AD module I

INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF DESIGN:
Design is a process of formulating a plan for achieving a product. Mechanical
engineering design involves the application of the principles of science and
technology in the creation of a product, and the consideration of various factors that
affect its production and use.
The basic purpose of a machine is to transmit or modify the available energy from the
source. To produce this effect machine requires the inclusion of a certain series of
links and mechanisms. The study of geometrical arrangement of elements, the analysis
of the forces involved and subsequent design of elements so that they will not fail in
operation is the subject matter of design of machine elements
Thus, machine design or mechanical engineering design may be defined as the
practical application of mechanics of machinery (mechanics which are involved in
construction and operation of machinery) to the design and construction of machines.
In general terms it is defined as the art of developing new ideas for the construction of
machines and expressing these ideas in the form of plans and drawings.
The machine design may be classified as:
1. Adaptive design: Adaptive design is the type of design in which a designer adapts
existing design, and designer only makes minor changes in the existing design of a
product. It does not require much skills and knowledge.
2. Development design: In this type of design, the designer modifies and improves
the existing design. The final design of a product differs markedly from the original
design. It requires considerable skills and knowledge to modify and improve the
existing design.
3. New design: This design needs technical ability and creative thinking. New design
may be further classified as
(a) Rational (analytical) design is based on the application of principles of
mechanics. It involves the analysis of forces and formulation of mathematical
equations. It requires creative thinking, research abilities and technical skills.

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b) Empirical design- depends on empirical formulae based on the practice and
past experience
c) Industrial design based on the production aspects to manufacture a designed
component
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design achieved by minimising the undesirable
effects
(e) System design design of any mechanical system comprising a large number of
elements
f) Element design of individual components like piston.connecting rod etc
(g) Computer aided design- This involves the use of computers in the design
processes.

DESIGN FACTORS:
The following factors are to be considered while designing a machine element
1. Load
2. Selection of materials
3. Mechanism
4. Manufacturing processes
5. Shape, size and quantity
6. Effect of environment 7. Durability and Reliability
7. Cost
8. Life

Loads:
Any external force acting on a component is called load. When a load acts on a body,
the internal resistive force (strength) resists the deformation. The total resistance
offered by a component per unit area of cross-section is called induced stress or
simple stress. The maximum value of induced stress at which the component cannot
fail is called limiting stress.
The loads may be classified according to the type of stress produced (tensile,
compressive, and shear loads), and also according to the nature of application (steady,

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varying or fluctuating, and shock or impact loads). The specification of load
(magnitude, direction, and nature) is the most important factor to be considered while
designing a component.

Mechanism:
A mechanism describes the way in which a machine works. All machines consist of at
least one type of mechanism. The design process involves the selection of the most
suitable mechanism. The proportions of the parts and their kinematic arrangement
should be such that they produce desired relative motion with accuracy and minimum
friction.
Selection of Materials:
Selection of suitable materials is the responsibility of the designer and his success
depends on the choice of material. When the designer knows characteristics of various
materials, he is able to select the most suitable material to use. Metals are the most
common materials used in machine design, because they will more fully satisfy the
service requirements. The most important properties of metals from the point of view
of machine design are briefly discussed below
Mechanical properties:
Mechanical properties are associated with behavior of materials subjected to
mechanical load. The most important mechanical properties are Strength, Modulus of
Elasticity, Ductility, Malleability, Brittleness, Hardness, Resilience, Toughness,
Fatigue strength and Creep
Strength: It is defined as the capacity to resist external loads under given conditions.
Modulus of elasticity: The ratio of stress to strain, within the elastic limit, is called
modulus of elasticity. The metals with high modulus of elasticity possess high
stiffness i.e. minimum deflection under load
Ductility: It is the ability of a material to deform under tensile load. This property
facilitates wire drawing operation
Malleability: It is the ability of a material to be deformed under compressive load
Due to this property metals are hammered and rolled into thin sheets Brittleness: It is
the ability of a material to fracture with very little deformation i.e., the brittle material

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has low percentage of elongation.
Hardness: It is defined as the ability of a material to resist abrasion, scratching or
indentation. This is the desirable property for the parts subjected to wear.
Resilience: The ability of a material to store energy within the elastic limit (ie.
without permanent deformation) is called resilience. It is the desirable property for the
parts subjected to impact loads.
Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy before fracture is called
toughness. A part that may be subjected to an impact load greatly in excess of the
normal load should be made from the metal possessing high toughness. The property
facilitates deformation rather than fracture under heavy load
Fatigue strength: The maximum stress (under varying loads) at which the material
will operate indefinitely without failure is known as fatigue strength or endurance
limit
Creep: The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at constant
stress is called creep. Depending on the temperature, stresses even below the elastic
limit can cause some permanent deformation. Creep is a very important property to be
considered while designing the component to withstand stress while at relatively high
temperature. The following properties inform the suitability of metal for various
manufacturing processes, and are referred to as technological properties.
Machinability: The case with which a given material may be worked or shaped with
a cutting tool (i.e machined) is called machinability Weldability: It is the ability of
material to be joined by welding. This implies that the resulting joint and the area
affected by the heat of welding are entirely satisfactory. Castability: Castability of
metal refers to the ease with which it can be cast into different shapes, and is
concerned with the behaviour of metal in its molten state.
Shape, Size and Quantity:
The shape, size and the number of parts to be produced largely determine the
manufacturing processes that can be used economically. Larger quantity of parts
having simple shape with minimum possible size While designing a product due
importance should be given to reduce the cost of production.

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Effect of Environment:
effect of environment the most common environment encountered is the normal
atmosphere. To avoid damage due to atmospheric corrosion, the two dissimilar metals
should be separated with a non-metallic washer or gasket and the exterior design
should be such that it will not accumulate dirt.
Durability and Reliability:
The ability to resist the adverse effects of environment, use and maintenance with the
progress of time is called durability. Reliability is the ability of a product to perform
required function under given conditions for a specified period of time. It may be
measured as a probability of success
at any time, or the time for which a level of success can be assured. If the failure of
the product is likely to cause serious injuries to the operators, durability and reliability
in this instance become more
Cost: While estimating the cost of a product, it is necessary to consider the quality of
the product. The cost and quality are interrelated. Increase in quality will have a
measurable increase in cost. The aim of a designer should be to design a product of
acceptable quality at minimum cost.
LIFE: The life of a product is the length of time or the number of times it is operated
before failure. It is uneconomical to provide a longer life than is necessary; because it
increases the cost.
Safety: All machines are a potential danger to the operator and equipment. It is the
designer's responsibility to take all reasonable care to ensure that the design is safe in
operation. Therefore, the designer must assess the need to provide adequate
safeguards to prevent damage.Besides the above factors, the designer should also
consider the standardization, assembly, maintenance, appearance and market needs.
DESIGN STRESS AND WORKING STRESS:
The design stress is the stress value which is used in mathematical calculation of the
required size of the machine member. Selection of proper value for design stress is
important in creating (designing) a new component, and a suitable value is arrived at
by evaluating the strength under service conditions. The working stress, as
distinguished from the design stress, is the stress actually occurring under operating

