“OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION LAB”

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement For

the Award of the
Degree of

2022 – 23
Bachelor of Technology
In
Computer Science and Engineering
Bikaner Technical University (Bikaner)

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED BY:

Mr. Rajesh Kumar Raj Pranjal Mathur
(Assistant Professor) 20EEAEI016

DEPARTMERT OF ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION

ENGINEERING COLLEGE, AJMER
 VISION & MISSION OF ENGINEERING COLLEGE AJMER
VISION
To foster a harmonious value-oriented environment for all in an efficient Innovative manner tocontribute nation through
excellence in academics and research.

MISSION
 To nurture value-oriented competent professionals through conceptual, Analytical, and technicalknowledge for overall
sustainable societal Development.
 To achieve academic excellence in engineering, technology, and science by imparting quality-based education.
 To strengthen managerial and entrepreneurial skills to start new Ventures.
 To inculcate an inquisitive and research-oriented approach.

VISION & MISSION OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION DEPARTMENT

VISION
To be recognized by society at large as a full-fledged department, Offering quality higher education in theElectronics and Communication
Engineering field with a research focus catering to the needs of the public and staying in tune with the advancing technological revolution and
Challenging cultural changes.

MISSION
To achieve the vision, the department will
 Establish a unique learning environment to enable the students to
 Face the challenges of the Electronics and Communication Engineering field.

 Promote the establishment of centers of excellence in niche Technology areas to nurture thespirit of innovation and
creativity Among faculty and students.

 Provide ethical and value-based education by promoting activities Addressing societal needs.

 Enable students to develop skills to solve complex technological Problems of current times andprovide a framework for
Promoting collaborative and multidisciplinary activities.




SYLLABUS OF OF C LAB

S.NO. CONTENT

Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.

Hardware based experiment;

1. To set up Fiber Optic Analog and fiber Optic Digital link.

2. Measurement of Propagation loss and numerical aperture.

3. Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber.

4. Study and measure characteristics of fiber optic LED’s, LDR and Laser diode.

5. OTDR Measurement of Fiber Length, Attenuation and Dispersion Loss.

Software based experiment;

6. Design and simulate of single and multimode transmission in optical fiber system.
Show and simulate the optical system performance analysis using Eye diagram andmeasure the value of Q-factor & BER of optical
7.
signals.

8. Study and simulate the linear and parabolic waveguide structure use in optical fibercommunication.

9. Design and simulate the Dispersion compensators for fiber optic communication.

10. Design and calculate the power budget for optical communication link.


PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT 1

OBJECT – To set up Fiber Optic Analog and Fiber Optic Digital Link.

APPARATUS- ST2502 Trainer Kit with Power cord Optical Fiber, Cable, Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) with necessary connecting problem.

THEORY - When a light ray is incident on a boundary separating two different media, part of the ray is reflected back intothe first medium and while the
other part is bent and enters into the second medium. The bending in the second medium known as refraction and depends on the refractive index of the
two media

By Snell’s Law , n1 sin Φ1=n2 sin Φ2 sin Φ1/ sin Φ2 = n2/n1 where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the medium 1
and 2 respectively and ᶲ1 andᶲ2 are the angle of incidence and angle of refraction respectively. For n1 > n2, if sin Φ1= n2/n1 then Φ2 =90°. (Here, Φ1
is known as the ’Critical Angle’). If we further increase Φ1 from this angle there will be no refracted wave and the light ray will be completely reflected
into the first medium. This phenomenon is known as the Total Internal Reflection. A fiber optic cable consists of a core surrounded by cladding materials
which respectively serve as the denser and the rarer medium. It may be noted that fiber used in this experiment has a core refractive index is 1.492 and
the cladding refractive index is 1.406.

Acceptance Angle in Fiber-Optic Cable: Since the optical fiber works on the principle of ‘Total Internal Reflection’ only the rays with an angle greater
than the ’Critical Angle’ at core-cladding interface will be transmitted. The particular angles of incidence at which it can transmit a light ray is called the
Acceptance Angle. In our experiment, the Acceptance Angle is nearly 60°.
Numerical Aperture: This gives the relation between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved viz. the core, the cladding
and the air. This is given as

Numerical = n0 sin Θa =√
where n0 is the refractive index of air, n1 is the refractive index of the core and n2 is the refractive indexof the cladding. In our experiment, Numerical
Aperture is nearly 0.5.
Transmitter : An optical transmitter is needed to convert an electrical signal to a light pulse for transmission in the optical medium i.e., the fiber-optic
cable. The most commonly used optical transmitters aresemiconductor devices such as Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Laser Diodes. In our
experiment, we haveused an LED transmitter
Fiber Optic cable : An optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide that operates at optical frequencies. This is normally in a cylindrical wave. It confines the
electromagnetic energy in the form of light to within its surface and guidesthe light in the direction parallel to its axis.
The simplest fiber optic cable consists of two concentric layers of transparent materials. The inner portion( the core) transports the light; the outer
covering (the cladding) must have a lower refractive index than the core so the two of them are made of different materials. To provide mechanical
protection to the cladding, an additional plastic layer the Primary Buffer is added.

