type,
and calculations of optimum window size and average daylight factor
sky condition and human comfort are significant factors. Designs with
[46] have been provided for architects at different stages of the RIBA
top-lighting must be examined carefully as potential overheating
Plan of Work. In order for a room to be successfully day lit, it has been
L L resulting from inappropriate top-lighting design should also be avoided
discussed that B + H must not exceed 2 , where L is depth of room
(1 − Rb ) [22,64]. To minimise this problem, innovative daylighting systems,
(front to back), B is breadth of room (along the window wall), H is
which contain new components and technologies, have been developed
height of window head above floor level, and Rb is the average
reflectance of surfaces in the half of the room remote from the window
Table 1
[28,45,49,50,53,54]. A summary of different methods used to determine the availability of daylight in
Apart from room and opening parameters, a wide range of factors, buildings.
such as, site layout, building orientation and geometry, window
parameters, availability of sunlight or skylight, and adjacent obstruc- Daylight prediction Assessments
indicators
tion have to be considered and examined carefully in order to
effectively apply daylight in a building space [12,24,28,29,49,55]. Waldram diagram Vertical sky component
Table 2 summarises these factors in three categories: site layout, BRS daylight factor protractors Sky component
building geometry and opening parameters. A useful guidance on BRS daylight table Sky component
Sun-on-ground indicators Availability of sunlight on the ground at the
how a good site layout planning can contribute to achieving good equinox
daylighting and sunlighting in buildings has been provided [29]. It Sunlight availability indicators Probable sunlight hours
highlights good practice to site layout planning and contains methods Skylight indicator Vertical sky component
to quantify access to sunlight and daylight within a layout. The no-sky line rule of thumb Availability of direct light from the sky
Sun path indicators Availability of sunlight at particular times of
Effective window design is essentially part of energy-conscious
day and year
building design. BRE Digest 309 can be used to assess visual and Pepperpot diagram Percentage of total skylight
energy impacts of window design [2]. It is the simplest method of