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conditions. The working load per unit area of cross-section of the part gives the
working stress.
FACTOR OF SAFETY:
In order to determine the size of a component, the maximum load that it is expected to
carry must be known. To prevent failure of a machine part, the design stress or
allowable stress, at all the times, must be below the clastic limit and the working stress
(stress induced in actually loading) should not exceed allowable or permissible stress
Factor of safety: It is the ratio of ultimate stress to the design stress.
Factor of Safety, F.S-Ultimate stress/Design (allowable) stress
The selection of proper values for factor of safety depends upon the following factors:
material selected, type of load, working conditions.
Based on type of load the following values may be selected for factor of safety:3 to 4
for steady load reversal load, and 6 to 8 for varying or 9 to 16 for shock load.
Note: It is universal practice to base the factor of safety upon the strength, and this
conventional method will be adhered to if nothing is specified in a problem.
DESIGN PROCEDURE:
The procedure for designing a machine element usually involves the following steps.
(1) State the problem:
Make a complete statement of the problem in the form of data which indicates the
nature of problem and purpose of design
Study the mechanism (synthesis):
Select suitable mechanism or group of mechanisms to give desired motion.
(iii) Analyse the problem: Study the energy transmitted by elements and the forces
acting on each member. The results of analysis of forces should be presented in the
form of sketches showing the magnitude, direction and point of application
(iv) Select the mechanism and material: Select the best possible mechanism which
will give the desired motion with minimum friction and wear Select the suitable
material considering the part size, load and manufacturing facilities
Determine the size of part: Select the proper value of factor of safety to find the
allowable stress. The selection is based on material, nature of load and working
conditions. Determine the size of the part so as to perform its function satisfactorily.

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(vi) Modify the design: Revise the size to agree with previous experience and the
recommendations of the various committees. The revision is based on manufacturing,
functional and assembly requirements.
(vii) Make final drawings: Transfer the design ideas in the form of the drawings and
include complete specification of the product
BASIC LINK MECHANISM
A machine is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies or elements having definite
motion and capable of performing useful work. Energy is supplied to a machine from
some source and it is modified and transmitted by the links having relative motion
between them.
The study of the physical arrangement of various links and their relative motion is
called mechanism
RESISTANT BODIES: Resistant bodies are those which do not suffer appreciable
deforma tion nor change in shape while transmitting required force.
LINKS OR ELEMENTS: A link is a rigid body paired with other parts of a
machine for the purpose of transmitting force or motion. It is obvious that a link
should possess relative motion.
A machine element or link need not necessarily be a rigid body, but must be a
resistant body. Therefore, the belts, ropes and chains are considered as resistant bodies
though they are flexible and not rigid. Thus, a link should have the following: a
resistant body should have relative motion.
Classification of Links:
The following types of links are generally used in transmission of motion or power
1. Rigid link
2. Flexible link, and
3. Fluid link
characteristics.
Rigid Link: Rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while
transmitting motion In practice, no link is 'rigid, because all materials have some
elasticity, but in most cases the deformation is so small that cannot affect the
transmission of motion. Hence this small deformation can be neglected in a kinematic

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analysis eg connecting rod, crank pin etc.
Flexible link is one which is deformed appreciably (without affect- ing its functions)
while transmitting motion These links are capable of transmitting motion in one
dimension only eg belts, spring etc
Fluid Link: fluid in a tube or container capable of transmitting motion by pressure or
by compression is called fluid lin Fluid under pressure used in hydraulic lift and
hydraulic press acts as a link.
CONSTRAINED MOTION:
A change in position of a body with respect to a fixed point is called motion If motion
takes place in a definite direction, then it is called constrained motion. This can be
achieved only if the links impose some degree of control on each other. This mutual
control is referred as constraint
Types of Constraints:
There are three types of constrained motion.
1. Completely constrained motion
2 Successfully constrained (Partially constrained) motion
3. Incompletely constrained motion.
COMPLETELY CONSTRAINED MOTION
If the constrained motion is obtained by its own links, then it is called
Examples: (1) Rectangular bar moving in a rectangular hole Shaft with collars in a
bearing.

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Successfully Constrained or Partially constrained motion
Successfully constrained motion is one in which the constrained motion is not
complete by its own links, but obtained by some other means Example: A foot step
bearing rotor of a vertical shaft.

Incomplete Constrained Motion

If the motion between two links takes place more than one direction, then it is called
incompletely constrained motion
Example: A circular bar moving in a circular hole
KINEMATIC PAIR:
A joint between two links that permits relative motion is called a kinematic pair and
links are called pairing elements
Classification of Kinematic Fairs Kinematic pairs are classified depending upon the
following Nature of relative motion between the links
1. Siding pair
2. Turning pair
3. Rolling pair
4. Spherical pair
5. Screw pair, and

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Nature of contact between pairing elements (links)
1. Lower pair
2. Higher pair
Nature of mechanical arrangement of links.
1. Closed pair
2. Open pair
Sliding Pair:
Kinematic pair which permits relative sliding between its links is called sliding pair
Examples: Cross head and its guide, surface of the piston and the cylinder
Turning Pair: Turning pair is one which permits only relative rotation (turning)
between its links Example: Crank shaft turning in a bearing, connection between cross
head and connecting rod
Screw Pair:
A nut and screw form a screw pair. In this case, the relative motion between the two
elements is the combination of sliding and turning
(e) Spherical Pair:
A ball and socket joint forms a spherical pair. In a spherical pair one of the links is in
the form of a sphere and turns inside a fixed link.
Lower and Higher Pairs: Lower pair is one which permits surface contact between
two links while in Usually, a lower pair completely constrains the motion of the pair
of links connected.
Example: (1) Connection between the connecting rod and crankshaft.
(ii) Shaft revolving in a bearing
(iii) Piston and cylinder liner, and (iv) Steering gear.