The way the material composition of the core is varied gives rise to the two commonly used fiber types.

Step index Fiber : In a step-index fiber, the core of refractive index of n1 is surrounded by a cladding of refractive index Nd Where n2=n1(1-Δ)The
parameter Δ is called the core-cladding index difference. Values of n1 and n2 are chosen such that Δ is nominally 0.01. Typical values of this range
from 1 to 3 percent for multimode fibers and 0.2 to 1 precentor single-mode fiber.

Graded-index fiber : In graded-index fiber, the core refractive index decreases continuously with increasing radial distance r from the Centre of fiber, but
the refractive index is generally constant in the cladding.
n(r) = n1[1-2Δ(r/a)α]1/ 2 for 0 <= r <= an1 (i-2Δ)1/2• n1(1-Δ) = n2, for r:>=a
Here, a is the core radius, n1 is the refractive index at the core axis, n2 is the refractive index of the cladding, and the dimensionless parameter a' defines
the shape of the index profile. The index difference A for the graded index fiber is given by

Δ= (n1’ -n2‘ )/2n1 (n1-n2)/n1

Receiver : An optical receiver is needed to convert light pulses to electrical signals. The main component of an optical receiver is a photo detector, which
converts light into electricity using the photoelectric effect. In our experiment the photo-detector is a semiconductor-based photodiode.
Multimode: A multimode optical fiber is designed to propagate more than one light wave at a time. A larger diameter of the core is required to
accommodate more light rays facilitate the transmission. It is typically used in short distance communication. In this particular experiment, we have
used a multimode fiber.

Procedure :

• Connect the power supply board

• Ensure that all switched faults are of

• Make the following connections. (As shown in Diagram 1).

• Connect the F G 1 KHz sine wave output to emitter I's input

• Connect the F.0 cable between emitter output and detectors input

• Detector I's output to AC Amplifier input

• On the board, switch emitter I's driver to Analog mode.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

• Switch ON the power. CONNECTION DIAGRAM –

Result: Hereby we have learned to set up Fiber Optic Analog and Fiber Optic Digital Link .
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT – 2

OBJECT – Measurement of propagation loss and Numerical aperture.

APPARATUS – Optical Fiber cable , Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe , Numerical Aperture measurement
THEORY :
Calculation of propagation loss-
Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1 socket TP 28. Note this value end name it V2.
Calculate the propagation (attenuation) loss with the help of following formula.V1 / V2 = e-
α (L1L2) Where α is loss in nepers / meter1 neper = 8. 686 dB
L 1 = length of shorter cable (0.5 m) L 2 = Length of longer
cable (1 m)
Calculations of Numerical Aperture- Record the distance of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the spot. Compute the numerical
aperture from the formula given below W Sin Θ = W/√4L2+W2
Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with one of theconcentric circles
The Acceptance Angle is given by 2sinθmax

Procedure :
1. Connect power supply cord to the main power plug & to trainer ST2502.
2. Make the following connections as shown in figure 7.1.
a) Function generator’s 1 KHz sine wave output to Input 1 socket of emitter 1 circuit via 4 mm lead.
b) Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter 1 output and detector l's input.
c) Connect detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4mm lead.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply of the trainer and oscilloscope.
4. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V / Div. and adjust 4 - 6 div amplitude by using X 1 probe with the help of variable pot in function generator
block at input 1 of Emitter 1.
5. Observe the output signal from detector TP10 on CRO.
6. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal same as that of transmitted one with the help of gainadjust potentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note
this amplitude and name it V1.
7. Now replace the previous FG cable with 1 m cable without disturbing any previous setting.
8. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1 socket TP 28. Note thisvalue end name it V2.
Numerical Aperture-
1. Connect the Power supply cord to mains supply and to the trainer ST2502.

2. Connect the frequency generator's 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter 1 circuit. Adjust its amplitude at 5Vpp.

3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter 1 circuit and the other end to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white
screen facing the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.

4. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25mm diameter) vertically at a suitabledistance to make the red spot from the fiber
coincide with 10 mm circle.

