Module 3 : Wind Energy and Applications

Energy from the wind; theory, types of wind turbines; Performance and
efficiency of wind machines; Wind energy generation schemes;
Maximum power point tracking; Applications: stand-alone and grid
connected systems
 Wind Turbine Energy

05-Feb-24 20EE907 - Renewable Energy and Storage Systems

 Wind energy conversion system

Introduction to Wind energy conversion systems

Advantages

The main advantages include an

• Unlimited, free, renewable resource (the wind itself),

• Economic value,

• Maintenance cost

• Placement of wind harvesting facilities

3
 Wind energy conversion system

Introduction to Wind energy conversion systems

Disadvantages

• Unpredictable. Wind is unpredictable and the availability

of wind energy is not constant.

• Costs - the cost competitiveness of wind power is highly

debatable.
• Threat to Wildlife.

• Noise.

4
 Wind energy conversion system

Introduction to Wind energy conversion systems

Applications
• Generating electricity

• Charging batteries

• Pumping water

• Large, modern wind turbines operate together in wind farms to

produce electricity for utilities

5
 Wind energy conversion system (WECS)
Classification of WECS
Based on axis
• Horizontal axis machines

• Vertical axis machines

According to size
• Small size machines (upto 2k W)

• Medium size machines (2 to 100kW)

• Large size machines (100kW and above)

• Single generator at single site

• Multiple generators 6
 Wind energy conversion system

Classification of WECS

Types of output
(a) DC output
• DC generator
• Alternator rectifier

(b) AC output
• Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
• Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC

7
 Wind Turbine
Wind energy is created when the atmosphere is heated
unevenly by the Sun, some patches of air become warmer than
others. These warm patches of air rise, other air rushes in to
replace them – thus, wind blows.

A wind turbine extracts energy from moving air by slowing

the wind down, and transferring this energy into a spinning
shaft, which usually turns a generator to produce electricity.
The power in the wind that’s available for harvest depends on
both the wind speed and the area that’s swept by the turbine
blades.
 Wind Turbine

Figure: Major components of a horizontal axis wind turbine

 Wind Turbine

Figure: HAWT rotor configurations

 Wind Turbine
The main options in wind turbine design and construction include:
• Number of blades (commonly two or three);
• Rotor orientation: downwind or upwind of tower;
• Blade material, construction method, and profile;
• Power control via aerodynamic control (stall control) or variable-
pitch blades (pitch control);
• Fixed or variable rotor speed;
• Orientation by self-aligning action (free yaw), or direct control
(active yaw);
• Synchronous or induction generator (squirrel cage or doubly fed);
Gearbox or direct drive generator.
 Wind Turbine
Rotor: The rotor consists of the hub and blades of the wind turbine.
These are often considered to be the turbine’s most important
components from both a performance and overall cost standpoint.
• Most turbines today have upwind rotors with three blades. There are
some downwind rotors and a few designs with two blades. Single-
blade turbines have been built in the past, but are no longer in
production.
• Most manufacturers use pitch control, and the general trend is the
increased use of pitch control, especially in larger machines.
Drive Train
• The drive train consists of the other rotating parts of the wind
turbine downstream of the rotor.
• These typically include a low-speed shaft (on the rotor side), a
gearbox, and a high-speed shaft (on the generator side). Other
drive train components include the support bearings, one or more
couplings, a brake, and the rotating parts of the generator.
• The purpose of the gearbox is to speed up the rate of rotation of
the rotor from a low value (tens of rpm) to a rate suitable for
driving a standard generator (hundreds or thousands of rpm).
• Some wind turbine designs use multiple generators, and so are
coupled to a gearbox with more than one output shaft.
Nacelle and Yaw System
• The main frame provides for the mounting and proper alignment of
the drive train components.
• The nacelle cover protects the contents from the weather.
• A yaw orientation system is required to keep the rotor shaft properly
aligned with the wind.
• Its primary component is a large bearing that connects the main
frame to the tower.
• This mechanism is controlled by an automatic yaw control system
with its wind direction sensor usually mounted on the nacelle of the
wind turbine.
Tower and Foundation