Pair which permits only point or line contact while in motion is called a higher pair.
In case of higher pair the constraint is often incomplete Example: The cam-and-roller
follower, belt, ropes and chain drive, ball and roller bearings, and contact surfaces of
pair of mating gear teeth
Closed and Open Pairs:
Closed pairs are those in which links of a kinematic pails held gether mechanically so
as to have constrained motion. The lower pair is cloned pair Ball and rollers in

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bearings are examples of closed pairs Elements of a pair that are not held together
mechanically are closed pairs In general higher pairs are unclosed.
(ie. open): cam and follower, flat running on a pulley are examples for unclosed
(open) pair
KINEMATIC CHAIN:

When a number of links are joined by means of kinematic pairs, the resulting system
is called a kinematic chain) The relation between the number of pairs and the number
of links to form the connect combination for a kinematic chain may be given by the
following expression
Where number of links a number of pairs
Note: If L-2p-1. The kinematic chain is locked.
2p-5, the chain is completely constrained

A chain may be locked, constrained, or unconstrained. In a locked chain no relative

motion is possible between the links. If a chain is constrained, definite relative motion
between the links is possible. In unconstrained chain the relative motions between the
links are not definite
STRUCTURE:
Arrangement of links in which no relative motion exists is The main distinctions
between structure and machine are as follows. The called structure or locked chain. It

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is subjected to forces having straining actions. Example: Bridges, roof truss, machine
frame, etc.
(1) Structure modifies and transmits forces only, while machines serves to modify and
transmit energy or force and motion (if Relative motion exists between the members
of a structure, while in the machine the links will have relative motion
MECHANISM:
Mechanism is a kinematic chain with one link fixed and the motion of other links
constrained. Mechanism transmits and modifies motion Its relationship with the
kinematic chain and the machine is seen from the flow diagram. Arrangement of links
with definite motion existing between the Kinematic chain When one link, is fixed
and the motion of others constrained
Mechanism
When forces of energy is transmitted Machine is a combination of links with
constrained motion to transmit and the available energy
Difference between a Machine and Mechanism:
The differences between a machine and mechanism are tabulated
Machine
1.The arrangement of links with constrained motion for doing Mechanism
2.useful work Primary function of a machine Primary function of a mechanism is to
modify energy and does
The arrangement of links with one link fixed and the motion of other links constrained
is to modify and transmit motion useful work A machine is a practical development-
A mechanism is a working model development of any mechanism
INVERSION
When one link of a constrained kinematic chain is fixed, the chain becomes a
mechanism Inversion is the making of different mechanisms by fixing different links.
Suppose there are 'n' links in a kinematic chain, it follows that 'n' mechanisms may be
obtained by fixing in turn each link. Each mechanism so obtained is the inversion of
the original kinematic chain.

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KINEMATIC CHAIN WITH FOUR LOWER PAIRS:
The function of a link mechanism is to convert reciprocating motion into rotary
motion or vice-versa Four-links mechanism is one of the simplest examples of
kinematic chain with constrained motion. Many complex link mechanisms may be
made by combination of two or more simple mechanisms
Four-links mechanism consists of four lower pairs. Kinematic chains with four lower
pairs are classified as follows.
1. Four-bar chain,
2. The slider crank chain.

FOUR BAR CHAIN (QUADRIC CYCLE CHAIN):

It is a simplest kinematic chain with four lower pairs. It has four bar-shaped links with
four turning pairs as in the Fig. 2.8 The fixed link (AB) will be called frame and link
(AD) that makes
A complete revolution is called crank (or driver). The other link (BC) which oscillates
will be called rocker or lever. It is also known as follower The link (DC) that connects
crank and lever will be called coupler or connecting rod There are many practical
mechanisms which are based on the four-bar chain.

Practical examples of these mechanisms are as follow

1 Coupled wheels of locomotive (Double-crank mechanism)

2 Beam engine (Crank-lever mechanism)
3. The waft mechanism (Double-lever mechanism)
4. Pantograph

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5. Steering gear mechanism
Beam Engine:

This mechanism is a practical application of lever-crank mechanism It is used to

convert rotary motion of crank into reciprocating motion of piston as in the Fig 2.11
(b).

APPLICATION OF LEVER CRANK MECHANISM

Steering Gear Mechanism:

The steering gear mechanism is based on a double lever mechanism. It is used for
changing the
direction of wheel axles with respect to chassis, so that the car can be moved in any
desired path. The relative motion between the wheels of an automobile and the road
surface should be one of pure rolling, so that there is a line contact between road
surface and tires. This condition is possible only if the wheels describe concentric
circles while the vehicle is taking a turn. This requires that the front wheels turn in a
manner that the axes of both these wheels when produced intersect with the
instantaneous centre which lies on the common axis of the rear wheels as in Fig 2.14
This point shall be the instantaneous centre of rotation and the wheels shall roll
without slipping.

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AUTOMOBILE STEERING GEAR
There are two types of steering gears
(a) Ackermann steering gear,
(b) Davis steering gear,
The essential difference is that the Davis steering gear consists of only sliding pairs
whereas Ackermann steering gear consists of only turning pairs. Ackermann steering
gear is generally adopted as wear of the tyres is minimum due to turning.
Ackermann steering gear mechanism

This mechanism is based on a quadric cycle chain and is consists of only turning pairs.
In this mechanism the two shorter links (AG & BH) are equal in length while the two
longer links (AB & GH) are unequal in length. When the car is moving along a
straight path, longer links are parallel and each of the shorter links are inclined at an
equal angle. When the car takes a turn the mechanism takes up a new position as in
Fig. 2.15 (b)

ACKERMANN STEERING GEAR MECHANISM: In Ackermann steering gear

mechanism the instantaneous centre I (point of intersection of two front wheel axes)
does not lie on the axis of rear wheel axles due to small value of 0. The point I is
generally located on a line parallel to the rear wheel axle

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SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM:
Single slider crank chain has four links with three turning pairs and one sliding pair.
The four mechanisms are derived from this chain. The most useful application of
slider crank chain is the driving mechanism of the reciprocating engine and is shown
in Fig. 2.17.

QUICK RETURN MECHANISM:

The mechanism is widely used in shaper to minimize the idle time. A shaper normally
cuts only in the forward stroke and the return stroke of the ram is idle. The ram has a
slower forward speed than return speed. The QRM provides a slower cutting stroke
and a faster return stroke to reduce operation time.

DOUBLE SLIDER CRANK CHAIN:(ELLIPTICAL TRAMMEL)

Mechanism having two turning and two sliding pairs, and two pairs of the same kind
are adjacent is known as a double-slider crank mechanism IF 2.20 (a)). When link 1 is
fixed and two adjacent pairs 23 and 34, turning pairs and other two pairs. '12' and '14'
are sliding pairs.
The practical application of this mechanism (first inversion) is elliptical Trammel
(Fig. 2.20 (b)) In this case fixed link I is in the form of guides for sliders 2 and 4 With
the movement of sliders, any point C on the link J except the midpoint of AB will
trace an ellipse on a fixed plate. However, the midpoint of AB will trace a circle.