5. Record the distance of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of the spot. Compute thenumerical aperture from the formula distances
and diameter of the circles made on the white screen and computesthe numerical aperture from the formula given above. Connection Diagram
:

RESULT: By the above method we thus measured the propagation loss and NA
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT – 3
OBJECT – Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber
APPARATUS : Optical Fiber cable , Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe , Numerical Aperture, Mandrel
THEORY : There are two types of optical fiber . a) Macroscopic loss (having a larger radius than that of the fiber diameter)
b) Microscopic loss (random microscopic bends of the fiber axis)

Macro bending
Loss For slight bends, the loss is extremely small and is not observed. As the radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until at a
certain critical radius of curvature loss becomes observable. If the bend radius is made a bit smaller once this threshold point has been reached, the losses
suddenly becomeextremely large. It is known that any bound core mode has an evanescent field tail in the cladding which decays exponentially as a
function of distance from the core. Since this field tail moves along with the fieldin the core, part of the energy of a propagating mode travel in the fiber
cladding. When a fiber is bent, the field tail on the far of the center of curvature must move faster to keep up with the field in the core, for the lowest order
fiber mode.

Micro binding loss:

Another form of radiation loss in optical waveguide results from mode coupling caused by random micro bends of the optical fiber. Micro bends
are repetitive small scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature ofthe fiber axis. They are caused either by non -uniformities in the manufacturing
of the fiber or by non- uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber. An increase in attenuation results from micro bending .

Procedure

1. Connect power supply cord to the main power plug & to trainer ST2502.
2. Switch ‘On’ the power supply of the trainer and oscilloscope.Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V/ Div. and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by using X 1
probe with the help of variable pot in function generator Block at input of Emitter.
3. Observe the output signal from detector (TP8) on CRO.
4. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the help of gain adjustspotentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note this
amplitude and name it V 1.
5. Wind the fiber optic cable on the mandrel and observe the corresponding AC amplifier output on CRO,It will be gradually reducing, showing loss due
to bends.
Connection Diagram

Result : Measurement of optical power bending loss in a plastic optical fiber has been implemented.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

–
EXPERIMENT - 4

OBJECT Study and Measure characteristics of fiber optic LED’s, LDR and Laser Diode.
APPARATUS : Optical Fiber cable , Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe , Numerical Aperture, Mandrel.
THEORY:
LED: The role of the optical transmitter is to convert an electrical input signal into the corresponding optical signal and then launch it into the optical
fiber serving as a communication channel. The major component of optical transmitters is an optical source. Fiber-optic communication systems often
use semiconductor optical sources such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and semiconductor lasers because of several inherent advantages offered by
them. Some of these advantages are compact size, high efficiency, good reliability, right wavelength range, small emissive area compatible with fiber
core dimensions, and possibility of direct modulation at relatively high frequencies. A forward-biased p–n junction emits light through spontaneous
emission, a phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. In its simplest form, an LED is a forward biased p–n homo-junction. Radiative
recombination of electron–hole pairs in the depletion region generates light; some of it escapes from the device and can be coupled into an optical fiber.
The emitted light is incoherent with a relatively wide spectral width (30–60 nm) and a relatively large angular spread.

LDR : A Light Dependent Resistor (also known as a photoresistor or LDR) is a device whose resistivity is a functionof the incident electromagnetic
radiation. Hence, they are light-sensitive devices. They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells or simply photocells. They are made
up of semiconductor materials that have high resistance. There are many different symbols used to indicate a photoresistor or LDR, one of the most
commonly used symbols is shown in the figure below. The arrow indicates light falling .

Laser Diode : A semiconductor device that generates coherent light of high intensity is known as laser diode. LASER is an abbreviation for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Stimulated emission is the basis of working of a laser diode. Laser diode is similar to LED, however,
different from LED, the PN junction of laser diode produces coherent radiation. Coherent radiation means the light waves generatedby the device have
the same frequency and phase. It is formed by doping aluminium or silicon to gallium arsenide material in order to generate n-type and ptype layer.
Along with this, an additional active layer of undoped GaAs is placed between the two layers.

Procedure-

• Connect the circuit by using optical fiber trainer. Connect the optical fiber to the LED. Connected second end of optical fiber to the optical power
meter.Switch on optical fiber trainer.
• Change the injection current by varying the variable resistor in steps and record the voltage of photo diode as in table .

LDR

1. Switch on the laser and variable power supply.

2. Align the laser beam at the center of ldr , Vary voltage across LDR ranging from 0V to 2.5V , Note voltage and current in voltmeter and
ammeter at different points , Plot the graph.

Leaser Diode :
• Switch on the laser and variable power supply
• Direct the beam from the laser into the power meter. The distance between the laser and the power meter should be short to ensure that all laser
light enters the meter. Gradually increase the current in steps from below the threshold for laser operation to well above the threshold. At each step,
record the output power, the current through the diode and the voltage equal to 10V.
• Turn on the power supply. Then open the switch and adjust the potentiometer slowly to increase the current. Be sure to stay below the maximum
value of current specified by the manufacturer. When turningoff the laser, reverse the procedure. At first adjust the temperature 0.
• Repeat the above step with T = 25c , 50.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

Connection Diagram :

Result : We have studied and measured the characteristics optical fiber LED, LDR and Laser diode.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT -5

OBJECT OTDRMeasurement of Fiber length, Attenuation and Dispersion loss.

