Chapter 3: Circular Motion

This unit will deal with the movement of objects in a circle

or an arc-like motion. For many students, this may be among the
easier units, but I advise you to read carefully and do enough
practice problems so that you understand how to solve various
problems.

In AP Physics 1, we will mostly deal with uniform circular

motion (UCM), meaning that the speed of an object is constant
in a circular path. However, non-uniform circular motion (NUCM)
may be asked on the exam and in practical scenarios, but you
may not be asked about the cohesive properties, rather de nite
properties at certain moments.

Uniform Circular Motion – An Introduction

Imagine that you are holding a friend by the hands and you
are spinning round and round. In order to keep them in motion,
you may have to pull on their hand to make sure that they stay
moving in a circle, otherwise they’d get ung and *hopefully*
not die.

While you were holding on to your friend, you were pulling

on them to make sure that they didn’t ing away. In physics, this
force is called the centripetal force, and is a key force in
causing the circular motion of an object. But where do we

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derive this force from? Let’s take a step back and instead
observe your friend who’s moving in a circle.

The centripetal force is NOT A NEW FORCE. A lot of

students confuse themselves over this, but let’s clear this up
once and for all. The centripetal force is a component of a force,
or a previously de ned force. This can be either a contact, or a
non-contact force, and can include the forces of gravity,
electrostatic, tension, friction, normal, magnetic, and more. For
instance of a non-contact force, Earth’s orbit around the sun is
caused by the force of gravity between the Sun and the Earth;
the force of gravity between the Sun and the Earth is the
centripetal force. For instance of a contact force, the force of
friction acting on a car while it turns is the centripetal force.

You will be asked to identify what the centripetal force is, so

please remember that the centripetal force is one of the
aforementioned forces. You should also remember that the
centripetal force acts in the plane of rotation, which should help
you determine whether or not a component of a force or the
composite force is the centripetal force.

Assuming that your friend moves at a constant speed, their

velocity is changing every instant. Remember, velocity is a
vector, meaning that a change in direction corresponds with a
change in velocity. With a change in velocity over a change in

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 time, we can therefore state that some acceleration is present.
This acceleration, called the centripetal acceleration is
directed towards the center of the circular path in UCM,
perpendicular to the instantaneous velocity vector. Let’s use a
drawing to prove this.

For an object involved in UCM, we can get a different

direction for the velocity vector at two different times. We know
that acceleration is the change in velocity over a change in time
period, so if we take the vectorial difference, we can nd that the
direction of the centripetal acceleration is radially directed.
Formally, by taking the limit as this change in time approaches 0,
we change this change in time to the instantaneous moment of
change. This allows us to see the change in velocity, to which we
nd that the change in direction of the velocity vector is
perpendicular to the tangential velocity. The presence of a

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centripetal acceleration therefore implies a centripetal force as a
result of Newton’s 2nd law.

Now, let’s quantify these:

1. Centripetal Acceleration

v2
ac ⃗ =
r

Where v is the tangential velocity in meters per second, and r is

the radius/distance from the center point

2. Centripetal Force

F ⃗ = ma⃗ ∴ Fc⃗ = m ac ⃗ =
2
mv
∑ ∑ r

Fc⃗ is the net centripetal force. We de ne positive

∑
Where
forces as forces that point inward into the center of motion, and
negative forces as forces that point away from the center of
motion.

Period and Frequency

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 In some cases, you may not be given the velocity of a
object in circular motion, but rather, the radius, time to complete
a rotation, or the frequency. Here, we will dissect each one of
these so that you know what each is and how to apply them.

Period: the time taken to complete one revolution. It is

measured in seconds, or seconds per cycle. It is represented
with a capital T, and has the following equation:

2πr
T=
v

Where T is the period, r is the radius, and v is the velocity in

meters per second.

Frequency: the inverse of period. It is the number of cycles

completed in 1 second, and has the units hertz.

1
f=
T

Tangential and Angular Velocity

Bodies in rotation/circular motion will experience a change in
angle and at the same time, a change in the direction of the
tangential velocity vector.

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Tangential velocity is the instantaneous linear velocity the object
in CM experiences, whereas angular velocity is the derivative of
the angular displacement with respect to time, measured with
units radians per second.

Thus, we can state the following for the angular velocity:

dθ Δθ 2π
ω= = =
dt Δt T

Now in order to create a relationship between the linear and

angular velocity, we can use the geometric identity s = rθ ,
where θ is measured in radians to arrive at the following
derivation:

s = rθ

ds drθ
=
dt dt

dθ
vtan = r = rω
dt

We can do this again to nd the linear and radial acceleration.