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DOUBLE SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM
Oldham's Coupling:
Oldham's coupling (inversion of double slider chain) is used to connect two parallel
shafts placed at a smaller distance. Two shafts have flanges at the ends and are
supported in the fixed bearing representing link 3. The tongue P of link I is fitted in
slot 2 and has a sliding motion. Link I is Basic Link Mechanism. Made circular and
another tongue O is made on it at right angles to the first Q fits in the slot of the flange
of shaft 4 Thus the link I slides in the two slots in the two flanges while having the
rotary motion Fig 2.21 illustrate the mechanism of Oldham's coupling

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 BEARING (MODULE I)

INTRODUCTION:
A machine element which supports another element and at the same time constrains
the relative motion of the part with minimum friction is called a bearing. The portion
of the shaft supported by the bearing is known as the journal. When there is a sliding
or translatory motion the bearing may be called a slide or guide Thus it has become
customary to restrict the use of the word, bearing to those supporting machine
elements where rotation is involved. The common applications of bearings include
automobile engines, aircraft engines, shafts in workshops and many power
transmission devices.

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF BEARINGS:
Bearings may be classified as given below According to the load application
(a) Radial bearings (b) Thrust bearings (c) Guide bearings.
In radial bearing load acts radial to the axis of the shaft. They are also referred to as
journal bearings. When the angle of contact of the bearing with the journal is 360°
then it is called a full journal bearing This type of bearing decommodate bearing loads
in any radial direction When the angle of content of the bearing with the journal is
120° then the bearing is called partial journal bearing It has less friction than fumal
bearing, but it accommodates load in one direction only.

A thrust bearing
A thrust bearing carries a load collinear to the axis of the shaft. If the shaft is vertical
and terminates in the bearing, then it is called pivot or foot step bearing If the shaft
continues through the bearing it is called a collar bearing The shaft may be with a
single collar or many collars. A guide bearing guides the motion of the machine
member without specific regard to the direction of load applications
2. According to the nature of contact
(a) Sliding contact bearing (Plain bearing)
(b) Rolling contact bearing (Anti-friction bearing)
SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS:
* (Bearings that do not use rollers or balls as load supporting material are termed as
sliding bearings) In this bearing the surfaces make sliding contact. To minimize the
friction these surfaces are usually separated by a film of lubrication.Depending on the
direction of load on bearing surfaces, sliding contact bearings are further classified as:
1. Journal bearings, and 2. Thrust bearings

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Journal bearings support the radial (transverse) load (ie., load acts normal to the shaft
axis). The following types of journal bearings are more commonly used.
1. Bushed bearing,
2. Plummer block or Pedestal bearing
Bushed bearing consists of a cast iron block and a bush made of brass or gunmetal.
The base plate is provided with the holes for fixing the bearing in position. At the top
of the bearing an oil hole is provided to facilitate lubrication of the shaft and the bush.
A bushed bearing is shown in Fig. 7.2. A grub screw (fitted half in the main and half
in the brush) is used to prevent relative motion of the bush in the block.
Note: For light duty services solid bearings (bearings without bushes) are this case, a
hole is bored in the cast iron block to receive the journal.

Plummer block or Pedestal bearing: The plummer block or pedestal bearings are
used to support the long shafts at several intermediate points Pedestal bearing consists
of a pedestal (block), a cap and a split bush The shaft is placed between the bushes
and the cap is then bolted down on to the block as shown in Fig. 7.3. Flanges provided
at either end of the bush prevent its axial movement and snug prevents the rotation of
the bush inside the housing.

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Thrust bearings:Sliding bearings desired to carry an axial load are called thrust
bearings. The axis of the shaft may be vertical or horizontal. If the shaft is vertical and
terminates in the bearing then it is called a pivot or foot step bearing Fig. 7.4 (a). If the
shaft continues through the bearing then it is called a collar bearing The shaft may be
with a single collar or many collars. The various forms of thrust bearings are shown in
Fig. 7.4.

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(3) Pivot or Foot Step Bearing
(b) Single Collar
(c) Multiple Collar
1. Pivot or Foot step bearing: Foot step or Pivot bearing is shown in Fig. 7.5: It
consists of a cast iron block. gun metal bush and a steel disc The lower end of the
shaft rests on a steel disc which is prevented from rotating along with the shaft by a
pin The snug provided just below the collar prevents the rotation of the bush. This
type of bearing is used for carrying light loads at low speed.

3. Collar bearing: A collar bearing is shown in Fig. 7.6. In this case the shaft
passes through a bearing while bearing take up the axial loads on shaft

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BEARING MATERIALS:
The materials selected for sliding bearings should possess the following properties
1. Low-coefficient of friction
2. Wear and corrosion resistance
3. High thermal conductivity
4. Ability to withstand bearing pressure, and
5. Should possess strength and rigidity

For light loads and low speeds, the bearing is made with cast iron; in this case the
bearing pressure is limited to 3.5 N/mm and the speed to 40 m/min. Tin-base or lead-
base alloys (Babbitts) are adopted for mit applications where the maximum bearing
pressure lie between 178 Nmm These are made in the form of bushes and are fixed in
hole made in the cast iron to form a bearing surface.
ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS:(ANTI FRICTION BEARING)
The object of rolling contact bearing is to minimise the friction by substituting pure
rolling motion for sliding motion. Since the rolling friction a much less than the
sliding friction, rolling contact bearings are called and friction bearing. The chief
advantages of rolling contact bearing over sliding contact bearing are given below:
Advantages:
1. Can be adopted for combined radial and axial loads without any complications
2. More compact design
3. Low starting friction
4. Easier to provide lubrication
5. Reliable in service
6. Accurate alignment of parts can be maintained
Disadvantages:
7. Generally, more expensive
8. Worn Out of contact surfaces causes noise
9. (a) Design of bearing housing is complicated,
10. Require good quality of lubricant

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TYPES OF ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS:
According to the form of the rolling member, rolling contact bearing may be classified
as (i) Ball bearings (ii) Roller bearings, and (iii) Needle bearing
Ball Bearings:
Ball bearings consist of balls, positioned between hardened steel races. The balls are
retained in position by cage (separator). Races and balls are made of high carbon
chromium steel while the cage is usually made of brass (or any light alloy having low
coefficient of friction) In ball bearings point contact is maintained between the balls
and races, since the balls are free to rotate only rolling friction is caused which is very
small compared to sliding friction. The elements of ball bearing are shown in Fig. 7.7.

Roller Bearings:
Roller bearings consists of rollers, positioned between races with
with the help of a cage or separator. The rollers may be in the form of cylinders or of
frustrums of cones. The important feature of these bearings is that the line contact is
maintained between a roller and the races. The advantage of this type of bearing is the
large ratio of load capacity to size. The elements of roller bearings are shown in Fig.
7.8.

Needle Bearing:
Needle bearing is shown in Fig 7.9. It does not required a cage or retainer. These
bearings are used to carry heavy loads with an oscillating motion.

