IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRICAL INSULATION, VOL. 29, NO.

3, JUNE 2022 1143

Analysis of Discharge Image and Particle

Characteristics of Needle Plate in
Transformer Oil Under AC Voltage
Jingjing Yang , Kaining Hou, Hongbin Wu, Zhaoyang Kang , Hongshun Liu , and Qingquan Li

Abstract — For the development of converter transformer stable operation of the converter transformer be guaranteed.
applications, research on the discharge characteristics in Partial discharge (PD) is one of the most important factors
transformer oil is required. This article presents an analysis causing insulation deterioration in UHV systems. Among
of the streamer discharge characteristics caused by a
needle-plate electrode in oil-pressboard insulation under many PD defects in oil-pressboard insulation, needle-plate
ac voltage and discharge images on the time scale of electrode structures with oil gaps have been widely studied
microseconds. Based on the discharge image, a Gaussian because needle-plate structures can simulate the influence of
filter, image segmentation of the Otsu algorithm, and burrs on oil-pressboard insulation in the operation of converter
Canny edge detection are used to detect the edge of the transformer well. Due to the importance of oil-pressboard
discharge image. By extracting the discharge profile image,
the discharge characteristics are effectively identified. The insulation of converter transformers, it is necessary to study
size and quantity of particles in transformer oil during the the influence of needle-plate discharge on oil-pressboard
discharge are analyzed. Research on the characteristics insulation.
of streamer discharge propagation is not only helpful Matsumoto et al. [5] demonstrated that the discharge
for understanding the process of discharge but also has process in liquid is called streamer discharge. The formation
important significance for converter transformer design
from the perspective of inhibiting streamer discharge. and propagation of streamer discharge in a UHV system is
an important physical phenomenon in the process of liquid
Index Terms — Converter transformer, discharge images, discharge. Meng et al. [6], [7] studied the physical mechanism
edge detection, streamer discharge.
of the discharge process, which can deepen the theoretical
understanding of liquid discharge. Shen et al. [8] found that
I. I NTRODUCTION
compared with the discharge in air, the discharge phenomenon

A S ONE of the most important components of ultra

high voltage (UHV) transmission systems, the stable and
reliable operation of converter transformers plays an important
in liquid is very accidental, and the discharge in liquid has
a liquid–gas phase transition process. Ghassemi et al. [9]
selected different needle-plate nonuniform fields and plate-
role in the stability of UHV transmission systems. In the plate semiuniform fields to study the streamers experimentally
insulation system of converter transformers, oil-pressboard under standard positive lightning impulses. Thien et al. [10]
insulation is the main form of internal insulation of converter analyzed the influences of certain factors, such as the diameter,
transformers. During operation, it will be aged due to the location on the streamer propagation path, and propagation
synergistic effect of various factors, such as heat, electricity, probability, which were measured by three photomultipliers
machinery, and environment [1]. The results show that with the and an ultraviolet camera. Huang et al. [11] discussed the
aging of insulation, its mechanical properties and insulation effects of temperature on the PD and streamer characteristics
properties will gradually decrease, resulting in a significant of a synthetic ester liquid under ac stress. Yang et al. [12]
increase in the probability of insulation failure under lightning investigated the dc discharge characteristics experimentally for
impulses, switching over voltages, short circuits, and other rod-plane gaps and studied the relationship between discharge
conditions [2]–[4]. Only by ensuring the safety of the oil- voltage and pressure. Lv et al. [13] presented an experimental
pressboard insulation of the converter transformer can the study on the effect of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on
Manuscript received August 25, 2021; accepted February 24, 2022. the impulse breakdown strength and prebreakdown streamer
Date of publication May 3, 2022; date of current version June 27, 2022. propagation process under both positive and negative lightning
This work was supported in part by the Science and Technology Project
from Headquarters of State Grid Corporation of China under Grant
impulse voltages. Yan et al. [14] invested the bubble behavior
52060020002P and in part by the National Natural Science Foundation and the pressure rise inside oil-filled power equipment.
of China under Grant U1966209. (Corresponding author: Qingquan Li.) Gao et al. [15] studied the influencing factors on bubble
The authors are with the Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of inception temperature. Tang et al. [16] simulated the
UHV Transmission Technology and Equipment, School of Electrical
Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China (e-mail: deformation of bubbles and the degree of electric field
[email protected]). distortion in stationary and flowing oil. Since the 1990s, the
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at PD in oil under different kinds of voltage (including ac,
https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2022.3171183.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TDEI.2022.3171183 dc, and impulse voltage) had become the research focus.

1070-9878 © 2022 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

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1144 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRICAL INSULATION, VOL. 29, NO. 3, JUNE 2022

Fig. 1. Experimental model. (a) Experimental circuit diagram. Fig. 2. Variation in ac breakdown field strength versus oil gap.
(b) Schematic of the needle-plate electrode.