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Table 2 reducing the transmission of diffuse skylight. LGS are simple and easy-
Factors which influent the availability of daylight in buildings. to-apply technologies developed to reflect, refract or deflect sunbeams
from exterior into interiors with room depth of less than 10 m from the
Categories Factors affecting daylight performance
building facades. LGS can be integrated into existing windows or roof
Site layout External obstructions (existing buildings and trees) lights to modify or supplement them [61], improve light distribution in
Overshadowing the room as well as reduce glare and overheating that may occur
Building orientation
adjacent to window opening. Excessive incoming solar radiations that
Building geometry Balconies and overhangs
Extension to the existing building, which is perpendicular reach the interiors adjacent to windows can be reflected and redirected
to window by LGS to the ceiling and redistributed within the room.
Opening parameters Window sizes and parameters (height of window head Light shelves [12,24,54,61,67,69,72–85], fixed louvres [61,69,84],
from floor level) light directing louvres or glass [11,84], and light guiding shade [86] are
Roof light parameters
some examples of LGS, which can be mounted at the upper part of a
typical window to provide solar shading and glare control to occupants
to bring sunlight deeper into building interiors; whilst reducing over- adjacent to the window, while allowing daylight into the room. These
heating problem [65]. Littlefair [61] discussed more than 30 types of systems, which can be fitted either internally or externally, increase core
innovative daylighting systems, which can be divided into two cate- illuminances under certain well defined conditions when the sun shines
gories: light guiding system (LGS) and light transporting system (LTS). onto the windows for a particular season of the year [61]. Another line of
LGS and LTS sometimes also referred to fenestration and core systems development has been the curved slat profiles [61,69,74,78], variable
respectively [66]. LGS is a simpler daylighting system which can reflect angle configured slats [87], compound parabolic concentrating (CPC)
and direct sunlight to the back of a room, where least sunlight can be reflective window blind system [88], highly reflective lamellas with retro-
received. LTS is more complex, which can collect, transport and reflection [11], anidolic solar blind [89], and semi-transparent acrylic
distribute sunlight to inner zone in a commercial building with no profiles [90]. These systems can be applied inside double glazed units and
access to wall or roof opening. The daylighting strategy in this type of have been developed to deal with different incidence angles with
building involves daylight penetration, distribution, protection and minimum maintenance requirement. Adjustable or flexible systems that
control [57]. Both types of the daylighting systems can be used to can be used to track the sunlight at different angles, such as, blinds with
improve daylight distribution in building space and to control direct different slat angles [67,71,91,92], reflective, mirrored or translucent
sunlight [54]. Despite previous research to improve natural illumina- louvres [11,24,54,61,69,70,80], reflective window sills [61], combined
tion within buildings, particularly, the deep floor plan buildings with prismatic louvre and reflective blind system [11,70], holographic films on
minimum daylight penetration, it has been focused mostly on office movable louvres [80], movable louvre variable-area light-reflecting
buildings, not industrial buildings, where lighting is a major electricity assembly (VALRA) system [93], transparent shading device [94], and
consumer [19]. sun-tracking prismatic system [95] were also discussed. Such configura-
tions are much capable of admitting sunlight more uniformly throughout
the room space, compared with the fixed systems. For daylighting systems
4.1. Light guiding systems
to be more effective at shading and redirecting light, supplementary
shading devices may be required, but it will increase cost and reduce light
Simple and inexpensive modification of window glazing and shad-
input [80]. Transparent insulated materials [18,96–104], prismatic films
ing devices was able to significantly improve daylighting quantity and
[24,54,61,69,74,76,78,80,84,105], holographic films [61,80], laser-cut
quality for visual comfort [67]. Conventional sun-shading devices, such
light deflecting panel (LCP) [61,64,84,86,106–109], and phase change
as, solar screens [68], roller blinds and venetian blinds [69] are
material (PCM) [110] are more advanced technologies that can be applied
commonly used in buildings because they are relatively inexpensive
to window glazing, without the need of having supplementary shading
and easy to use [70,71]. However, these conventional devices block out
devices. These systems can also be used as sun shading devices by
natural light and reduce amount of light penetrating into buildings,
controlling sunlight through reflection; while allowing sunlight through
which would affect the light distribution in the buildings [12].
from specific angles [80] or combine usage of solar radiation and thermal
Compared to these conventional devices, more advanced devices, such
qualities [18]. The practicality of some of these systems however, depends
as, LGS have been developed to reduce excessive solar gain without

Table 3
Strengths and weaknesses of light guiding systems presented by previous researchers.

Light guiding system Tilt-able Solar shading Ease of application Ease of maintenance Thermal reduction Allow view

Light guiding shade No Yes Window Easy Yes Yes

Reflective blinds Yes Yes Window Easy Yes Limited
Venetian blinds Yes Yes Window Easy Yes Limited
Movable blinds Yes Yes Window Easy Yes Limited
Light shelves No Yes Window Easy Yes Yes
Prismatic louvers Yes Potential Window Easy Yes Limited
Mirror systems No Yes Fixed louvre Difficult Yes Limited
Prismatic glazing No Potential Window & roof Difficult Yes Limited
Translucent louvers Yes Yes Window Difficult Yes Limited
Transparent insulated glazing No Potential Inside double glazing Easy Potential Limited
Toplight on roof No No Roof Difficult Potential Limited
Solar screens No Yes Window Difficult Yes Limited
Skylight on roof No No Roof Difficult Potential Limited
Lightscoop skylight No No Roof Difficult Potential Limited
Shed-type rooflight No No Roof Difficult Potential Yes
Holographic films No Yes Inside double glazing Easy Potential Yes
Active modular glazing panel No Yes Window Easy Yes Yes
Three-layered rooflight No No Roof Difficult Potential Limited
Façade panels with PCM No Potential Inside double glazing Easy Potential Limited

