Module 3 : Wind Energy and Applications

Alternative Sources of Energy

 Wind Turbine Energy

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 Wind energy conversion system

Introduction to Wind energy conversion systems

Advantages

The main advantages include an

• Unlimited, free, renewable resource (the wind itself),

• Economic value,

• Maintenance cost

• Placement of wind harvesting facilities

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 Wind energy conversion system

Introduction to Wind energy conversion systems

Disadvantages

• Unpredictable. Wind is unpredictable and the availability

of wind energy is not constant.

• Costs - the cost competitiveness of wind power is highly

debatable.
• Threat to Wildlife.

• Noise.

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 Wind energy conversion system

Introduction to Wind energy conversion systems

Applications
• Generating electricity

• Charging batteries

• Pumping water

• Large, modern wind turbines operate together in wind farms to

produce electricity for utilities

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 Wind energy conversion system (WECS)
Classification of WECS
Based on axis
• Horizontal axis machines

• Vertical axis machines

According to size
• Small size machines (upto 2k W)

• Medium size machines (2 to 100kW)

• Large size machines (100kW and above)

• Single generator at single site

• Multiple generators 7
 Wind energy conversion system

Classification of WECS

Types of output
(a) DC output
• DC generator
• Alternator rectifier

(b) AC output
• Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
• Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC

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 Wind Turbine
Wind energy is created when the atmosphere is heated
unevenly by the Sun, some patches of air become warmer than
others. These warm patches of air rise, other air rushes in to
replace them – thus, wind blows.

A wind turbine extracts energy from moving air by slowing

the wind down, and transferring this energy into a spinning
shaft, which usually turns a generator to produce electricity.
The power in the wind that’s available for harvest depends on
both the wind speed and the area that’s swept by the turbine
blades.
 Wind Turbine

Figure: Major components of a horizontal axis wind turbine

 Wind Turbine

Figure: HAWT rotor configurations

 Wind Turbine
The main options in wind turbine design and construction include:
• Number of blades (commonly two or three);
• Rotor orientation: downwind or upwind of tower;
• Blade material, construction method, and profile;
• Power control via aerodynamic control (stall control) or variable-
pitch blades (pitch control);
• Fixed or variable rotor speed;
• Orientation by self-aligning action (free yaw), or direct control
(active yaw);
• Synchronous or induction generator (squirrel cage or doubly fed);
Gearbox or direct drive generator.
 Wind Turbine
Rotor: The rotor consists of the hub and blades of the wind turbine.
These are often considered to be the turbine’s most important
components from both a performance and overall cost standpoint.
• Most turbines today have upwind rotors with three blades. There are
some downwind rotors and a few designs with two blades. Single-
blade turbines have been built in the past, but are no longer in
production.
• Most manufacturers use pitch control, and the general trend is the
increased use of pitch control, especially in larger machines.
Drive Train
• The drive train consists of the other rotating parts of the wind
turbine downstream of the rotor.
• These typically include a low-speed shaft (on the rotor side), a
gearbox, and a high-speed shaft (on the generator side). Other
drive train components include the support bearings, one or more
couplings, a brake, and the rotating parts of the generator.
• The purpose of the gearbox is to speed up the rate of rotation of
the rotor from a low value (tens of rpm) to a rate suitable for
driving a standard generator (hundreds or thousands of rpm).
• Some wind turbine designs use multiple generators, and so are
coupled to a gearbox with more than one output shaft.
Nacelle and Yaw System
• The main frame provides for the mounting and proper alignment of
the drive train components.
• The nacelle cover protects the contents from the weather.
• A yaw orientation system is required to keep the rotor shaft properly
aligned with the wind.
• Its primary component is a large bearing that connects the main
frame to the tower.
• This mechanism is controlled by an automatic yaw control system
with its wind direction sensor usually mounted on the nacelle of the
wind turbine.
Tower and Foundation