The discharge under different oil gap distances based on ac

is studied in this article since the number of discharges per
unit time under ac voltage is more than that under dc voltage.
The number of discharges per unit time under ac voltage
is more than that under dc voltage, and the damage caused Fig. 3. Flowchart to process the discharge image.
by PD under ac voltage is much greater than that under dc
voltage. The number of discharges per unit time under ac
voltage is more than that under dc voltage, and the damage variable oil gap distance between the needle electrode and
caused by PD under ac voltage is much greater than that under the pressboard, while the plate electrode is in close contact
dc voltage [17]. As the most critical and complex stage of with the pressboard, and the contact area is 49 mm2 . The
needle-plate discharge, streamer discharge is important in the needle-plate model represents the insulation faults caused by
determination of the characteristics of converter transformers metal protrusions. PD induced by the metal protrusions defect
in UHV systems. In the process of discharge, the propagation is very common and considerably harmful [18]. Among many
of the discharge will be affected by particles because the PD defects of oil–paper insulation, a needle-plate electrode
particles may approach the needle electrode, so it is necessary structure with oil gap has attracted extensive attention because
to study the motion of various particles. it can well simulate corona discharge in oil [19].
The algorithm is used to detect the streamer discharge In the experiment, the equivalent field strength is used
characteristics. The actual operating conditions of converter to simulate the transformer state. Thinner paper can get
transformer are considered in our research and the influence the same field strength state more easily. According to the
of different needle-plate distances is analyzed in this article. results in [20], when the ac voltage is 800 kV, the maximum
According to the experimental results, the combination field strength borne by the converter transformer is about
analysis of discharge images and the motion of particles 11.1 kV/mm, while the voltage applied during the experiment
in transformer oil is conducted to study the discharge is about 20 kV. Therefore, it can be seen that the maximum
characteristics under different working conditions. distance between the needle plates is about 1.8 mm. Also,
This work is organized as follows. In Section II, the Kappeler proposed that breakdown field strength E b decreases
experimental platform of transformer oil discharge under exponentially along with the increase of the size of oil gap as
ac voltage is built. In Section III, the discharge image is shown in Fig. 2 [21]–[24]. The conclusions deduced from the
analyzed by the algorithm, and the discharge characteristics of relation between PD inception voltage (PDIV) of ac and oil
discharge for different samples are compared. In Section IV, gap also show a probable relation between average inception
the trajectory and characteristics of particles in transformer oil electric field strengths in PD and oil gap.
during discharge are analyzed. This article can be extremely
important for the optimization of insulation design and the III. S TREAMER D ISCHARGE U NDER D IFFERENT
promotion of converter transformer maintenance. W ORKING C ONDITIONS
A. Image Processing Technique
II. E XPERIMENTAL C ONFIGURATIONS An image processing technique adopted in the present
Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic of the experimental setup work is shown in Fig. 3. The flowchart begins with obtaining
used to observe the characteristics of the streamers. The discharge images using a high-resolution camera. Each image
streamer images were captured by an X213 high-speed camera, is composed of a large number of pixels, and in an effort to
of which the maximum frame rate is 857 600 frames/s. extract a sufficient amount of meaningful information from
To avoid the influence of space interference, the experimental the selected areas of pixels, the same area of (m × n =
devices are connected with shielding wires. 300 × 900) pixels across all images is selected [25].
The structure of the needle-plate electrode PD model In the process of PD, due to the short discharge time and
designed in this article is shown in Fig. 1(b). There is a strong electromagnetic interference, the discharge image will

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YANG et al.: ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGE IMAGE AND PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEDLE PLATE IN TRANSFORMER OIL 1145

Fig. 4. Block diagram of the Canny edge detection algorithm.