APPARATUS – OTDR management kit , Optical fiber cable.
THEORY-An OTDR is the optical equivalent of an electronic time domain reflectometer It injects a series of optical pulses into the fiber under test and
extracts, from the same end of the fiber , light that is scattered (Rayleigh backscatter) or reflected back from points along the fiber. The scattered or
reflected light that is gathered back is used to characterize the optical fiber. This is equivalent to the way that an electronic time domain meter measures
reflections caused by changes in the impedance of the cable under test. The strength of the return pulses is measured and integrated as a function of time
and plotted as a function of length of the fiber.
CONTRUCTION : Light is trapped in optical fiber due to TIR. An OTDR contains a laser diode, a photodiode detector and a highly accurate timing
circuit. The laser emits a pulse of light at a specific wavelength, this pulse of light travels along the fiber being tested, as the pulse moves down the fiber
portions of the transmitted light are reflected/refracted or scattered back down the fiber to the photo detector in the OTDR. The intensity of this returning
light and the time taken for it to arrive back at the detector tells us the loss value (insertion and reflection), type and location of an event in the fiber
link.

WORKING:
Unlike sources and power meters which measure the loss of the fiber optic cable plant directly, the OTDR works indirectly. The source and meter
duplicate the transmitter and receiver of the fiber optic transmission link, so the measurement correlates well with actual system loss. The OTDR,
however, uses a unique optical phenomenon of fiber to indirectly measure loss.

The biggest factor in optical fiber loss is scattering. In fiber, light is scattered in all directions, including some scattered back toward the source as shown
here. The OTDR uses this "backscattered light" to make measurements along with reflected light from connectors or cleaved fiber ends. The OTDR
consists of a high power laser transmitter that sends a pulse of light down the fiber. Back-scattered light and reflected light returns to the OTDR through
the fiber and is directed to a sensitive receiver through a coupler in the OTDR front end. For each measurement, the OTDR sends out a very high power
pulse and measures the light comingback over time. At any point in time, the light the OTDR sees is the light scattered from the pulse passing through
a region of the fiber. Think of the OTDR pulse as being a "virtual source" created by the scattering that is testing all the fiber between itself and the
OTDR as it moves down the fiber. Thus, it can create a display of the amount of backscattered light at any point in the fiber along its length.

PROCEDURE –
Measurement of Fiber length using OTDR:

1. Once a proper fiber trace is observed on the OTDR, cut a short piece of fiber (1 to 2 cm) from the farend of the cable.
2. Cleave its end to produce a smooth, perpendicular end on the fiber in the cable.
3. Set the OTDR to “real time” testing.
4. The trace should have a square peak at the far end of the fiber.
5. Place OTDR “cursor 2” at the beginning of the peak at the end of the fiber, ensuring that it is on thelinear portion of the trace.

Measurement of Fiber attenuation using OTDR :

To measure attenuation coefficient, dB/km, of the fiber under test, connect the fiber using amechanical or fusion splicer to connect the
lead-in fiber and OTDR.
This trace is typical of the trace used to measure the fiber length. This time, however, position “cursor 1” to right of connection between lead-in fiber and
the fiber under test. Make sure that the cursor 1 is onthe linear portion of the trace just after the start of the fiber under test.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

Cursor 2 at the end of the cable can remain at the same location as used for the fiber length measurement.
The distance between cursor 1 and 2 should be at least 100 meters or more to assure that the measurement accuracy is acceptable.
The power loss between the two cursor positions is equal to the optical loss between cursor positions. If this loss is divided by the distance between the
two cursors, the fiber’s attenuation coefficient is determined in dB/km.

DEAD ZONES: Dead zones which are originated from reflective events within a specific fiber (i.e., connectors, mechanical splices, etc.) also affect the
accuracy of the instrument. When a strong optical reflection from a reflective event reaches the optical time domain reflectometer, its detection circuit
can become saturated for a specific time period (converted to distance in the instrument) until it recovers and continues to measure the backscattering
accurately again. As a result of this saturation there is a certain portion of the fiber link following the reflective event that cannot be displayed by the
instrument; hence the term dead zone. Analysing the dead zone is important when specifying OTDR performance to ensure the entire link can be
measured.

1. Event Dead Zones: At 1.5 dB down from peak reflection where the user can accurately measure the distance between 2 events.

2. Attenuation Dead Zones: Distance from the start of the event to the point where power following the peak reflectance has
returned to within 0.5 dB above the level of backscatter.