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SHAFT

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 GEARS AND GEAR TRAINS (MODULE IV)
INTRODUCTION:

A gear is a toothed wheel having a special tooth shape or profile enabling it to mesh
smoothly with other gears. These are used to transmit power from one shaft (driver
shaft) to another shaft (driven shaft) which are very close together. Advantages and
Limitations:

Gear drive is a positive drive. In comparison with belt drive, gear drive has the
following advantages.

(1) More compact,

1. Can be used where the constant VR is desired,

2. Can be operated at higher speed,
3. Reliable in service,
4. Higher efficiency,
5. Wide transmitted power range, and
6. Lighter loads on the shafts and bearings.
But it suffers from the following limitations
1. Not suitable for the shafts which are at longer distance,
2. Requires perfect alignment of shafts,
3. Requires more attention to lubrication, and
4. Unable to absorb shocks in service.
Tooth Profiles:
There are two profiles in which tooth is formed or generated.
They are:
1. Cycloid
2. Involute
Cycloid form was one of the first regular profiles used for gear teeth. But they are not
widely used now because of difficulties encountered in producing accurate profiles.
Gears with involute profiles are in general use. They particularly useful where great
strength and practically no back lash are important factors as in motor-car gears.

29
TYPES OF GEARS:
The gears may be classified according to the following features
1. Relative position of shafts
2. Position of teeth with respect to gear axis
3. Form or profile of gear teeth (cycloid or involute form teeth).
On the basis of relative position of shafts, the gears can be classified as

Classification of gears
Sl. No. Name Description

1 Spur gears Used to connect two coplanar parallel shafts

Bevel gears Used to connect two coplanar intersecting shafts.
2
Used to connect two non-intersecting non- coplanar
3 Spiral gears shafts

Used to connect skew shafts (non-coplanar shafts)

4 Worm gears which are at right angle.

On the basis of teeth form, they can be classified as

(i) Straight gears (spur gears)
(ii) Helical gears
In straight gears the teeth are radial and parallel to the axis of the shaft.
In helical gear the teeth make certain angle with the axis.
A herringbone gear is a double helical gear with teeth meeting in the mid of the width.
Large gear wheels are made of normalised plain carbon steel for high strength and
good wearing qualities the gears are made of alloy steel such as vanadium-chromium
steel. Gears made of nickel bronze resists corrosion and widely used in worm gears.
Plastic gears are less noisy, but they are inferior to metal gears in load carrying
capacity, durability and reliability.

30
SPUR GEAR NOMENCLATURE:
The various terms mostly used in gears are illustrated in

(i) Pitch circle: A circle representing imaginary friction wheels is known as pitch
circle of the toothed wheel
(ii) Circular pitch: This is the distance between the corresponding point of successive
teeth measured along the pitch circle is equal to the width of a tooth and a space,
measured on the circle. It is given by
(iii) Diametral pitch: It is the ratio of number of teeth of a gear to the pitch circle
diameter. It is given by

31
(iv) Module: It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter, in mm to the number of teeth and
is given by
module is reciprocal to diametral pitch) Module and the circular pitch must be the
same for the gears
(v) Addendum circle: It is the circle passing through tips of teeth.

(vi) Dedendum circle: It is the circle passing through roots of teeth

(vii) Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle to outside circle is
called addendum. (viii) Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and
the root (dedendum) circle is called dedendum.
(ix) Clearance: It is the difference between the dedendum of one gear and the
addendum of the mating gear
(x) Working depth: It is defined as the sum of the addendum of two mating gears.
(xi) Pressure angle: It is the angle between the common normal at the point of tooth
contact and the common tangent to the pitch circle.
(xii) Back lash: It is the difference between the thickness of engaging tooth to the
width of recess on the pitch circle.

32
33
REVERTED - GEAR TRAIN:

Reverted gear train is a special type of compound gear train in which the driver and
driven gears are mounted on co-axial shafts. This reduces the space occupied by the
gear train. The most common examples of reverted gear train are back gear of lathe,
sliding gear box for automobile and in clock work.

34
35
36
 Advantages of gear drive

• It is positive drive hence velocity remains constant

• Provisions for changing velocity ratios can be made with the help of gear box
• Its efficiency is very high
• It can be used even for low speeds
• It can transmit high torque values
• It is compact in construction

Disadvantages of gear drive

• They are not suitable when shafts are distant

• At high speeds noise and vibration happens
• It requires lubrication
• It has no flexibility

37
 CAMS (module IV)
INTRODUCTION
A cam is a rotating or reciprocating machine element which gives reciprocating or
oscillating motion to another machine element known as follower.
The cam and follower combination belongs to the category of higher pairs because the
pairs have a line contact between the contact surfaces in cam mechanism. The contact
between cam and follower is maintained by an external force which is generally
provided by a spring or sometimes by the sufficient weight of the follower itself.
12 CLASSIFICATIONS OF CAMS
(a) Reciprocating follower(b) Oscillating follower Fig.7.
1 Wedge and flat cams
In wedge cam the reciprocating (translatory) motion of the cam is transformed into
reciprocating or oscillating motion of the follower.

2. Plate or disc cams.

A cam in which the follower reciprocates or oscillates in direction perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the cam is known as plate or disc cam. The motion of the follower
may be radial from the centre of rotation of the cam is known as radial disc ca as
shown in Fig 7.2 (a) and (b) In radial disc cams the axis motion of the reciprocating
follower passes through the cent the cam. If the axis of motion of the follower does
not pass through the centre of the cam, it is known as offset follower disc cams shown
in Fig 7 2 (c) and (d). The disc cams are very popular due to their simplicity and
compactness.
Cylindrical cams
The cylindrical cams are also known as barrel or drum cams 4 car in which the
follower reciprocates or oscillates in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the
cam is known as cylindrical cams A cylindrical cam is in the form of a cylinder,
which has a circumferential groove cut in the cylindrical surface and rotate about is
axis The follower which holds rides in the grooves cut on the cylindrical surface of the
cam A cylindrical cam with a reciprocating and an oscillating follower is shown in Fig

38
CLASSIFICATION OF FOLLOWERS

The classification of followers used in cam mechanism may be either according to the
shape of the surface of the follower, which is in contact with the cam, or the motion of
the follower, or location of line of movement of the follower

(1) According to the shape of the surface in contact There are four categories of
followers used in cam mechanism based on the nature of the surface of the
follower in contact with the cam

1. Knife edge follower

The nature of the contacting end surface of the follower is in the form of a sharp knife
edge is known as knife edge follower as shown in Fig 9.3 (c) The knife edge follower
which is in little use because of the heavy wear in the small area of contacting surface
between the follower and the cam