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on the adaptation of the building façade to the system tilted at certain through building fabric or ceiling horizontally into interior zones without
angle only. For example, laser cut light deflecting panels perform best at access to window opening. Despite light pipes may be capable of spanning
angle from 20° to 40° [109]. A new type of solar and light control device distances of greater than 30 m within buildings, they are limited in their
with retro-reflecting slats can select and direct solar radiation, avoiding applicability due to the pipe diameters, which cannot generally be more
direct radiation and glare discomfort and up to 70% daylighting autonomy than 20 times smaller than their length [131].
[111]. Different light pipes available commercially in the market are manu-
Innovative types of skylights installed on the building roofs were factured by Monodraught Ltd, Solatube International Inc., Velux, and Doel
presented and can be categorized into active and passive skylight [112]. Corp and have different characteristics and applications [122]. Table 4
Active skylights contain mechanical components with the ability of shows the existing innovative type of LTS, developed and manufactured
tracking the azimuth path of the sun; while passive skylights are less using different technologies. The performance of different light pipes
complex with no tracking system. Common types of skylights include installed in a test room and a living room was evaluated and the results
shed-type rooflight [113], skylight contained glass, sunscreen and show the light pipes can provide visual comfort and energy saving if
light-directing layer [114], skylights made of several glazing systems carefully designed [122]. When the solar elevation was low, light pipe
[115], skylight with prismatic glazing [61], toplight systems with performance decreases due to multiple reflection losses within the pipes
various shapes [116], rooflight made of glass, thermoplastic or glass [86]. Heliostat tracking system, which tracks, collects and concentrates
reinforced polyester [117], and optimized lightscoop skylight with a solar radiations with lenses or mirrors [11,54,61,76,84], CPC trough and
curved shape reflector [61,118]. Studies show an increase of between linear Fresnel lens [132] and primary parabolic collector [10], which
5% and 10% in DF for shed-type rooflight or lightscoop skylight [118]. capture and concentrate sunlight, can be applied to the aperture of light
A higher level of useful daylight illuminance could be achieved when a pipes to enhance the sunlight collection. More sophisticated materials, such
rooflight to floor area ratio is between 0.15 and 0.20 [119]. A rooflight as, fibre optics, solid acrylic, microprisms, metal tube, hollow mirrored or
area of up to 20% of the total building floor area could contribute to prismatic pipes, mirrored pipe coupled with deflecting sheet, and silvered
more than 1000 lx of illuminance in horizontal plane (117). Reflecting aluminium sheet with 95% reflectivity were used as advanced light pipes to
mirrors were also used to reflect and redirect sunlight from the top of a enhance the light distribution [10,76,84,123,124,126,128,130,132,133].
light well into lower floors in a multi-storey building in Japan [120]. Shao and Callow presented light rods of small diameter and can be bended
Table 3 shows a list of different LGS which have been developed and by up to 90°, which have higher transmittance than light pipes of similar
identified according to the constructions and the types of materials aspect ratios [131]. Sedki and Maaroufi developed Polymethylmethacrylate
used. (PMMA) fibre optic wires with dimension of not more than 3 mm used
inside a light pipe together with a parabolic solar concentrator for effective
4.2. Light transporting systems (LTS) light collection and reflection to provide illumination to underground
basement [134]. Despite its cost effectiveness and reliability of providing
It is increasingly difficult to provide required daylight for daily activities high level of illumination, the performance of the system was limited by
using LGS alone due to increase in building density and complexity of issues, such as, melting of PMMA in high temperature. Francini and
internal building layout [121]. More advanced daylighting technologies, colleagues developed a prism light guide structure, which was as reliable as
such as, LTS, can be used for transporting and distributing daylight. LTS light pipe with fibre optics, but cheaper (124).
offer opportunities for reliable daylight into core zones of multi-storey The concentrated light transported along the light pipes, is then
buildings [122]. In contrast to LGS, LTS can be applied to rooms with the distributed into the interior building zones by means of special
depth of more than 10 m, as the systems collect, redirect, transport and luminaires or emitters, such as, specialised triangular arrangement of
distribute the daylight into the space of the rooms. Light pipes and anidolic LCP [135] or transparent light tubes [11]. Anidolic daylighting system,
daylighting systems are examples of LTS. A light pipe is also known as light which is a shorter version of light pipe, contained curved daylight
duct [123] or tubular daylighting device [112,124] and can be used to collectors, were constructed using the principles of CPC to enhance the
collect sunlight directly from building façade, transferred to the core zones daylight collection and distribution [89,136–139]. The systems com-
in the building optically by a series of mirrors inside the pipe. Two types of prised of light ducts integrated into ceilings for guiding daylight into
light pipes are reported: vertical and horizontal light pipes building space and can achieve a DF of more than 3% at a point up to
[24,54,61,76,81,85,86,123,125–130]. The light pipe acts as transmission 6 m from building façade [137]. Anidolic daylighting system with its
network [122] and guides the collected light beams, either several stories light pipe made of high reflective plastic and mirror coating could
vertically down the building with light distribution system on each floor; or provide illumination to rooms of 40 m2 [140]. The integration of

Table 4
A summary of commercialized (C), demonstrated (D) and prototyped (P) light piping systems.