RESULT – We have studied and measured the fiber length, attenuation and dispersion loss.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT - 6

OBJECT Designand Simulation of Single andmultimode transmission in optical fiber System. APPARATUS-
Opti System Software
THEORY-
Single-mode optical fiber (SMF) -
In fiber-optic communication, a single-mode optical fiber (SMF) is an optical fiber designed to carry only a single mode of light - the transverse mode.
Modes are the possible solutions of the Helmholtz equation for waves, which is obtained by combining Maxwell's equations and the boundary conditions.
These modes define the way the wave travels through space, i.e., how the wave is distributed in space. Waves can have the same mode but have different
frequencies. This is the case in single-mode fibers, where we can have waves with different frequencies, but of the same mode, which means that they are
distributed in space in the sameway, and that gives us a single ray of light. Al though the ray travels parallel to the length of the fiber, it is often called
transverse mode since its electromagnetic oscillations occur perpendicular (transverse) to the length of the fiber. Single-mode fibers do exhibit modal
dispersion resulting from multiple spatial modes but with narrower modal dispersion.[citation needed] Single-mode fibers are therefore better at retaining
the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances than multi-mode fibers. For these reasons, single-mode fibers can have a higher bandwidth than multi-
mode fibers .
MULTI MODE OPTICAL FIBER-
Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for communication over short distances, such as within a building or on a campus.
Multimode links can be used for data rates up to 100 Gbit/s. Multi-mode fiber has a fairly large core diameter that enables multiple light modes to be
propagated andlimits the maximum length of a transmission link because of modal dispersion.
The main difference between multi-mode and single-mode optical fiber is that the former has much largercore diameter, typically 50 –100 micrometers;
much larger than the wavelength of the light carried in it. Because of the large core and also the possibility of large numerical aperture, multi-mode fiber
has higher "light-gathering" capacity than single-mode fiber. In practical terms, the larger core size simplifies connections and also allows the use of
lower-cost electronics such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) which operate at the 850 nm and 1300
nm wavelength (single-mode fibers used in telecommunications typically operate at 1310 or 1550 nm [3]). However, compared to single-mode fibers,
the multi-mode fiber bandwidth–distance product limit is lower. Becausemulti -mode fiber has a larger core-size than single-mode fiber, it supports
more than one propagation mode; hence it is limited by modal dispersion, while single mode is not.
Jacket colour is sometimes used to distinguish multi-mode cables from single-mode ones. The standard TIA-598C recommends, for non-military
applications, the use of a yellow jacket for single-mode fiber, and orange or aqua for multi-mode fiber, depending on type. Some vendors use violet
to distinguish higher performance OM4 communications fiber from other types. Multi-mode fibers are described by their core and cladding diameters.
Thus, 62.5/125 μm multi-mode fiber has a core size of 62.5 micrometers (μm) and a cladding diameter of 125μm. The transition between the core and
cladding can be sharp, which is called a step-index profile, or a gradual transition, which is called a graded-index profile. The two types have different
dispersion characteristics and thus different effective propagation distance. Multi-mode fibers may be constructed with either graded or step-index
profile. In addition, multi-mode fibers are described using a system of classification determined by the ISO 11801standard — OM1, OM2, and OM3
— which is based on the modal bandwidth of the multi-mode fiber. OM4 (defined in TIA-492-AAAD) was finalized in August 2009, and was
published by the end of 2009 by the TIA.OM4 cable will support 125m links at 40 and 100 Gbit/s. The letters "OM" stand for optical multi-mode.

RESULT- We have studied Single and multimode transmission in optical fiber System.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT - 7

OBJECT – Show and simulate the optical system performance analysis using eye diagram and measure the value of Q-factor and BER of optical signals.
APPARATUS - Opti wave simulation tools.
THEORY –
Optical System Performance Analysis : Avoiding polarization and scattering effects such as stimulated Raman scattering and stimulated Brillouin
scattering, propagation of optical pulses in fiber is described by the scalar nonlinear Schrodinger’s equation (NLSE). It describes the evolution of optical
field at the transmission distance z

2 2 3 3 2 2 2
∂A/∂z − Ɵ1 ∂A/∂t + iƟ2∂ A/2∂t − Ɵ3∂ A/6∂t +α/2 A = iy {|A |A +i∂|A |A/ω∂t −T∂|A |/∂t }

Where A represents the optical field envelope, γ is the nonlinearity coefficient, α is the attenuation constants θ1, θ2 and θ3 are first-order, second- and
third-order derivations of the propagation constant θ about the center frequency ωο and they are related to the dispersion of the optical fiber, and TR can
be related to the slope of the Raman gain spectrum and is usually estimated to be 3 femto-second at wavelengthsnear 1550 nm. The term proportional to
θ3 account for third-order dispersion, and only becomes important for ultra-short pulses, because of their wide bandwidth. The last two terms in the right
side of the eqn. (1) arerelated t o the effects of self-steeping and stimulated Raman scattering, respectively. For pulses of width To > 5 pico-second, the
parameters (ωο To) and TR/T0 become so small (< 0:001) that the last two terms in eqn.
can be neglected on such condition, and if the reference time frame moves with pulse at the group velocity, vg i.e., T= t - z/vg = t -θ1 z, the eqn. can
be simplified
2
∂A/∂Z + iɵ2 ∂A/2∂t + αA/2 = iy|A |A