• The principal types of tower design currently in use are the free-
standing type using steel tubes, and concrete towers.
• Tower height is typically 1 to 1.5 times the rotor diameter, but in
any case is normally at least 20 m.
• Tower selection is greatly influenced by the characteristics of the
site.
• For turbines with downwind rotors, the effect of tower shadow on
turbine dynamics, power fluctuations, and noise generation must
be considered.
Controls
• The control system for a wind turbine is important with respect
to both machine operation and power production.
• A wind turbine control system includes the following
components:
• Sensors – speed, position, flow, temperature, current, voltage,
etc.;
• Controllers – mechanical mechanisms, electrical circuits;
• Power amplifiers – switches, electrical amplifiers, hydraulic
pumps, and valves;
• Actuators – motors, pistons, magnets, and solenoids;
• Intelligence – computers, microprocessors.
Balance of Electrical System
• In addition to the generator, the wind turbine system utilizes a
number of other electrical components.
• Some examples are cables, switchgear, transformers, power
electronic converters, power factor correction capacitors, yaw and
pitch motors.
Power Output Prediction
• The power output of a wind turbine varies with wind speed and
every wind turbine has a characteristic power performance curve.
• With such a curve it is possible to predict the energy production
of a wind turbine without considering the technical details of its
various components.
• The power curve gives the electrical power output as a function
of the hub height wind speed.
The performance of a given wind turbine generator can be related to
three key points on the velocity scale:

Cut-in speed: the minimum wind speed at which the machine will
deliver useful power.
Rated wind speed: the wind speed at which the rated power
(generally the maximum power output of the electrical generator) is
reached.
Cut-out speed: the maximum wind speed at which the turbine is
allowed to deliver power.
Figure: Typical wind turbine power curve
 Wind Turbine Design
Two types of turbine design are possible – Horizontal axis and
Vertical axis. In horizontal axis turbine, it is possible to catch more
wind and so the power output can be higher than that of vertical axis.
But in horizontal axis design, the tower is higher and more blade
design parameters have to be defined. In vertical axis turbine, no yaw
system is required and there is no cyclic load on the blade, thus it is
easier to design. Maintenance is easier in vertical axis turbine
whereas horizontal axis turbine offers better performance.

Horizontal axis
Vertical axis
Turbine
Turbine
 Vertical Axis Turbines

Advantages
1. No need of massive tower structure.
2. No yaw mechanism is needed due to vertical nature of rotor blades.
3. It can be located nearest the ground and easier to maintain the
moving parts.
4. Have a lower tip speed ratio and fewer chances to break in high
winds.
5. There is no need to turn face the wind if the wind direction is
changes.
 Vertical Axis Turbines

Disadvantages
• Rotors generally near ground where wind poorer
• Centrifugal force stresses blades
• Poor self-starting capabilities
• Requires support at top of turbine rotor
• Requires entire rotor to be removed to replace bearings
• Overall poor performance and reliability
• Have never been commercially successful
 VAWT’s have not been
commercially successful, yet…
Every few years a new
company comes along
promising a revolutionary
breakthrough in wind
turbine design that is low
cost, outperforms anything
else on the market, and
WindStor
overcomes all of the Mag-Wind
previous problems with
VAWT’s. They can also
usually be installed on a
roof or in a city where
wind is poor.
WindTree Wind Wandler
Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbines
• Rotors are
usually Up-wind
of tower
• Some machines
have down-wind
rotors, but only
commercially
available ones
are small
turbines
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Advantages:
1. The turbine collects the maximum amount of
wind energy for day and season time.
2. The tall tower base allows access to stronger
wind in sites wind shears.