• The principal types of tower design currently in use are the free-
standing type using steel tubes, and concrete towers.
• Tower height is typically 1 to 1.5 times the rotor diameter, but in
any case is normally at least 20 m.
• Tower selection is greatly influenced by the characteristics of the
site.
• For turbines with downwind rotors, the effect of tower shadow on
turbine dynamics, power fluctuations, and noise generation must
be considered.
Controls
• The control system for a wind turbine is important with respect
to both machine operation and power production.
• A wind turbine control system includes the following
components:
• Sensors – speed, position, flow, temperature, current, voltage,
etc.;
• Controllers – mechanical mechanisms, electrical circuits;
• Power amplifiers – switches, electrical amplifiers, hydraulic
pumps, and valves;
• Actuators – motors, pistons, magnets, and solenoids;
• Intelligence – computers, microprocessors.
Balance of Electrical System
• In addition to the generator, the wind turbine system utilizes a
number of other electrical components.
• Some examples are cables, switchgear, transformers, power
electronic converters, power factor correction capacitors, yaw and
pitch motors.
Power Output Prediction
• The power output of a wind turbine varies with wind speed and
every wind turbine has a characteristic power performance curve.
• With such a curve it is possible to predict the energy production
of a wind turbine without considering the technical details of its
various components.
• The power curve gives the electrical power output as a function
of the hub height wind speed.
The performance of a given wind turbine generator can be related to
three key points on the velocity scale:

Cut-in speed: the minimum wind speed at which the machine will
deliver useful power.
Rated wind speed: the wind speed at which the rated power
(generally the maximum power output of the electrical generator) is
reached.
Cut-out speed: the maximum wind speed at which the turbine is
allowed to deliver power.
Figure: Typical wind turbine power curve
 Wind Turbine Design
Two types of turbine design are possible – Horizontal axis and
Vertical axis. In horizontal axis turbine, it is possible to catch more
wind and so the power output can be higher than that of vertical axis.
But in horizontal axis design, the tower is higher and more blade
design parameters have to be defined. In vertical axis turbine, no yaw
system is required and there is no cyclic load on the blade, thus it is
easier to design. Maintenance is easier in vertical axis turbine
whereas horizontal axis turbine offers better performance.

Horizontal axis
Vertical axis
Turbine
Turbine
 Vertical Axis Turbines

Disadvantages
Advantages • Rotors generally near
• Omnidirectional ground where wind poorer
– Accepts wind from any • Centrifugal force stresses
angle blades
• Components can be • Poor self-starting capabilities
mounted at ground level • Requires support at top of
turbine rotor
– Ease of service
• Requires entire rotor to be
– Lighter weight towers removed to replace bearings
• Can theoretically use • Overall poor performance
less materials to and reliability
capture the same • Have never been
amount of wind commercially successful
 Lift vs Drag
VAWTs
Lift Device
“Darrieus”
– Low solidity,
aerofoil blades
– More efficient
than drag device
Drag Device
“Savonius”
– High solidity, cup
shapes are
pushed by the
wind
– At best can
capture only 15%
of wind energy
 VAWT’s have not been
commercially successful, yet…
Every few years a new
company comes along
promising a revolutionary
breakthrough in wind
turbine design that is low
cost, outperforms anything
else on the market, and
WindStor
overcomes all of the Mag-Wind
previous problems with
VAWT’s. They can also
usually be installed on a
roof or in a city where
wind is poor.
WindTree Wind Wandler
Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbines
• Rotors are
usually Up-wind
of tower
• Some machines
have down-wind
rotors, but only
commercially
available ones
are small
turbines
 Tip-Speed Ratio
Tip-speed ratio is the ratio of the ΩR
speed of the rotating blade tip
to the speed of the free stream R
wind.
There is an optimum angle of
attack which creates the
highest lift to drag ratio.
Because angle of attack is
dependent on wind speed,
there is an optimum tip-speed
ratio
ΩR
TSR =
Where, V
Ω = rotational speed in radians /sec
R = Rotor Radius
V = Wind “Free Stream”
Velocity
 Pitch Control vs. Stall Control
• Pitch Control
– Blades rotate out of the
wind when wind speed
becomes too great
• Stall Control
– Blades are at a fixed
pitch that starts to stall
when wind speed is too
great
– Pitch can be adjusted for
particular location’s wind
regime
• Active Stall Control
– Many larger turbines
today have active pitch
control that turns the
blades towards stall
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when wind speeds are
20EE907 - Renewable Energy and Storage Systems
too great
 Airfoil in stall