The nonlinear effects included in the NLSE are self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (XPM), and four-wave mixing (FWM). Single
channel transmission is affected by SPM only whereas multi-channel transmission has combined effects of SPM, XPM, and FWM which lead to signal
degradation. SPMaffects the optical signal by its interaction with pulses broaden due to dispersion. Degradation due to nonlinear effect can be minimized
by using appropriate dispersion compensation schemes. Since dispersion of the SMF is large at 1550 nm (D = 16 ps / (nm.km)), thus it becomes necessary
to compensatedispersion. Two compensation techniques used for this are as follows:

Dispersion Compensating Fiber

-1
Dispersion compensating fiber is a single mode fiber which have high negative dispersion coefficient of - 80 to -90 ps (nm.km) , and used to mitigate
the positive dispersion of the single mode fiber. Its effective core area is small compared to single mode fiber and have high attenuation coefficient. The
lengths of DCF and SMF are in the multiple of 1:5. By placing one DCF with negative dispersion after or before a SMF with positive dispersion, the
net dispersion can be minimized or made equals to zero. The condition that makes net dispersion zero is
Dsmf Lsmf = −Ddcf Ldcf
Where DSMF and LSMF are the dispersion and length of single mode fiber and DDCF and LDCF are the dispersion and length of dispersion. b.Fiber

Bragg Grating

Fiber Bragg gratings were introduced in 1980. These gratings are used in an optical fiber as a reflective device in which modulation of core refractive
index takes place at a certain wavelength. The reflection occurs in gratings when the wavelength of signal travelling inside the optical fiber matches to the
modulation periodicity of FBG. The reflected wavelength (λb) is known as the Bragg wavelength, and it isrepresented by the following relationship:
λb = 2NeffA
Where neff represents the effective refractive index of the grating in the fiber core and Λ represents the grating period. The operation of fiber Bragg
grating depends on parameters such as: the reflection of light from grating fringes and on the coupling of the modes . The coupling takes place between
the forward and backward propagating fields. According to the coupling process, the two fields show strong coupling if they follow the given Bragg
condition: β1 − β2 = 2mΠ/A
Where, β1 and β2 are the phase constants of two coupling modes, Λ depicts the grating period based on variation of the refractive index (assuming
sinusoidal variation), and m is the order of diffraction. For first order, m =1. Taking identical two inverse propagating modes β2 = −β1 From equation
(5) the Bragg diffraction condition becomes 2β1 = 2mΠ/A , On substituting the value of grating period Λ from equation (4) to (7), we get β1 =
2ΠNoff/λb

The chirped fiber Bragg grating is shown in Fig

ratings which have non uniform period along their length in FBG are termed as Chirped Gratings. The chirp may be linear, may be quadratic, or may
even have jumps in the period. A grating could also have a period that varies in any function along its length. Apodization causes the reduction of side-
lobe levels in the reflection spectrum.
Q-FACTOR
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

The Q-factor, a function of the OSNR, provides a qualitative description of the receiver performance. The Q-factor suggests the minimum signal-tonoise
ratio (SNR) required to obtain a specific BER for a given signal. OSNR is measured in decibels. The higher the bit rate, the higher the OSNR ratio
required. For OC- 192 transmissions, the OSNR should be at least 27 to 31 dB compared to 18 to 21 dB for OC-48.
The Quality factor is a measure of how noisy a pulse is for diagnostic purposes. The eye patternoscilloscope will typically generate a report that shows
what the Q factor number is. The Q factor is defined as shown in the figure: the difference of the mean values of the two signal levels (level for a “1”
bit and level for a “0” bit) divided by the sum of the noise standard deviations at the two signal levels. A larger number in the result means that the pulse
is relatively free from noise.
Q is defined is The ratio between the sums of the distance from the decision point within the eye (D) to each edge of the eye, and the sum of the RMS
noise on each edge of the eye. Q = [ǀμ1 − Dǀ + ǀμ0 − Dǀ]/(σ1 + σ0)

This definition can be derived from the following definition, which in turn comes from ITU-T G.976 Q = (μ1 − μo)/(σ1 − σ0) where m1,0
are the mean positions of each rail of the eye, and s1,0 are the S.D., or RMS noise, present on each of these rails. For an illustration of where
these values lie within the eye see the following figure:

As Q is a ratio it is reported as a unit-less positive value greater than 1 (Q>1). A Q of 1 represents completeclosure of the received optical eye. To give
-9 some
idea of the associated raw BER a Q of 6 corresponds to a raw BER of 10 .
BER OF OPTICAL SIGNALS