Innovative daylighting system Manufacturers Countries C/D/P Installation

Heliostat and sun pipes systems Heliobus Switzerland C 1995

Heliostat with an ultra-sunlight concentrator Sunportal South Korea C 2012
Heliostat with light guide with prismatic materials Arthelio Germany D 1998
Fresnel lenses and fibre optic Himawari Japan C Early 1970s
Parans Sweden C 2004
Fresnel lenses and light pipe Hybrid Solar Lighting USA D 2013
Fresnel lenses and liquid light guide (Solux) Bomin Solar Research Germany P 2001
Skylight with mirrors and light duct Sundolier USA C 2004
Skylight with curved mirrors SunCentral Canada C 2013
Solar Canopy Illuminance System Canada D 2010
Heliostat with Fresnel lenses and light guide (Universal Fibre Optics project) EC Energy Program EU P 2002
Parabolic concentrators and horizontal light guides ADASY European EUREKA P 2012
Sun pipe with dome Solatube International C 1987
Anidolic ceiling system LESO-PB Switzerland P 1990
Sun pipe, sun catcher Monodraught UK C 1995
Sun tunnel systems with dome and rectangular pipes Velux Denmark C 2005
Solarspot with dome and mirrored hollow light pipes Syneco UK C unavailable

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anidolic daylighting system and electro-chromic glazing in building results that are as accurate as possible (157).
façade can achieve optimal control of the daylight flux in an office room Building energy simulation programs are valuable tool in the design
[141]. stage of new buildings to assess potential daylight savings by perform-
Although a large number of daylighting systems are available in the ing parametric studies of varying windows and shading devices for
building industry today, their usage is limited for reasons, such as, high optimization of building energy performance [154]. Computer simula-
initial cost, maintenance and variability in their performance para- tion programs are effective in offering design support, due to the
meters. In most cases, the systems are also tailor-made, require capability of involving large number of design parameters and per-
detailed design and only used in some high profile projects for forming daylighting performance analysis on detailed and scenario-
marketing, where cost is irrelevant [66]. A summary of strengths and based cases. Simulations allow accurate comparisons within the levels
weaknesses of both LGS and LTS is shown in Table 5. Beltran and of experimental uncertainties, provide practical and computationally
colleagues [85] compared the performance of light shelves and light efficient solutions for energy performance assessment of daylighting
pipes, where they concluded that light pipes are more efficient than applications, and enable the researchers to focus on improving building
light shelves. Despite the overall aperture area of best shelf design was designs to obtain best results. Survey revealed that, 79% of the
approximately the same as light pipe aperture (1.1 m2), light pipes had respondents who considered daylighting aspects in their building
more than twice the reflective surface area of the light shelves. Light design had used computer simulations; whilst the use of scale models
pipes can achieve seven hours of work plane illuminance of more than among daylight specialists has fallen substantially since the use of
200lux per day, compared to four hours for light shelves [85]. Light computer simulation programs can generate more accurate results
pipes however, are expensive, requires maintenance [61] and the [161]. Previous studies show that, the simulation results matched well
performance can be constrained by overcast sky conditions and with the results obtained from field measurement, indicating the
changeable solar altitudes. Despite light pipes cannot be properly used reliability of the computer software [19].
to substitute windows due to changeable weather conditions, the light Despite computer simulation programs was frequently used during
pipes can present electricity energy saving alternatives for permanent the design development stage, the complexity of the programs and
artificial lighted rooms in buildings, such as, in windowless zones insufficient program documentation have been identified as weak-
[142]. nesses of the existing computer simulation programs. Such level of
complexity increases the amount of time required for calculations and
only those with reasonable skills and knowledge would be able to