39
2. Roller follower

It is a widely used cam follower and has a cylindrical roller free to rotate about a pin
point at the end of the follower as shown in Fig. 9.3 (b). The roller ended follower
which considerably reduces friction and wear at the contacting surface between the
follower and cam. In roller follower, roller may exactly follow the cam profile, the
radii of any concave portion of the profile must not be less than that of roller. In case
of steep rise in the cam profile the roller follower jams the cam. The use of roller
follower restricted by the minimum size of the pin to be used to conne the roller with
the follower. The roller followers are extensively used where more space is available
such as in stationary gas oil engines and aircraft engines.
3. Flat face or mushroom ended follower.
The nature of the contacting end surface of the followers perfectly flat is known as flat
face follower is shown in Fig 9.3a When the flat face of the follower is circular, then it
is called mushroom follower. The relative motion between the cont surfaces of cam
and the follower is mainly sliding so that ge wear may take place. The sliding wear is
to be reduced by offset the follower in a direction perpendicular to the plane of cam ro
as shown in Fig. 7.4 (d). The flat face follower is most comm used to operate valves of
an automobile engine, where par limited.
4. Spherical face follower

In Flat followers high stresses are produced. In order to minimize these stresses, the
flat end of the follower is machined to a spherical shape. When the acting end surface
of the follower is machined in the form of spherical shape, then it is called spherical
faced follower as shown in 14
(e) According to the motion of the follower
There are two categories of follower are used in cam mechanism according to the type
of motion of the follower.
(a) Reciprocating
(b) Oscillating

Fig 7.5 Types of follower according to the motion

Reciprocating or translating follower

40
When the follower translates or reciprocates in the guides the cam rotates uniformly,
is known as reciprocating or translating follower A reciprocating type spherical face
follower is shown in 7.5
Oscillating follower
When the uniform rotary motion of the cam is converted into determined oscillatory
motion to the follower it is known as oscillating follower In this case follower is
pivoted at a suitable nt on the frame An oscillating type spherical face follower is own
in Fig 7.5 (b)
According to the location of line of movement of the

There are two categories of followers used in cam mechanism based on the location of
line of movement of the tower.
1. Radial follower

The radial follower is one in which the follower translates or reciprocates in guides
along a line or axis passing through the axis of rotation of the cam as shown in Fig.
7.6 (a)
2. Offset follower
The offset follower is one in which the follower translates or reciprocates in guides
along a line or axis away from the axis of rotation of the cam as shown in Fig. 7.6 (b)
(a) Cam flat faced follower (b) Cam with offset follower

41
TERMINOLOGY OF CAM

Fig. 9.4 shows a radial disc cam with a radial translating roller follower. With
reference to this diagram, let us define the various terms which will be used very
frequently to describe the geometry of any radial cam.

1.Cam profile: The working contour of a cam which comes into contact with the
follower to operate it, is known as cam profile
2. Base circle: The base circle is the smallest circle tangent to the cam profile drawn
from the centre of rotation of a cam The radius of base circle is called the least radius
of the cam. The size of a cam depends upon the size of its base circle.

3. Trace point: A trace point is a theoretical reference ont on the follower The motion
of trace point describes the movement of follower. In case of a knife edge follower,
the trace point is at the knife edge. In roller follower, the centre of the roller presents
the trace point. In a flat face follower it is at the point of contact between the follower
and the cam surface when the contact s along the base circle of the cam
4. Pitch curve: Apply the principle of inversion, when cam is fixed and follower
rotate around the cam, then the curve generated by the locus or path of the trace point
is called pitch curve Obviously, for a knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam
profile are identical In roller follower the cam profile determined by subtracting the
radius of roller radially throughout the pitch curve
5. Pressure angle: The angle included between the Iine of motion of the follower and
the normal to the pitch curve at a point is known as pressure angle. During a complete

42
rotation d cam, the pressure angle varies from its maximum to its value The greater
the pressure angles the higher will be the sis thrust, and consequently, the changes of
translating follower jamming in its guides will increase This angle represents the
steepness of the cam profile minimum steepness of cam
6. Pitch point: The point on the pitch curve at which the pressure angle is maximum
is known as the pitch point
7. Pitch circle: The circle drawn with its centre as the cam centre, to pass through the
pitch point is known as pitch circle This circle is concentric with the base circle
8. Prime circle: The prime circle is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the
centre of the cam so as to be tangential to the pitch curve. For a knife edge follower
and flat face follower the prime circle and base circle are identical for a roller follower
the radius of the prime circle will be equal to the radius of the base circle plus radius
of the roller.
FOLLOWER MOTION

The cam is usually assumed to rotate with uniform speed and the motion of the
follower during a complete revolution of the cam is described by a diagram known as
displacement diagram The maximum follower displacement from its lowest position
to the topmost position is known as the stroke or lift of the follower it's usually
denoted by S or L.
DISPLACEMENT DIAGRAMS:
Displacement diagrams are used to analyze the movement of the follower relative to
the rotation of the cam. The cam usually rotates at uniform speed and therefore, the
equal angular displacement takes place in equal intervals of time. Cams can be
designed to produce the following motions of follower
1. Uniform velocity,
2. Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).
3. Uniform acceleration and retardation, and
4. Cycloidal motion.
Uniform velocity (fig)

43
Uniform acceleration and retardation

SHM(Simple Harmonic Motion)

44
 Module II

CHAIN DRIVE

Belt and rope drives are not a positive drive and do not employed where the exact
velocity ratio is desired. In such cases, chain drive is employed. With chain drives the
power is transmitted between two shafts which are at a shorter distance (5 to 8 m) than
at belt drive. These are widely used in cycles, road vehicles, agriculture machinery,
and for general power transmission In power transmission chain passes over two
sprockets, keyed to the shafts. Sprockets are made in a large variety of forms but their
shape must be conformed to the type of chain used. A typical chain drive is
schematically shown in Fig. 11.10.

A chain drive has the following advantages over belt and gear drive.

Advantages:
1. more compact than belt drive
2. absorbs a relatively greater shock load than gear drive
3. may be used for large or small centre distances.
4. unaffected by temperature and has higher efficiency.
5. their maintenance cost is low and lubrication is simple

Disadvantages:

cost of manufacture is high more noisy than belt drive

TYPES OF CHAINS:
Chains used for power transmission may be classified

1. Roller chain,
2. 2 Silent chains (Inverted tooth chain)

1. Roller
Chain: The construction of roller chain is shown in Fig. 1111 This chain is used for
trucks as well as for general power transmission. It works somewhat unsteady and
gives certain amount of noise However, has rough design and suitable for rough

45
usage. It can be operated at a maximum speed of 450 m/min with proper
ROLLER CHAIN (CONSTRUCTION)

The construction of inverted chains is shown in Fig. 11.12.2 hnverted tooth chain is
commonly known as silent chain because as less noisy than roller chain. Silent chains
are employed for transmitting power at a speed range of 350 m/min to 450 m/min and
velocity ratio of upto 12-1