• Stall arises due to separation of flow from airfoil

• Stall results in decreasing lift coefficient with
increasing angle of attack
• Stall behavior complicated due to blade rotation
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 Rotor Solidity
Solidity is the ratio of total rotor
planform area to total swept area
R
Low solidity (0.10) = high speed, low torque a

A
High solidity (>0.80) = low speed, high torque
Solidity = 3a/A

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 All wind power cannot
Betz Limit be captured by rotor
Rotor Disc
or air would be
completely still
behind rotor and not
allow more wind to
pass through.
Theoretical limit of
Rotor Wake rotor efficiency is
59%
Betz Limit

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 Wind Turbine
Betz Limit
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that
makes a wind turbine function. The wind turbine extracts energy
by slowing the wind down. The theoretical maximum amount of
energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbine's rotor is
approximately 59.3%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the
blades were 100% efficient, a wind turbine would not work
because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely stop.
In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as
59%. A more typical efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind
energy system, including rotor, transmission, generator, storage
and other devices, which all have less than perfect efficiencies, will
deliver between 10% and 30% of the original energy available in
the wind.

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 Number of Blades – One
• Rotor must move more
rapidly to capture same
amount of wind
– Gearbox ratio reduced
– Added weight of
counterbalance negates
some benefits of lighter
design
– Higher speed means more
noise, visual, and wildlife
impacts
• Blades easier to install
because entire rotor can be
assembled on ground
• Captures 10% less energy
than two blade design
• Ultimately provide no cost
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savings
 Number of Blades - Two
• Advantages &
disadvantages similar
to one blade
• Need teetering hub
and or shock
absorbers because of
gyroscopic
imbalances
• Capture 5% less
energy than three
blade designs
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 Number of Blades - Three
• Balance of
gyroscopic forces
• Slower rotation
– increases gearbox
& transmission
costs
– More aesthetic,
less noise, fewer
bird strikes
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 Blade Composition
Wood
Wood
– Strong, light weight,
cheap, abundant,
flexible
– Popular on do-it
yourself turbines
• Solid plank
• Laminates
• Veneers
• Composites

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 Blade Composition
Metal
• Steel
– Heavy & expensive
• Aluminum
– Lighter-weight and
easy to work with
– Expensive
– Subject to metal fatigue

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 Blade
Construction
Fiberglass
• Lightweight, strong,
inexpensive, good fatigue
characteristics
• Variety of manufacturing
processes
– Cloth over frame
– Pultrusion
– Filament winding to
produce spars
• Most modern large
turbines use fiberglass
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 Wind Turbine – Blade Design
Angle of attack (blade angle)
The angle between the chord line of the airfoil and the flight direction is
called the angle of attack. Angle of attack has a large effect on the lift
generated by an airfoil. This is the propeller efficiency. Typically, numbers
here can range from 1.0 to 15.0 degrees.

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 Review Question 1
What causes wind?
A. Air pressure
B. Weight of the atmosphere
C. Pressure difference
D. Low pressure
E. High pressure

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 Review Question 2
What are the units of pressure?
A. Force/Area
B. Pascals (Pa)
C. Pounds per square inch (psi)
D. Millirads
E. B and C

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 Power Generated by Wind Turbine

Swept area

Diameter
Elevation

There are about 4,800 wind turbines in California at Altamont Pass

(between Tracy and Livermore). The capacity is 580 MW, enough to
serve 180,000 homes. In 2003, Altamont generated 822x106 kW hours,
enough to provide power for 126,000 homes (6500 Kw-hr per house)

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 Power Generated by Wind Turbine
Power = ½ (ρ)(A)(V)3

ρ = Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 (.0745 lb/ft3), at sea level, 20 oC and dry air
A = swept area = π(radius)2, m2
V = Wind Velocity, m/sec.
A
ρ = 1.16 kg/m3, at 1000 feet elevation
ρ = 1.00 kg/m3, at 5000 feet elevation
ρ = 1.203 kg/m3 at San Jose, at 85 feet elevation. The average
wind velocity is 5 mph at 50m tower height

ρ = 1.16 kg/m3 at Altamont pass, at 1010 feet elevation and average wind
velocity of 7m/s at 50m tower height (turbines need a minimum of 14mph,
6.25 m/s, wind velocity to generate power).