You will deal with these in Chapter 7/Unit 7 of the AP Physics 1
curriculum, but for now I will give you a brief introduction to it:

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 vtan = rω

d d d
vtan = rω = r ω
dt dt dt

atan = rα

These equations will be important in solving circular motion

problems. Make sure you know how to use them!

Sample Problem – Car on a Hill

A car with a mass of 1000kg travels over a hill of radius 100m at
a speed of 25 m/s. Determine the weight, centripetal
acceleration, and the normal force.

Solution:

Let’s break this down step by step:

1. Weight of the car

N
W = Fg = mg = 1000kg(10 ) = 10,000N = 10k N
kg

2. Centripetal Acceleration

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 m
v2 (25 s )2 m
ac ⃗ = = = 6.25 2
r 100m s

3. Normal Force

⃗ ⃗
6.25m
∑ c
F = m ac = 1000kg( 2 ) = 6250N
s

Fc⃗ = Fg − Fn
∑

∴ Fg − Fn = 6250N

10,000N − Fn = 6250N

3750N = Fn

Problems involving “minimum speed”

On the AP Physics 1 test, you may come across a problem
that asks you to determine what the minimum amount of speed
for a car to fully complete a vertical circular loop is. In this
section, we will demonstrate how to solve these problems using
an elegant

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Problem: A pendulum of mass 1 kg is swinging in a vertical
circle of radius 5m. What is the minimum speed required for
the pendulum to not fall?

Let’s imagine this. I have some pendulum (doesn’t need to

be exact speci cs like above), but I swing it vertically and slow
down the speed it’s traveling at. At some point, you stop feeling
the tug of the string as you see the bob move in a circle above.
This is the minimum speed. Since you don’t feel a tug, this
means that the only force acting on this bob at the very top is
the force of gravity. By eliminating the force of tension from this
situation, our problem becomes very simple as seen below.

⃗ mv 2 N 50m 2 m
∑ c
F = Fg = mg = ∴ gr = v⃗ = 10 5m = = 7.07
r kg s2 s

The general relationship observed is that the minimum

speed is equal to gr . In time crunches, you can feel free to use
this, but I HIGHLY RECOMMEND doing the work in full, to
ensure that you get full points, and so that you can visually
understand how the problem makes sense.

Circular Motion in multiple dimensions

When you have objects moving in a horizontal circle such
as a swinging pendulum over your head, you may notice that no

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 matter how fast you spin the pendulum, it will never be perfectly
at. Let’s analyze this situation a bit more.

Let’s take a snapshot of the instantaneous moment where

the string is perpendicular to our eld of vision so we can draw
a FBD.

The FBD should look as such, with the weight down, and
the force of tension, acting as the centripetal force, at an angle
with respect to the horizontal. The reasoning for this has to
relate with the motion of the bob in the various planes. Because
the bob is not accelerating in the vertical plane–that is, not
moving vertically up or down, there is no acceleration in the y
direction. Because of this, there is no net force acting in the
vertical direction. If we were to analyze the vertical component
forces acting upon the bob, there is a vertical component of
tension, along with a weight force downwards. Thus, in order for
there to be a balance of forces in the vertical direction, there

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must be some angle to allow for a vertical tension vector to
equal the weight vector.

This vertical tension component is not used for circular

motion, because it is used to help counteract gravity. The
horizontal tension component is used as the centripetal force
causing a centripetal acceleration, allowing for circular motion
to occur.

Releasing your object in Circular Motion

Let’s assume that our object is rotating in a at plane on a
table in UCM. If I let go of the object, it will move at a constant
velocity and in the same direction as it was released in unless
there are net external forces acting upon the object. ALWAYS
have the presence of mind to check if there is a net external
force acting upon the object in all cases, then select an answer.

Friction in Circular Motion

When you are driving in a turn, friction is the resistive force
that enables you to turn and move in an arc. There are a few
types of problems involving friction, so I will go through some of
the most common ones you will see.