Disadvantages
• HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the
blades towards the wind.
• HAWTs have difficulty operating in near ground turbulent winds.
• The tall towers and blades upto 90 meters long are difficult to
transport. Transportation can now cost 20% of equipment costs.
 Tip-Speed Ratio
Tip-speed ratio is the ratio of the ΩR
speed of the rotating blade tip
to the speed of the free stream R
wind.
There is an optimum angle of
attack which creates the
highest lift to drag ratio.
Because angle of attack is
dependent on wind speed,
there is an optimum tip-speed
ratio
ΩR
TSR =
Where, V
Ω = rotational speed in radians /sec
R = Rotor Radius
V = Wind “Free Stream”
Velocity
Problem 1:
An offshore wind turbine with three 60m
blades rotates at 12 RPM. Wind is whipping
along at 18m/s. What is Tip speed ratio for
this turbine. How does this compare with
optimal tip speed this compare with optimal
tip speed ratio for this turbine.
Problem 2:
Wind turbine with three blades, each 4 meters long,
what distance does the tip of each blade travel in one
full revolution?
If the turbine is rotating at the rate of 42 revolution per
minutes (RPM). How long does it take for one full
revolution?
What is the speed of the wind turbine? If the wind is
blowing at 6m/s what is the tip speed ratio of this
turbine? Is it too slow or too fast.
 Pitch Control vs. Stall Control
• Pitch Control
– Blades rotate out of the
wind when wind speed
becomes too great
• Stall Control
– Blades are at a fixed
pitch that starts to stall
when wind speed is too
great
– Pitch can be adjusted for
particular location’s wind
regime
• Active Stall Control
– Many larger turbines
today have active pitch
control that turns the
blades towards stall
when wind speeds are
too great
 Airfoil in stall

• Stall arises due to separation of flow from airfoil

• Stall results in decreasing lift coefficient with
increasing angle of attack
• Stall behavior complicated due to blade rotation
 Rotor Solidity
Solidity is the ratio of total rotor
planform area to total swept area
R
Low solidity (0.10) = high speed, low torque a

A
High solidity (>0.80) = low speed, high torque
Solidity = 3a/A
 All wind power cannot
Betz Limit be captured by rotor
Rotor Disc
or air would be
completely still
behind rotor and not
allow more wind to
pass through.
Theoretical limit of
Rotor Wake rotor efficiency is
59%
Betz Limit
 Wind Turbine
Betz Limit
It is the flow of air over the blades and through the rotor area that
makes a wind turbine function. The wind turbine extracts energy
by slowing the wind down. The theoretical maximum amount of
energy in the wind that can be collected by a wind turbine's rotor is
approximately 59.3%. This value is known as the Betz limit. If the
blades were 100% efficient, a wind turbine would not work
because the air, having given up all its energy, would entirely stop.
In practice, the collection efficiency of a rotor is not as high as
59%. A more typical efficiency is 35% to 45%. A complete wind
energy system, including rotor, transmission, generator, storage
and other devices, which all have less than perfect efficiencies, will
deliver between 10% and 30% of the original energy available in
the wind.
 Number of Blades – One
• Rotor must move more
rapidly to capture same
amount of wind
– Gearbox ratio reduced
– Added weight of
counterbalance negates
some benefits of lighter
design
– Higher speed means more
noise, visual, and wildlife
impacts
• Blades easier to install
because entire rotor can be
assembled on ground
• Captures 10% less energy
than two blade design
• Ultimately provide no cost
savings
 Number of Blades - Two
• Advantages &
disadvantages similar
to one blade
• Need teetering hub
and or shock
absorbers because of
gyroscopic
imbalances
• Capture 5% less
energy than three
blade designs
 Number of Blades - Three
• Balance of
gyroscopic forces
• Slower rotation
– increases gearbox
& transmission
costs
– More aesthetic,
less noise, fewer
bird strikes
Wind energy generation schemes
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Introduction
With the evolution of WECS during the last decade, many different
control methods have been developed.