Transmission quality of telecommunication systems can be assessed directly by measuring how well the output signal reproduces the input. Bit Error
Ratio (or Rate) is the signal quality concept used for digital communication systems (Signal-to-Noise Ratio SNR is used for analog communication
systems instead).
BER measurements compare digital input and output signals to assess what fraction of the bits are received incorrectly. It is defined as BER = E(t)/N(t)
Where E(t) is the number of bits received in error over time t, and N(t) is the total number of bits transmitted in time t. The BER essentially specifies the
-9 9 average probability of incorrect bit identification. Thus, a BER of 10
meansthat 1 bit out of every 10 bit is, on average, read incorrectly. If the system
8 9 9 8 is operating at 100 Mb/s – that is, 10 pulses per second – then to receive 10
pulses, the time taken wouldbe 10 /10 = 10swhich is the average time
-6 for an error to occur. On the other hand, if the BER is 10 , then, on
average,an error would occur every 0.01s, which is unacceptable.

RESULT – The optical system performance analysis using eye diagram and measure the value of Q- factor and BER of optical signals.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT - 8

OBJECT – Study and simulate the linear and parabolic waveguide structure use in optical fiber communication.

APPARATUS – Opti wave Software.

THEORY –

Waveguide structure:-

The basic structure of a dielectric waveguide consists of a longitudinally extended high-index optical medium, called the core, which is transversely
surrounded by low-index media, called the Cladding. A guided optical wave propagates in the waveguide along its longitudinal direction.

The characteristics of a waveguide are determined by the transverse profile of its dielectric constant which is independent of the longitudinal (z) direction.

Optical wave guide:-

An optical wave guide is a structure that "guides" a light wave by constraining it to travel along a certain desired path. If the transverse dimensions of
the guide are much larger than the wavelength of the guided light, then we can explain how the optical waveguide works using geometrical optics and
total internal reflection (TIR). TIR occurs when light is incident on a dielectric interface at an angle greater than the critical angle θc.

A wave guide traps light by surrounding a guiding region, called the core, made from a material with index of refraction ncore, with a material called
the cladding, made from a material with index of refraction ncladding < ncore. Light entering is trapped as long as sinθ > ncladding/nncore. Light can
be guided by planar or rectangular wave guides, or by optical fibers.

There are two basic types of waveguides:

1)Non Planner Wavwguide 2)Planner Waveguide
In a nonplaner waveguide of two-dimensional transverse optical confinement, the core is surrounded by cladding in all transverse directions.E.g- The
channel waveguide and the optical fibers.

Planer waveguide:-
In a planer waveguide that has optical confinement in only one direction, The core is sandwiched between cladding layers in only one direction. The core
of a planer waveguide is also called film, while the upper and lower cladding layers are called cover and the substrate.

Figure : A planar waveguide made on a crystal or glass piece

Index Profile : a) Step Index b)Graded Index
In a step-index waveguide, the interface between the core and cladding is an abrupt change of index, producing the TIR effect.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

Figure: A simple step index planar waveguide structure

There are two types of step-index waveguides: multimode and monomode (single mode). Only a single mode can propagate in the latter, whereas a
multitude of modes (TIR-reflected angles) can propagate in the former.

Graded-index waveguide:-
In a graded-index waveguide, the change between the core and cladding regions is smooth and continuous, therefore producing a refracted wave rather
than a reflected wave.

:-

RESULT – We have studied the linear and parabolic waveguide structure use in optical fiber communication.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT - 9

OBJECT – Design and simulate the dispersion compensators for fiber optic communication.
APPARATUS – Opti wave software.
THEORY –
In optical fiber communications, DCM (also called dispersion compensation units, DCU) can be used for compensating the chromatic dispersion of, e.g.,
a long span of fiber
Typically, such a module provides a fixed amount of dispersion (e.g., normal dispersion in the 1.6-μm spectral region), although tuneable dispersion
modules are also available. A module can easily be inserted into a fiber-optic link because it has fiber connectors for the input and output. The insertion
losses may be compensated with a fiber amplifier, e.g., an erbium-doped fiber amplifier in a 1.5-μm telecom system. A dispersion-compensating module
is often placed between two fiber amplifiers.

Various properties of dispersion compensation modules can be important:

A central aspect is of course the amount of chromatic dispersion provided, which depends on the length of transmission fiber to be compensated, and on
the type of transmission fiber. For example, dispersion- shifted transmission fibers usually require much less dispersion compensation.

The dispersion slope (higher order dispersion) can strongly limit the usable bandwidth, which is important particularly in the case of wavelength division
multiplexing. Depending on the type of transmission fiber, different relative dispersion slopes are required. High relative dispersion slopes tend to make
the fiber design more difficult.

In some cases, tuneable dispersion is desirable. Optical insertion losses result from absorption and scattering in the fiber itself, but also from splice and
connector losses. Such losses should be low, since they require a high amplifier gain and introduce higher excess noise.