1. Maximum speed on a turn

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 In these problems, you will most likely be given the mass or
weight, coef cient of friction, and the radius of a turn, and will
be tasked with determining the maximum speed you can travel.
In these problems, do the following:

• Draw a FBD for the object in circular motion

• Determine the force of friction using the normal force

and coef cient of friction

• Plug this into the centripetal force equation and isolate

the velocity

2. Carnival ride

In these problems, you’ll be strapped to a ride that spins

you around a circle, something that looks like this:

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 Given the frequency of rotation, coef cient of friction,
mass, or any other necessary quantities, you may be asked to
determine the force of friction and the centripetal force. Here’s
how you tackle these problems:

• Draw a FBD for the person

• Identify that the normal force is the centripetal force

• Manipulate the frequency using the equations for

2πr 1
velocity given period and radius (T = and f = )
v T

• Substitute in to nd the centripetal force (normal force)

and from there, nd the force of friction

3. Inclined Racetrack

Given an angle, mass, a track radius, and possibly more, you

may be asked to nd the centripetal force with and without
friction. Here’s how you tackle nding the centripetal force and
appropriate speed.

Frictionless

• Draw a FBD and the corresponding equations for the

normal force

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 • Use components to break the normal force into its
horizontal and vertical components

• The horizontal normal force component is the

centripetal force

• Use multiple equations for the components of the

normal force to isolate the velocity as a function of
angle and radius. Plug and solve from here

With Friction

• Same as above, but the horizontal friction component

and the horizontal normal force component equal to
the centripetal force

• Using FBD’s, determine what the normal force and the

respective friction force are. If asked to determine the
coef cient of friction, nd the force of friction using
Newton’s 2nd law in the vertical direction and
applying it into the equation Ff ⃗ = μ Fn⃗

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Gravitation
Now, we will delve into the second half of the chapter,
talking about Newton’s law of universal gravitation, Kepler’s 3
laws of planetary motion, inertial, and gravitational mass.

Sir Isaac Newton observed that there was a relationship

between the masses and distances between various objects in
space and the force exerted upon them. After numerous
observations and efforts in quantifying this, he made the
following relationship known as Newton’s law of universal
gravitation:

⃗ m1m2
Fg = G 2
r

Where m1 and m2 are the masses of the objects

r is the distance between the center of mass of these objects

And G is the universal gravitational constant, and is equal to

−11 m3
6.67 × 10
kg ∙ s 2

You will not need to memorize the values or units of the

universal gravitational constant, or the formula for Newton’s law

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of universal gravitation. They are given to you on the AP Physics
1 formula sheet.

The force of gravity is an attractive force. For instance,

when you toss a ball vertically up, it falls back down as a result of
the effect of the Earth’s gravitational eld. The force of gravity is
a 3rd law force, meaning that if you skydive from some height
above the ground and accelerate, the force the Earth exerts on
you is the same you exert on the Earth, but the accelerations are
not the same due to the mass difference between you and the
Earth.

The Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition has to do with multiple
objects in a system interacting with each other. Consider the
example below:

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 If I have a system of particles de ned above and was asked
you to nd the net gravitational force acting on the top-left
mass, you may be confused at rst. However, we can apply the
principle of superposition, which states that the force on any
charge/mass due to a number of other charges/masses is the
vector sum of all the forces due to the other charges/masses,
taken one at a time.

Using this, we can now solve this problem, by using

Newton’s law of universal gravitation for each component, and
creating the composite vector.

Kepler’s Laws
Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer and
mathematician who is prominently known for his 3 laws of
planetary motion. They are as follows:

1. The Law of Elliptical Orbits: Planets orbit with elliptical

orbits, not perfectly circular orbits

2. The Area Sweep Law: A planet covers the same area of

space in the same amount of time, irrespective of its location
in orbit

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3. The Period-Radius Law: A planet’s orbital period is
proportional to the radius of its orbit.

We can actually derive the 3rd law using our current

knowledge.

msunmplanet mplanet v 2
Fc⃗ = Fg = G
∑
=
r2 r

2πr 2πr
v= ∴T=
T v

Gmsun 4π 2r 2
= 2
r2 T r

Gmsun 4π 2r
= 2
r2 T

GmsunT 2 = 4π 2r 3 ∴ T 2 ∝ r 3

The relationship T 2 ∝ r 3 is crucial, and can be used to help

save you time on questions if asked about it.

Inertial and Gravitational Mass

Inertial and gravitational mass are actually the same thing,
but they’re measured differently.

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 Inertial mass is measured by changing an object’s current
state of motion. For instance, if measure the force applied to a
block of unknown mass at rest and the acceleration of the block,
then you are measuring the inertial mass.

Gravitational mass is measured by the effect of

gravitational eld on the planet. For instance, a spring scale
suspending a mass is measuring the force of the mass, which is
the effect of the gravitational eld on the gravitational mass.

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