19/02/2024, 16:21 Coupling and Cohesion - Software Engineering - GeeksforGeeks

Coupling: Coupling is the measure of the degree of interdependence

between the modules. A good software will have low coupling.

Types of Coupling:

Data Coupling: If the dependency between the modules is based on the

fact that they communicate by passing only data, then the modules are
said to be data coupled. In data coupling, the components are
independent of each other and communicate through data. Module
communications don’t contain tramp data. Example-customer billing
system.
Stamp Coupling In stamp coupling, the complete data structure is passed
from one module to another module. Therefore, it involves tramp data. It
may be necessary due to efficiency factors- this choice was made by the
insightful designer, not a lazy programmer.
Control Coupling: If the modules communicate by passing control
information, then they are said to be control coupled. It can be bad if
parameters indicate completely different behavior and good if parameters
allow factoring and reuse of functionality. Example- sort function that
takes comparison function as an argument.
External Coupling: In external coupling, the modules depend on other
modules, external to the software being developed or to a particular type
of hardware. Ex- protocol, external file, device format, etc.
Common Coupling: The modules have shared data such as global data
structures. The changes in global data mean tracing back to all modules
which access that data to evaluate the effect of the change. So it has got
disadvantages like difficulty in reusing modules, reduced ability to control
data accesses, and reduced maintainability.

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Content Coupling: In a content coupling, one module can modify the data
of another module, or control flow is passed from one module to the
other module. This is the worst form of coupling and should be avoided.
Temporal Coupling: Temporal coupling occurs when two modules
depend on the timing or order of events, such as one module needing to
execute before another. This type of coupling can result in design issues
and difficulties in testing and maintenance.
Sequential Coupling: Sequential coupling occurs when the output of one
module is used as the input of another module, creating a chain or
sequence of dependencies. This type of coupling can be difficult to
maintain and modify.
Communicational Coupling: Communicational coupling occurs when two
or more modules share a common communication mechanism, such as a
shared message queue or database. This type of coupling can lead to
performance issues and difficulty in debugging.
Functional Coupling: Functional coupling occurs when two modules
depend on each other’s functionality, such as one module calling a
function from another module. This type of coupling can result in tightly-
coupled code that is difficult to modify and maintain.
Data-Structured Coupling: Data-structured coupling occurs when two or
more modules share a common data structure, such as a database table
or data file. This type of coupling can lead to difficulty in maintaining the
integrity of the data structure and can result in performance issues.
Interaction Coupling: Interaction coupling occurs due to the methods of a
class invoking methods of other classes. Like with functions, the worst
form of coupling here is if methods directly access internal parts of other
methods. Coupling is lowest if methods communicate directly through
parameters.
Component Coupling: Component coupling refers to the interaction
between two classes where a class has variables of the other class. Three
clear situations exist as to how this can happen. A class C can be
component coupled with another class C1, if C has an instance variable of
type C1, or C has a method whose parameter is of type C1,or if C has a
method which has a local variable of type C1. It should be clear that
whenever there is component coupling, there is likely to be interaction
coupling.

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19/02/2024, 16:21 Coupling and Cohesion - Software Engineering - GeeksforGeeks

Cohesion: Cohesion is a measure of the degree to which the elements of the

module are functionally related. It is the degree to which all elements
directed towards performing a single task are contained in the component.
Basically, cohesion is the internal glue that keeps the module together. A
good software design will have high cohesion.

Types of Cohesion:

Functional Cohesion: Every essential element for a single computation is

contained in the component. A functional cohesion performs the task and
functions. It is an ideal situation.
Sequential Cohesion: An element outputs some data that becomes the
input for other element, i.e., data flow between the parts. It occurs
naturally in functional programming languages.
Communicational Cohesion: Two elements operate on the same input
data or contribute towards the same output data. Example- update record
in the database and send it to the printer.
Procedural Cohesion: Elements of procedural cohesion ensure the order
of execution. Actions are still weakly connected and unlikely to be
reusable. Ex- calculate student GPA, print student record, calculate
cumulative GPA, print cumulative GPA.
Temporal Cohesion: The elements are related by their timing involved. A
module connected with temporal cohesion all the tasks must be executed
in the same time span. This cohesion contains the code for initializing all
the parts of the system. Lots of different activities occur, all at unit time.
Logical Cohesion: The elements are logically related and not functionally.
Ex- A component reads inputs from tape, disk, and network. All the code