5. Methods of investigating daylighting in buildings perform the calculations. Daylight simulation developer community is
still very fragmented with approximately 42 daylight simulation
The daylighting performance of buildings can be assessed using various programs have been used [161]. One of the earliest issues with daylight
methods, ranging from manual design tools with simple charts to more simulation software was the problems of interface and creation of
sophisticated computer-based design tools. Approximately 50 methods models due to the speed of rendering software [159]. However, with
were identified ranging from those which were solely manual to those the advance in simulation technology, most commonly used lighting
requiring mainframe computers for implementation [24]. Various methods simulation programs today have photo-realistic rendering programs,
on daylighting predictions discussed in the past are scale building models which could inform on how the actual building might perform [13].
with simulators [44,49,116,144], mathematical or analytical modelling Improvement to shortcomings of the lighting simulation regarding
[71,91,126,145–149], full scale models or mock-ups for field measurement accuracy, calculation of few parameters, long computational times,
[19,35,37,49,67,71,91,92,111,115,141] and computer simulation software simple scenarios and disconnection from whole building simulation
[18,19,23,26,33,35,37,46,49,59,67,68,91,92,111,115,116,118,132,141,14- has been reported [156]. Minimum accuracy between measurements
9–156]. Table 6 shows the strengths and weaknesses of these methods as and simulation was reported as around 20% and one of the main
reported in literature. Among all methods discussed, full scale models or difficulties is how to acquire reliable measurements of reflectivity from
mock-ups are most costly to implement due to degree of difficulty in façade surroundings. Integration of lighting simulation within whole-building
configurations and technological integration. Despite the process is usually simulation is still under development. Progress is needed for the
time-consuming, the results are often reliable and practical as it involves complexity required in lighting simulation to be useful in energy
actual technologies and materials in the real sky conditions [49]. Scale calculations [156].
models are smaller version of building models, which are usually built in Works to develop user-friendly programs to enhance daylighting
desired scales and similar to architectural models. The benefits of scale simulations have been reported. Kota et al. [152] discussed the integration
models are that, they are easier and cheaper to build and the models are of Building Information Modelling (BIM) tool with daylighting simulation
easily made and handled [49]. However, the difficulty of building a daylight programs, such as, RADIANCE, DAYSIM, ADELINE, and Ecotect for
scale model is not less than building a traditional architectural model. easier file input and to reduce the need for the tools to define building
Certain rules and considerations, such as, geometry, elimination of light geometry in a three dimensional (3D) coordinate system. Other integrated
leaks, material choice and inclusion of furniture in models, etc. need to be simulation programs, such as, Relux, LighTools, SolidWorks, Lightscape,
carefully integrated when building a daylighting model in order to obtain
Table 5
A summary of strengths and weaknesses of both light guiding and transporting systems.

Daylighting system Strengths Weaknesses

Light guiding system Easier to implement and apply to window opening Lower efficiency compared to LTG [85]
Easier to maintain Practicality depends on tiltable angle of system [109]
Cheaper compared to LTS Subject to external obstruction
Potential view obstruction
Some LGS may require high demand of user participation [90]
Light transporting system Higher efficiency with longer hour of workplane illuminance Expensive and require modification to building interior [61,124]
[85]
Minimum external obstruction Higher maintenance rate [61]
Applicable to buildings with complicated design Performance constrained by overcast sky conditions and changeable solar
altitudes
Light leakage from roof penetration [143]

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Table 6
Strengths and weaknesses of the various methods used to investigate daylight performance.