In some cases, optical nonlinearity can be relevant. This is minimized e.g., by using strongly dispersive fiber, where a shorter length is sufficient.

The total accumulated dispersion of the SMF is 16×120 = 1920 ps/nm. We swept the total dispersion of FBG from -30 to -3000 ps/nm. The bit rate is
set to 10 Gbps. In this simulation, we want to investigate thedispersion -limited performance of the system. To avoid triggering fiber nonlinearity, we
keep the received power at -3 dBm. Effects of residual dispersion to nonlinear effects will be considered in other examples. Figure 7 shows Q factor
versus residual dispersion. This simulation shows that in the linear regime (low power), completely compensating fiber .

Figure 1: Q-factor versus residual dispersion

CONNECTION DIAGRAM –

RESULT –The optimized simulation of the fiber optics communication link design is done using Opti system 7.0 simulation software. The
performance improvement of (FBG) when dispersion was compensated at the Optical receivers illustrated from the eye diagram analyser of electrical
output signal results based on before FBG and after using FBG as dispersion compensator, as shown in figure. Also, at the receivers the results output
was analysed the Q-factor and Bit Error Rate of photo detector with and without using (FBG) device.
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

EXPERIMENT - 10

OBJECT – Design and calculate the power budget for optical communication link. APPARATUS
– Opti system Simulation Software

THEORY –

The most important task in the design of fiber optic link is to determine the maximum range of the optical transmission path, being in fact the balance
of optical power in the link. Balance of power is a comparison of the power at the input of the optical link with the losses in fiber optic cables and other
path components. This will help to find the optimal parameters of transmitting and receiving devices to ensure proper signal transmission.

To carry out the balance of power it is necessary to discuss the concept of decibel (dB) and decibel referenced to one milliwatt (dBm) - the units used for
measuring attenuation of optical cables and sensitivity of photo- detectors.

Decibel is a logarithmic unit used in comparing two levels of the same physical parameter, where one of them is the reference level. For optical fibers
the ratio of the optical power at the input of the fiber to that at its output is given in decibels. Decibel referenced to one milliwatt (dBm) is the ratio of
the input power to reference power of 1 mW. The definitions of signal levels given in dB and dBm:

where: P1 - input power P2 - output power

In order to determine the relevant parameters of the transmitter/receiver, one should assess: Ptx1 - Prx1 < Pl - Pg + Pm

Ptx2 - Prx2 > Pl - Pg + Pmwhere:

• Ptx1; Ptx2 is the range of optical power (transmitter) at the input of the optical link, given in dBm.

• Prx1; Prx2 is the range of sensitivity of the photo-detector (receiver) at the output/end of the optical link, given in dBm.

• Pl - total loss of the passive components of the optical link, i.e., of the fiber and optical connectors/splices, given in db.

• Pg - total gain of optical amplifiers in the path, given in db.

• Pm - safety margin taking into account the aging of the transmitter/receiver elements, the effect of temperature on the electronics and optics,
additional power loss in optical fibers due to bending, etc., given in db. Typical safety margin is within 3 and 6 db.

The designer, knowing the parameters of the link (lengths of runs) and optical components used, is able tocalculate the loss of signal for any point of the
path. This can be best seen in the example shown below:

S - splice

Aside from the transmitter (N) and receiver (O), the optical link contains optical amplifier (W), 4 optical connectors (Z) and 5 splices (S). The following
table gives for each item its attenuation or gain. With these values one can appropriately choose the sensitivity of the receiver:
PRANJAL MATHUR (20EEAEI016)

Tx power: 3 dBm Connector loss: 0.15 dB

Splice loss: 0.15 dB Amplifier gain: 10 dB
Fiber optic loss: 0.2 dB/km

The total loss of optical link depends on its length and the number and quality (attenuation) of optical connectors and splices. The total attenuation of
the link is the sum of:

fiber optic loss: (30 km + 50 km) x 0.2 dB/km attenuation of connectors: 4 x 0.15 dB
= 0.60 dB attenuation of splices: 5 x 0.15 dB = 0.75 dB
Pl = 16 dB + 0.60 dB + 0.75dB = 17.35 dB

The total gain of the link is in this case equal to the amplification of the optical amplifier (W). Pg = 10 dB

When designing a link, it should be taken into account the aging of the electro-optical element of the transmitter (typically 1 dB ... 3 dB), and the effect
of temperature on electronic and electro-optical devices (typically +/- 2dB). A good safety margin is 6 db.

Pm = 6 dB

To select the receiver's sensitivity at the end of the optical path it is sufficient to rearrange and solve the equation:

Ptx - Prx < Ps - Pg + Pm Prx > Ptx - Ps +

Pg - Pm
Prx > 3 dBm - 17.35 dB +10 dB - 6 dBPrx > -10.35 dB
The receiver should provide a sensitivity better than -10.35 dBm.

RESULT – We have successfully studied and designed power budget for optical communication .