The control methods developed for WECS are usually divided into
the following two major categories

 Constant-speed methods,

 Variable-speed methods.
 Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed turbine versus constant-speed turbine
In constant-speed turbines, there is no control on the turbine shaft
speed. Constant speed control is an easy and low-cost method, but
variable speed brings the following advantages:

Maximum power tracking for harnessing the highest possible

energy from the wind,

Lower mechanical stress,

Less variations in electrical power, and

Reduced noise at lower wind speeds.

 Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed turbine versus constant-speed turbine
 The figure shows that a variable-
speed system outputs more energy
than the constant speed system.
 For example, with a fixed speed
system, for an average annual wind
speed of 7 m/s, the energy produced
is 54.6 MWh, while the variable-
speed system can produce up to 75.8
MWh, under the same conditions.
Figure: Power output Variable speed Vs
Fixed Speed
 Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed turbine versus constant-speed turbine
 During turbine operation, there are some fluctuations related to mechanical or electrical
components.

The fluctuations related to the mechanical parts include current fluctuations caused by
the blades passing the tower and various current amplitudes caused by variable wind
speeds.

The fluctuations related to the electrical parts, such as voltage harmonics, is caused by
the electrical converter. The electrical harmonics can be conquered by choosing the
proper electrical filter.
 Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed turbine versus constant-speed turbine
 The figure illustrates the ability of
the variable-speed system to reduce
or increase the shaft speed in case of
torque variation.
 It is important to note that the
disturbance of the rotor is related
also to the mechanical inertia of the
rotor.
 Although a variable-speed operation
is adopted in modern wind turbines,
this method has some disadvantages,
such as additional cost for extra
Comparison of power produced by a
components and complex control
variable-speed wind turbine and a constant
methods.
speed wind turbine at different wind speeds.
 Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Fixed Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems
 Fixed-speed WECS operate at constant speed. That means that,
regardless of the wind speed, the wind turbine rotor speed is fixed
and determined by the grid frequency.

 Fixed-speed WECS are typically equipped with squirrel-cage

induction generators (SCIG), soft starter and capacitor bank and
they are connected directly to the grid, as shown in Figure .

This WECS configuration is also known as the “Danish concept”

because it was developed and widely used in Denmark.
 Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Fixed Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems

General structure of a fixed-speed

WECS
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Fixed Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems
 Initially, the induction machine is connected in motoring regime such
that it generates electromagnetic torque in the same direction as the
wind torque.

 In steady-state, the rotational speed exceeds the synchronous

speed and the electromagnetic torque is negative.

 This corresponds to the squirrel-cage induction machine operation

in generation mode

As it is directly connected to the grid, the SCIG works on its natural
mechanical characteristic having an accentuated slope
(corresponding to a small slip) given by the rotor resistance.
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Fixed Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems
 Therefore, the SCIG rotational speed is very close to the
synchronous speed imposed by the grid frequency

SCIG are preferred because they are mechanically simple, have

high efficiency and low maintenance cost. Furthermore, they are
very robust and stable. One of the major drawbacks of the SCIG is
the fact that there is a unique relation between active power,
reactive power, terminal voltage and rotor speed.

 In order to limit the reactive power absorption from the grid, SCIG
based WECS are equipped with capacitor banks. The soft starter’s
role is to smooth the inrush currents during the grid connection.
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Fixed Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems
Merits and Demerits

Fixed-speed WECS have the advantage of being simple, robust and

reliable, with simple and inexpensive electric systems and well proven
operation.

On the other hand, due to the fixed speed operation, the mechanical
stress is important. All fluctuations in wind speed are transmitted into the
mechanical torque and further, as electrical fluctuations, into the grid.

Furthermore, fixed-speed WECS have very limited controllability (in terms

of rotational speed), since the rotor speed is fixed, almost constant, stuck
to the grid frequency
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
An evolution of the fixed-speed SCIG-based WECS are the limited
variable speed WECS.