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 Wind Turbine
Cut-in Speed
Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will
generate usable power. This wind speed is typically between 7 and 15 mph.

Rated Speed
The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine
will generate its designated rated power. For example, a "10 kilowatt"
wind turbine may not generate 10 kilowatts until wind speeds reach 25
mph. Rated speed for most machines is in the range of 25 to 35 mph. At
wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output from a wind
turbine increases as the wind increases. The output of most machines
levels off above the rated speed. Most manufacturers provide graphs,
called "power curves," showing how their wind turbine output varies with
wind speed.

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 Wind Turbine
Cut-out Speed

At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind
turbines cease power generation and shut down. The wind speed at
which shut down occurs is called the cut-out speed. Having a cut-out
speed is a safety feature which protects the wind turbine from damage.
Shut down may occur in one of several ways. In some machines an
automatic brake is activated by a wind speed sensor. Some machines
twist or "pitch" the blades to spill the wind. Still others use "spoilers,"
drag flaps mounted on the blades or the hub which are automatically
activated by high rotor rpm's, or mechanically activated by a spring
loaded device which turns the machine sideways to the wind stream.
Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when the wind drops
back to a safe level.

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 Power Generated by Wind Turbine

California generates 11% of all commercial wind power generation

in the world, Europe generates 70%.

In 2003, the California wind industry reported 3.7x109 kW hour

of electricity output, enough to provide electricity for 570,000
homes (twice the size of San Jose). Average household uses
6,500 kW hour of electricity annually.

There are about 4,800 wind turbines in California at Altamont Pass

(between Tracy and Livermore). The capacity is 580 MW, enough to
serve 180,000 homes. In 2003, Altamont generated 822x106 kW
hours, enough to provide power for 126,000 homes.

PG&E reported, in 2006, out of all energy delivered, 12% was from
renewable energy sources; 11% of this was from wind power.

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 Power Generated by Wind Turbine
Wind turbines with rotors (turbine blades and hub) that are about 8 feet in
diameter (50 square feet of swept area) may peak at about 1,000 watts (1
kilowatt; kW), and generate about 75 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per month with a 10
mph average wind speed. Turbines smaller than this may be appropriate for
sailboats, cabins, or other applications that require only a small amount of
electricity. [Small Wind]

For wind turbine farms, it’s reasonable to use turbines with rotors up to 56 feet
in diameter (2,500 square feet of swept area). These turbines may peak at
about 90,000 watts (90 kW), and generate 3,000 to 5,000 kWh per month at a
10 mph average wind speed, enough to supply 200 homes with electricity.

Homes typically use 500-1,500 kilowatt-hours of electricity per month.

Depending upon the average wind speed in the area this will require a wind
turbine rated in the range 5-15 kilowatts, which translates into a rotor diameter
of 14 to 26 feet.
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 Example Residential Wind Turbine
Bergey wind turbines operate at variable speed
to optimize performance and reduce structural
loads. Power is generated in a direct drive, low
speed, permanent magnet alternator. The
output is a 3-phase power that varies in both
voltage and frequency with wind speed. This
variable power (wild AC) is not compatible with
the utility grid. To make it compatible, the wind
power is converted into grid-quality 240 VAC,
single phase, 60 hertz power in an IGBT-type
synchronous inverter, the GridTek Power
Processor. The output from the GridTek can be
directly connected to the home or business
circuit breaker panel. Operation of the system is
fully automatic. It has a rotor diameter of 23 feet
and is typically installed on 80 or 100 foot
towers.

10kW Turbine $27,900

100 ft.Tower Kit $9,200
Tower Wiring Kit $1,000
Total Cost: $38,100
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 Wind Turbine

Doubling the tower height increases the expected wind speeds by 10%
and the expected power by 34%. Doubling the tower height generally
requires doubling the diameter as well, increasing the amount of material
by a factor of eight.

At night time, or when the atmosphere becomes stable, wind speed

close to the ground usually subsides whereas at turbine altitude, it does
not decrease that much or may even increase. As a result, the wind
speed is higher and a turbine will produce more power than expected -
doubling the altitude may increase wind speed by 20% to 60%.

Tower heights approximately two to three times the

blade length have been found to balance material costs
of the tower against better utilization of the more
expensive active components.

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