INVERTED CHAIN

INVERTED TOOTH CHAIN (CONSTRUCTION)

The main parameters of any chain drive is its pitch, p which is defined as the distance
between the centres of adjacent hinges The power rating of a chain increases with
increasing the pitch, however, too large a pitch is harmful to high speed drive

46
 BELT DRIVE
Introduction:

Flexible connectors such as belts are used when power is to be transmitted from one
shaft to another when shafts are located at longer distance.
For transmission of power from driving shaft to driven shaft, pulleys are keyed to the
shafts. The pulleys may be connected ei- ther by belt or by ropes. If chain is used in
place of belt, the pulleys are replaced by sprockets. Gear drive is preferred when
velocity ratio of the two shafts must be constant and are not far apart.
Selection of type of drive: Selection of suitable drive in any particular case can only
be decided after giving due consider- action to all the factors and conditions relating to
it.
The important factors are:
1. Centre distance:
Belts and chains are considered for long centre distances as compared with gears.
2. Velocity ratio:
-Belts are not suitable when exact velocity ratio is required. This is due to loss of
speed as a result of slip.
3. Maintenance:
Occasional adjustment is required for belt due to stretch and for chains due to wear.
4. Cost:
The cost of belt drive is less than that of the chain and gear drives
Advantages of belt drive: Belt drives have the follow advantages over other forms of
drives.
1. Quiet and efficient
2. Tolerate shocks and excessive loads
3. Provide speed modifications.
BELT MATERIALS:
Belt drive is not a positive drive because, it depends on the friction. The material used
for belting should possess the strength flexibility, durability and high coefficient of

47
friction

The following materials are most commonly used for belts

1. Leather
2. Fabric (convas or cotton)
3. Rubber
4. Balata.
Leather is the most widely used material for belts. The portions of the hide may be
cemented to produce desired sizes of the belt. It has a high coefficient of friction,
ability to stretch slight without damage and higher momentary overload capacity tha
other belts. Fabric, such as canvas or cotton duck is relatively cheap and may be used
for light power transmission. They are usually impregnated with linseed oil to make
them water proof and to prevent damage to the fibres.
Rubber belt consists of cotton fibre impregnated with rubber, the whole surface is
covered with a rubber by vulcanising process. Cords are sometimes included to
increase the strength. These belts resists moisture, but adversely affected by the sun
light and oil, and deteriorate with time even not in use.
Balata belt is similar to rubber belt except that balata gum is used instead of rubber
and it is not vulcanised. It does not deteriorate with time, but it will not withstand for
the temperatures above
These belts are water proof and acid proof.

TYPES OF BELTS:

According to the cross-section, belts are classified as follows

(i) Flat belts, (ii) V-belts, and (iii) Ropes or circular bel
and Chain Drive
Flat belt: The section of flat belt is rectangular and they we most widely used to
transmit moderate power from one shaft e another which are at a distance of 5 to 10 m
TYPES OF BELTS

48
(ii) V-belt: The section of the V-belt is trapezoidal and is Designed to run in a V-
shaped groove. It is used to transmit larger amount of power from one shaft to another
which are relatively at smaller distances, generally less than 2 m. The other advantage
is that drive will continue temporarily even if one of the belts fails
(iii) Rope belts (circular belts): The section of rope belt is circular In a rope drive
grooved pulleys must be used to keep the rope in position. These drives are widely
used to transmit larger power from one shaft to another which are more than 5 m
apart.

Rope belts and V-belts are well suited for short central distances. They transmit
larger power with smaller initial tension The wedging action in a V-groove increases
the friction, and hence the drive can work with small angle of contact.

The other advantages are

1. absence of vibrations and noise
2. several belts may be used in drive the drive is more positive than flat belt drive
The major disadvantages are:
1. high cost of manufacture,
2. require grooved pulleys, and cannot be used for large central distances

FLAT BELT DRIVE:

The following types of flat belt drives are used in transmission.

1. Open belt drive,

49
2. Crossed belt drive, and
3. Quarter turn belt drive.
TYPES OF BELT DRIVES

1. Open belt drive: The open belt drive is used to connect the two parallel shafts,
rotating in the same direction.
2. Crossed belt drive: The crossed bell drive is used to connect the two parallel shafts
rotating in opposite direction.
3. Quarter-turn drive: The quarter-turn drive (quarter twist drive is used to connect
two shafts which are at right angles to each other.

50
SLIP IN THE BELT:

The relative motion between the belt and pulley is called g It is measured by the
difference in the linear speed of pulley rim belt. The slip may be occurred both at
driver and driven pulleys to belt slip, the velocity ratio in belt drive cannot be
maintained constant and also it results loss of power. Slip prevents the dang to the
machine, because the belt slips on the pulley when the l exceeds the design value.
Creep: When belt transmit power, it is subjected to tight side (T) and slack side (T,)
tensions when belt passes from the slack side to tight side, a certain portion of belt

51
extends, and it contracts again when the belt passes from tight side to slack side. Then
the driving pulley delivers a shorter length of belt than it receiving.
Similarly driven pulley delivers larger length of belt than is receives Dur this action
there is a relative motion between the belt and the palley surfaces This relative motion
is called as creep, and is pends on the elastic properties of belt materials. The net
effect of eep is to reduce slightly the speed of driven pulley.

COMPOUND BELT DRIVE:

When power is transmitted from driver pulley to driven pulley through intermediate
pulleys, as in Fig. 113 then it is known as compound belt drive
List any seven advantages of chain drive over belt drive.

52
 COUPLINGS

INTRODUCTION:

Coupling is a device for connecting the ends of two shafts together Some of the
reasons for joining the shafts are
(1) to increase the length of shafts to accomplish a special purpose.
(2) to transmit power from one shaft to another shaft.
(3) to reduce the vibrations
(4) to provide mechanical flexibility, and
(5) to permit misalignment of shafts.

Couplings are inexpensive and will withstand rough uses.

The requirements of good couplings are
1. must transmit full torque of shaft
2. should permit easy connections and disconnection of the
3. shafts should protect against over load, and
4. should provide safety in operation.

TYPES OF COUPLINGS:
Couplings are of two types
1. Rigid couplings
2. Flexible couplings
Rigid couplings are used for the shafts whose axes are collinear These couplings do
not permit any misalignment of shafts.
The common form of rigid couplings are
1.Muff coupling
2. Flange coupling,
3. Clamp (splis-muff) or compression couplings
Flexible couplings are used for the shafts whose axes are n collinear. These couplings
permit misalignment of shafts, and possess flexibility and resilience. The common
forms of flexible couplings are
1. Oldham coupling

53
 permits small lateral misalignment.
2 Universal coupling
permits small angular misalignment.
3.Bushed pin type coupling
absorbs shocks and permits small amount of angular and lateral misalignment.
DESIGN OF SLEEVE (MUFF) COUPLING:
The muff or sleeve coupling is a simple form of rigid coupling and used to connect
collinear shafts. It consists a muff made of cast iron. The muff is connected over the
ends of the shafts by means of sunk key as in.The torque in one shaft is transmitted to
the muff then to the other shaft, and three elements acts as a single rigid unit. Any
coupling must be designed to transmit the full power of shaft. Hence the key and muff
safely resists the torsional moment of the shaft .The design of key is already
considered. The muff is considered as hollow shaft transmitting the torque. Hence, the
shear stress induced in a muff is calculated by using the relation.