Methods Strengths Weaknesses

Scale models Visualize daylight performance; Rules and considerations in model building [157];
Assist decision-making process for appropriate design option [49]; Over-estimated illumination [13];
Built in desired scales; Issues with sky simulators [13]
Studies can be undertaken using artificial sky to represent a specific time,
date and latitude [49];
Built at all design stages [49];
Easier and cheaper;; than real building;
Models can be created and handled easily [49];
Apply sensors/camera inside model;
Façade configurations and geometrical changes can be easily made [49];
Mathematical models Easier and quick to calculate even without specific design details (eg. average Accuracy needs to be validated and tested compared to
DF) experiments
Full scale models/mock-ups Visualize daylight performance in true sky conditions; Large and expensive [49];
True representation of actual design [49]; Difficult, time consuming and costly to implement technologies;
Real building and systems under real sky conditions; Façade configurations not easily interchange-able;
Ability to use real and accurate materials within buildings [49]; Most assessment limited to real sky conditions [49];
Suitable for complex LGS which cannot be replicated at scale [49] Models should be weather-proofed and orientated correctly if
located outdoors [49]
Computer simulations Cost effective; Speed of software rendering [159];
User-friendly interface [90]; Accuracy needs to be validated and tested compared to
Three-dimensional rendering [49]; experiments [160];
Easier analysis with variable parameters and complex models; Calculation errors;
Ability to perform annual simulation [158]; Certain programs require skillful and well-trained users [13];
Provide ‘preview’ of daylighting effect [90];
Dynamic visualization, such as sun animations and time lapse [49] Input quality affects accuracy [156];
Output needs careful expert interpretation [156]

Microstation, RadioRay and DIALux were also used to provide 3D view of mulation programs were integrated to evaluate the impact of lighting
building models [42,132,159]. Fakra et al. [36] developed a new model to energy savings on global building energy consumption [18,33], where a
introduce simulation code into CODYRUN software, which was simple, 50–80% reduction to artificial lighting energy consumption was reported
user-friendly and can reduce calculation time. Gagne et al. [150] and [33]. Table 7 shows various daylighting computer simulation tools used in
Andersen et al. [26] combined fuzzy rule-based system with a simulation the past, in which RADIANCE, ADELINE, Ecotect, DOE, EnergyPlus, and
program, Lightsolve, to develop an interactive expert system for providing DAYSIM are the most frequently used simulation programs.
design guidance in improving daylighting performance in the early design Both computer simulations and measurements offer different
stage. While every simulation tool is unique and has its own limitation, possibilities and drawbacks, which vary according to the characteristics
most researchers had either integrated different simulation tools, used of the code or the artificial sky/sun used [144] and large discrepancies
more than one simulation tools to perform daylighting studies for better between the real and simulated sky conditions were predicted [116]. It
results, or compared them with experimental or measured results for was concluded that the inconclusive experimental results might due to
validation [19,68,92,111,115,149,153,154]. Daylighting and thermal si- uncertainties related to daylighting system's optical properties, im-

Table 7
A summary of various computer simulation programs used to evaluate daylighting performance.

Programs/tools Assessment References

Dialux Prediction of daylight illuminance [91]

Lightsolve Provide design guidance to users to improve daylighting performance [26,150]
RADIANCE Ray-tracing lighting simulation for UNIX computers [11,18,19,46,67,68,95,111,115,116,141,142,153,155,162]
ADELINE (Superlink/ 3D simulation program to evaluate the potential lighting energy savings of replacing [32,92,115]
Radlin/Superlite) artificial lighting with daylighting
Ecotect Evaluate the performance of solar and lighting control devices, as well as [19,111,142,153]
daylighting performance of possible building orientations and shading strategies
CODYRUN Indoor daylighting value calculation [36]
DAYSIM 3.0 Evaluate daylight conditions in a building [11,19,68,151,160,162]
DOE-2.1 Simulate energy performance of daylighting control systems [34,154,164]
Photopia Accurate prediction of performance of light pipes compared to analytical method [149]
BIM-based simulation tool Development and validation of a prototype to integrate Revit with RADIANCE and [152]
DAYSIM
EnergyPlus Model daylighting performance of a high-rise residential building with severe sky [59,154,160]
obstruction
LightTool/SolidWorks Creation of 3D models to simulate fibre optical daylighting system [132]
IES VE (6.1.1) Analysis covers solar, energy, lighting data, cost and value, egress, computational [40,149]
fluid dynamics and mechanical parameters
Relux Creation of 3D model to calculate DF [42]
SkyCalc Daylight calculation of photocontrols with skylighting [23]
Autodesk VIZ 4 Daylight modelling in ray-tracing and radiosity lighting algorithms [94]
SPOT Optimizing the placement and orientation of photo sensor [160]
Lightscape Creation of 3D model to calculate DF [159]
RadioRay Creation of 3D model to calculate DF [159]
Microstation Creation of 3D model to calculate DF [159]

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