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19/02/2024, 16:21 Coupling and Cohesion - Software Engineering - GeeksforGeeks

for these functions is in the same component. Operations are related, but
the functions are significantly different.
Coincidental Cohesion: The elements are not related(unrelated). The
elements have no conceptual relationship other than location in source
code. It is accidental and the worst form of cohesion. Ex- print next line
and reverse the characters of a string in a single component.
Procedural Cohesion: This type of cohesion occurs when elements or
tasks are grouped together in a module based on their sequence of
execution, such as a module that performs a set of related procedures in a
specific order. Procedural cohesion can be found in structured
programming languages.
Communicational Cohesion: Communicational cohesion occurs when
elements or tasks are grouped together in a module based on their
interactions with each other, such as a module that handles all
interactions with a specific external system or module. This type of
cohesion can be found in object-oriented programming languages.
Temporal Cohesion: Temporal cohesion occurs when elements or tasks
are grouped together in a module based on their timing or frequency of
execution, such as a module that handles all periodic or scheduled tasks
in a system. Temporal cohesion is commonly used in real-time and
embedded systems.
Informational Cohesion: Informational cohesion occurs when elements or
tasks are grouped together in a module based on their relationship to a
specific data structure or object, such as a module that operates on a
specific data type or object. Informational cohesion is commonly used in
object-oriented programming.
Functional Cohesion: This type of cohesion occurs when all elements or
tasks in a module contribute to a single well-defined function or purpose,
and there is little or no coupling between the elements. Functional
cohesion is considered the most desirable type of cohesion as it leads to
more maintainable and reusable code.
Layer Cohesion: Layer cohesion occurs when elements or tasks in a
module are grouped together based on their level of abstraction or
responsibility, such as a module that handles only low-level hardware
interactions or a module that handles only high-level business logic.
Layer cohesion is commonly used in large-scale software systems to
organize code into manageable layers.

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19/02/2024, 16:21 Coupling and Cohesion - Software Engineering - GeeksforGeeks

Advantages of low coupling:

Improved maintainability: Low coupling reduces the impact of changes in

one module on other modules, making it easier to modify or replace
individual components without affecting the entire system.
Enhanced modularity: Low coupling allows modules to be developed and
tested in isolation, improving the modularity and reusability of code.
Better scalability: Low coupling facilitates the addition of new modules
and the removal of existing ones, making it easier to scale the system as
needed.

Advantages of high cohesion:

Improved readability and understandability: High cohesion results in

clear, focused modules with a single, well-defined purpose, making it
easier for developers to understand the code and make changes.
Better error isolation: High cohesion reduces the likelihood that a change
in one part of a module will affect other parts, making it easier to
Improved reliability: High cohesion leads to modules that are less prone
to errors and that function more consistently,
leading to an overall improvement in the reliability of the system.

Disadvantages of high coupling:

Increased complexity: High coupling increases the interdependence

between modules, making the system more complex and difficult to
understand.
Reduced flexibility: High coupling makes it more difficult to modify or
replace individual components without affecting the entire system.
Decreased modularity: High coupling makes it more difficult to develop
and test modules in isolation, reducing the modularity and reusability of
code.

Disadvantages of low cohesion:

Increased code duplication: Low cohesion can lead to the duplication of

code, as elements that belong together are split into separate modules.
Reduced functionality: Low cohesion can result in modules that lack a
clear purpose and contain elements that don’t belong together, reducing
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19/02/2024, 16:21 Coupling and Cohesion - Software Engineering - GeeksforGeeks

their functionality and making them harder to maintain.

Difficulty in understanding the module: Low cohesion can make it harder
for developers to understand the purpose and behavior of a module,
leading to errors and a lack of clarity.

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