They are equipped with a wound-rotor induction generator (WRIG)

with variable external rotor resistance; see Figure. The unique
feature of this WECS is that it has a variable additional rotor
resistance, controlled by power electronics

Thus, the total (internal plus external) rotor resistance is adjustable,

further controlling the slip of the generator and therefore the slope of
the mechanical characteristic.

Usually the control range is up to 10% over the synchronous speed.

Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems

General structure of a limited variable-speed WECS

Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
Variable-speed wind turbines are currently the most used WECS.

The variable speed operation is possible due to the power

electronic converters interface, allowing a full (or partial)
decoupling from the grid

The doubly-fed-induction-generator (DFIG)-based WECS

(Figure), also known as improved variable-speed WECS, is
presently the most used by the wind turbine industry.

The DFIG is a WRIG with the stator windings connected directly to

the three phases, constant-frequency grid and the rotor windings
connected to a back-to-back (AC–AC) voltage source converter. .
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems

General structure of an improved variable-speed WECS

Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
Thus, the term “doubly-fed” comes from the fact that the stator
voltage is applied from the grid and the rotor voltage is impressed by
the power converter.

 This system allows variable-speed operation over a large, but still

restricted, range, with the generator behavior being governed by the
power electronics converter and its controllers

The power electronics converter comprises of two IGBT converters,

namely the rotor side and the grid side converter, connected with a
direct current (DC) link.
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
Without going into details about the converters, the main idea is that
the rotor side converter controls the generator in terms of active and
reactive power, while the grid side converter controls the DC-link
voltage and ensures operation at a large power factor

The stator outputs power into the grid all the time. The rotor,
depending on the operation point, is feeding power into the grid
when the slip is negative (over synchronous operation) and it
absorbs power from the grid when the slip is positive (sub-
synchronous operation). In both cases, the power flow in the rotor
is approximately proportional to the slip.
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
The size of the converter is not related to the total generator power
but to the selected speed variation range. Typically a range of ±40%
around the synchronous speed is used.

DFIG-based WECS are highly controllable, allowing maximum

power extraction over a large range of wind speeds. Furthermore,
the active and reactive power control is fully decoupled by
independently controlling the rotor currents.

 Finally, the DFIG-based WECS can either inject or absorb power

from the grid, hence actively participating at voltage control
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
Full variable-speed WECS are very flexible in terms of which type of
generator is used.

As presented in Figure , it can be equipped with either an induction

(SCIG) or a synchronous generator. The synchronous generator can
be either a wound-rotor synchronous generator (WRSG) or a
permanent-magnet synchronous generator (PMSG), the latter
being the one mostly used by the wind turbine industry.

The back-to-back power inverter is rated to the generator power and

its operation is similar to that in DFIG-based WECS
Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable Speed Wind Energy Conversion Systems

General structure of a full variable-speed WECS

Fixed and Variable speed wind turbines
Variable-speed Wind Energy Conversion System
Merits and Demerits
PMSG does not require energy supply for excitation, as it is supplied
by the permanent magnets.
The stator of a PMSG is wound and the rotor has a permanent
magnet pole system. The salient pole of PMSG operates at low
speeds, and thus the gearbox can be removed.
This is a big advantage of PMSG-based WECS as the gearbox is a
sensitive device in wind power systems. The same thing can be
achieved using direct driven multipole PMSG with large diameter.
The synchronous nature of PMSG may cause problems during start-
up, synchronization and voltage regulation and they need a cooling
system, since the magnetic materials are sensitive to temperature
and they can loose their magnetic properties if exposed to high
temperatures
 Number of Blades – One
• Rotor must move more rapidly to
capture same amount of wind