54
 KEYS
Keys:

key is machine element used to prevent relative motion between parts such as gears
and shafts. In other words, it is a device to transmit torque from shaft to mating gear
or wheel or from gear or pulley to shaft Key is inserted between a shaft and hub in the
recess made parallel to the axis of shaft. The recess in a shaft or hub to accomodate

55
key is called key way. Most keys are made of steel and large number of types are
available. The selection of key depends on power requirements, nature of fit, stability
and cost

TYPES OF KEYS:
Keys are generally classified into two types
Sunk keys which require key way in both the shaft and hub, and 42. Saddle keys
which require a key way in the hub only
Sunk Keys
The various types of sunk keys are shown in Fig. 3.18 (a-h):
(a) Square and rectangular keys: These are strongest and most widely used keys.
Square or flat keys may be of uniform cross-section or they may be slightly
tapered (1 in 100) on their thickness.

b) Gib head key: It is a taper rectangular sunk key fitted w head to facilitate easy
withdrawal. The taper is on the top of the key

(c) Feather key: Feather key is used when relative axial motion required between the
components while transmitting the torque. It is f into shaft by small cap screws as in
Fig. 3.18 (d). For double heade feather key (sliding feather key), the key way must be
extended to the end the shaft so that the gear or pulley can be slide on with the key in
position.
(d) Woodruff key: This is semi-circular in shape and fits a simile shaped key way.
This is particularly useful on tapered shafts as 1 is self-aligning

56
(e) Round key: It is a circular pin and does not require the accurate key way. It is
driven into the hole, drilled partly on shaft and partly in the hub as shown in Fig. 3.18
(g). It is used for light and medium loads.
Tangent key: Tangent keys are used for heavy duty and are fitted in pair at angles as
in Fig. 3.18 (h). Each key is withstand torque in one direction only.
SADDLE KEYS:

The two forms of saddle keys are shown in Fig. 3,19

(a) Hollow saddle key: This type requires key way in the hub and the underside of the
key is curved to suit the shaft. Key is tapered and transmits torque by friction alone.
Therefore, it is suitable for light loads.
(a) Hollow Saddle Key
(b) Flat Saddle Key
(b) Flat saddle key: This type requires a key way in hub and corresponding 'flat' on
the shaft. It is also used for light loads, but it has a greater driving than saddle key.

DESIGN OF SUNK KEY:

Keys support parts such as gears and pulleys on shafts which are subjected to a torque.
The stresses in the key are induced by the following forces:
1. Forces due to fitting of key in a key way, and
2. Forces that are caused by the torque transmitted.

Because of complexity, an exact analysis of the stresses usually cannot be made. It is

57
assumed that the entire torque is carried by a tangential force located at the shaft
surface and the force along the length of the key is uniform
The keys are fail due to shearing and crushing. The designer usually confirm to Indian
Standard recommendations on the width and thickness of the key and required length
is calculated by considering the shear strength and crushing strength of key. While
considering the strength of key, it is customary to neglect forces due to fit of key in a
key way.

58
59
60
 Module III
CLUTCHES
INTRODUCTION: Clutch is an important part of road vehicles and other machines.
It may be regarded as a device which is employed to connect and disconnect the
driving shaft with a driven shaft. The smooth operation of the clutch depends upon the
position of both the shafts. Driving and driven shafts must be coaxial for smooth
performance.
TYPES OF CLUTCHES: Two types of clutches are used in machines. They are: 1
Positive clutches a. Square- jaw clutch b. Spiral-jaw clutch
2 Friction clutches
a. Cone clutch
b. Disc clutch
(i) single plate clutch
(ii) multiplate clutch.
Positive Clutch: The simplest positive clutch is the square-jaw clutch. These clutches
produce a positive connection between two shafts regardless of direction of rotation.
They are suitable for situations requiring simple and rapid disconnection. The spiral-
jaw clutch is capable of transmitting torque in only one direction. Its use is limited to
low speeds and mode
Considerations in Designing a Friction Clutch
1. The following considerations must be kept in mind while designing a friction
clutch
2. The suitable material forming the contact surfaces should be selected.
3. The moving parts of the clutch should have a low weight in order to minimize
the inertia load. Especially in high speed service.
4. The clutch should not require any external force to maintain contact of the
friction surfaces.
5. The provision for taking up wear of the contact surfaces must be provided.
6. The clutch should have provision for facilitating repair.
7. The clutch should have provision for carrying away the heat generated at the
contact surfaces

61
8. The projecting parts of the clutch should be covered by guard

PISTON

62
1.The piston head on crown may be fun, convex or concave depending upon the
design of combustion chamber. It withstands the pressure of gas in the cylinder
2. Piston rings. The piston rings are used to seal the cylinder in order to prevent
leakage of the piston.
3. Piston Skirt The skirt acts as a bearing for the side thrust of the connecting rod on
the walls of cylinder
4. Piston pin It is also called gudgeon pin or wrist pin. It is used to connect piston to
the connecting rod

Design Considerations for a Piston In designing a piston for IC engine, the

following points should be taken in consideration

1. It should have enormous strength to withstand the high gas pressure and inertia
forces.
2 It should have minimum mass to minimize the inertia forces.
3. It should form an effective gas and oil sealing of the cylinder.
4. It should provide sufficient bearing area to prevent undue wear.
5. It should disperse the heat of combustion quickly to the cylinder walls.
6. It should have high speed reciprocation without noise
7. It should be of sufficient rigid construction to withstand thermal and mechanical
8. It should have sufficient support for the piston pin

63
 CONNECTING ROD

The various forces acting on the connecting rod are as

1. Force on the piston due to gas pressure and inertia of the reciprocating parts,
2 Force due to inertia of the connecting rod or inertia bending forces.
3. Force due to friction of the piston rings and of the piston, and
4. Force due to friction of the piston pin bearing and the crankpin bearing
Design of Connecting Rod
In designing a connecting rod, the following dimensions are required to be
determined
1. Dimensions of the cross section of the connecting rod.
2. Dimensions of the crankpin at the big end and the piston pin at the small end.

64
3. Size of bolts for securing the big end cap and
4. Thickness of the big end cap

65