• Blades easier to install because entire

rotor can be assembled on ground

• Captures 10% less energy than two

blade design

• Ultimately provide cost savings

Advantages:
• Simple blade control
• Counter weight less than
blade

Disadvantages:
• Vibrations due to
aerodynamic torque
• Poor starting torque
• Large blade bending
moment
 Number of Blades - Two
• Advantages & disadvantages similar to
one blade

• Need shock absorbers because of

gyroscopic imbalances

• Capture 5% less energy than three blade

designs
• Rotor blades are
continuously flexed by
unsteady aerodynamic,
gravitational and inertia
loads

• Components are mounted

on bed plate which is
attached on a pintle at the
top of the tower
 Number of Blades – Three & more
• Balance of gyroscopic
forces

• Slower rotation
• increases gearbox &
transmission costs
• More aesthetic, less noise,
fewer bird strikes
 Stand alone operation of variable speed wind energy
conversion system
Variable speed wind energy systems have several advantages compare with fixed speed
wind energy systems such as:
• Yielding maximum power output
• Developing low amount of mechanical stress
• Improving efficiency
• Power quality
Power electronics devices with a variable speed system very important, where AC-DC
converter is used to convert AC voltage with variable amplitude and frequency at the
generator side to DC voltage at the DC-link voltage. The DC voltage is converted again to
AC voltage with constant amplitude and frequency at the load side for electrical utilization.
 PMSG based variable speed stand alone wind energy
conversion system
The reliability of the variable speed wind energy systems can be improved significantly
by using a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). PMSG has several
advantages over other types of generators which are used in wind energy system such as:
• Its simple structure
• Ability of operation at slow speed
• Self excitation capability leading to high power factor
• High efficiency operation.
However with low speed of PMSG operation there is no need for a gearbox which often
suffers from faults and requires regular maintenance making the system unreliable.
• Maximum power can be extracted from the available wind power, which varies
continually with changes in the wind speed throughout a day, by adjusting the rotor
speed of PMSG according to the wind speed variation.
• There are two common types of interfaces between PMSG and load.
• The first configuration is designed as back to back PWM converter, the second
configuration is a single switch mode rectifier and inverter.
• The stand alone wind energy systems can be considered as an effective way to supply
power to the loads in most areas.
• It is one of the practicalities for self sufficient power generation which involves using a
wind turbine with battery storage system to create a stand alone system for isolated
communities far from a utility grid.
System components:
The power circuit topology of the proposed variable speed stand alone wind energy supply
system is shown figure.
The system consists of following components
• Wind turbine
• PMSG, which is directly driven by the wind turbine without using a gearbox.
• A single switch three phase mode rectifier which consists of a three phase diode bridge
rectifier and DC-DC boost converter.
• Battery bank is connected to the DC-link voltage through DC-DC bidirectional buck
boost converter.
• A three phase voltage source inverter connected to the load through LC filter.
Figure: Power circuit topology of a variable speed stand alone wind energy supply system
Grid integrated wind energy system
Interface Requirement:
• The voltage magnitude and phase must equal to that required for the desired magnitude
and direction of the power flow. The voltage is controlled by the transformer turn ratio and
or the rectifier / inverter firing angle in a closed loop control system.
• The frequency must be exactly equal to that of the grid, or else the system will not work.
• To meet the exacting frequency requirement, the only effective means is to use the utility
frequency as a reference for the inverter switching frequency.
• In the wind system, the synchronous generators of the grid system supply magnetizing
current for the induction generator.
Major Interconnection requirement Power Quality:
• General specifications: • Harmonics
• Voltage regulation • DC Current injection
• Synchronization • Flickers
• Monitoring
• Isolation Device
Safety and Protection:
• Voltage disturbance
• Frequency disturbance
• loss of synchronism
Issues related with grid connections:
Two main areas to be studied when the proportion of solar and wind increases
• Local issues
• Large area issues
Local issues
• Capacity
• Voltage control and stability
• Harmonics
Large area issues
• Balance of power
• Transmission capacity