be affected by various aspects. Therefore, the discharge image Fig. 5. Discharge conditions of sample 1 in different periods. (a) Original
should be processed to extract useful information so that the image. (b) Processed image.
process of discharge can be better analyzed. The process of
discharge image processing is shown in Fig. 4. Gaussian filters
and Canny edge detectors are used for filtering and edge discharge by ordinary image recognition algorithms, whereas
detection. the discharge can be clearly identified by our proposed
The original Canny algorithm [26] consists of the following algorithm.
steps.
Step 1: Before detecting the edge of the image, denoise the B. Streamer Discharge Under Different Working
image by a Gaussian filter to reduce noise according to the Conditions
following equation:
There are many typical characteristics of streamer discharge,
1 − x 2 +y2 2 such as a high ionization degree, fast propagation speed, and
G(x, y) = e 2σ . (1)
2πσ 2 tree bifurcation. Streamer discharge is a general name for
Step 2: Calculate the gradient amplitude and direction; all kinds of discharge initiation and propagation phenomena
usually, the gradient direction takes four angles–0◦, 45◦ , 90◦ , before dielectric breakdown. Streamers are high-conductivity
and 135◦ , according to the following equations: channels before the dielectric breakdown of liquid, and their
 formation and development processes are called prebreakdown
G = G 2x + G 2y (2) phenomena. Streamer formation and propagation are important
  physical phenomena in the propagation of liquid dielectric
Gy
θ = arctan (3) discharge. The analysis of the physical mechanism for
Gx streamer discharge can deepen the theoretical understanding
where G x and G y are a pair of convolution array. of liquid discharge [27], [28].
Step 3: Nonmaximum suppression, which eliminates Different working conditions (including different discharge
nonedge pixels, leaves only a few fine lines. gap distances r and different thicknesses of insulation
Step 4: Select the hysteresis threshold, and the hysteresis pressboard d) are selected to observe the streamer discharge.
threshold needs two thresholds that retain or exclude pixels to The first discharge is regarded as the zero moment. The
select the edge. streamer discharge images of sample 1 (r = 0.5 mm, d =
If the amplitude of the pixel position is higher than the 0.5 mm), sample 2 (r = 0.5 mm, d = 1.0 mm), sample 3
high threshold, the pixel is reserved as an edge pixel. If the (r = 0.5 mm, d = 1.5 mm), sample 4 (r = 1.0 mm,
amplitude of the pixel position is less than the high threshold, d = 0.5 mm), and sample 5 (r = 1.0 mm, d = 1.0 mm)
the pixel is excluded. If the amplitude of the pixel position is are shown in Figs. 5–9, respectively.
between the two thresholds, the pixel is reserved only when Since the axial expansion speed of the discharge is faster
connected to a pixel higher than the high threshold. than the transverse expansion speed in the streamers of
The image can be soothed by the Gaussian filter and the sample 1, Fig. 5 shows that streamers are with irregular
Gaussian noise can be effectively removed by the Gaussian shape that is like ellipse. Comparing the figures of the
filter. Also, the interference of noise to the algorithm is streamer propagation process in different periods, the streamer
suppressed by the Gaussian filter. More actual edges can propagation length rapidly increases during the propagation
be identified by the Canny operator in the image, and the process. Due to the distribution of the discharge, the energy
identified edges are very close to the actual edges. Due to the exchange at the gas–liquid interface is more dispersed, which
influence of bubbles during discharge, the edge of discharge is makes it more difficult for the streamer to expand during
fuzzy. Therefore, the bubbles are easily regarded as a part of discharge.

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1146 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRICAL INSULATION, VOL. 29, NO. 3, JUNE 2022

Fig. 8. Discharge conditions of sample 4 in different periods. (a) Original

Fig. 6. Discharge conditions of sample 2 in different periods. (a) Original image. (b) Processed image.
image. (b) Processed image.

Fig. 9. Discharge conditions of sample 5 in different periods. (a) Original

image. (b) Processed image.
Fig. 7. Discharge conditions of sample 3 in different periods. (a) Original
image. (b) Processed image.

due to the mutual inhibition between the streamer channels,

Compared with the streamer in sample 1, the streamer in some streamers will be extinguished due to low electric field
sample 2 has a filament-like shape, and there is a random density or a small amount of free electron injection, resulting
bifurcation phenomenon in the propagation process. There is in a random bifurcation structure.
a certain pressure drop inside of the streamer, and the pressure Fig. 8 shows that streamers with filament-like shapes are
drop increases with the propagation of the streamer. When the generated in sample 4, and there is a random bifurcation
streamer propagates for a certain distance, the electric field phenomenon in the propagation process. Therefore, the
intensity of the streamer head cannot maintain the continuous streamer can be regarded as an extension of the needle
propagation of the discharge, resulting in the streamer stopping electrode, which promotes the propagation of the streamer
and eventually disappearing. discharge in the form of filaments.
Fig. 7 implies that in sample 3, the electric field intensity Fig. 9 shows that streamers with shrubby-like shapes are
near the needle tip is larger than the ionization energy of formed in sample 5. At the same time, a bright discharge
transformer oil, which causes strong ionization and generates is generated from the needle electrode to the middle of the
discharge branches. At the beginning of streamer discharge, needle-plate electrode.
there is a thin layer with high electric density on the surface
of the needle electrode. With the propagation of the streamer,
the thin layer disappeared. After that, the electric field intensity C. Analysis of Discharge Characteristics
of the streamer head is large. In the early stage of discharge, Aiming at the discharge images of different samples, the
streamers may propagate in all directions. In the later stage, ratio of the perimeter, length, and diameter of the discharge

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YANG et al.: ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGE IMAGE AND PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEDLE PLATE IN TRANSFORMER OIL 1147

Fig. 12. Comparison of the discharge length to the discharge gap of

different samples.

Fig. 10. Schematic of length and diameter.

Fig. 13. Comparison of the discharge diameter to the discharge gap of

different samples.

Fig. 11. Comparison of the discharge perimeter to the discharge gap of IV. A NALYSIS OF PARTICLE C HARACTERISTICS
different samples.
U NDER AC VOLTAGE
In the process of discharge, due to the impact of discharge,
are calculated to analyze the characteristics of discharge transformer oil has certain fluidity. Particles (including bubbles
due to the difference in the discharge gap. The definitions and paper fibers) suspended in the transformer oil will move
of length and diameter for streamer discharge are shown continuously under the combined action of buoyancy and
in Fig. 10. oil flow. If the experimental sample is relatively new, the
As shown in Fig. 11, the ratio of the discharge perimeter impurities in transformer oil are mainly bubbles. However,
to the discharge gap of sample 2 is greater than that of the the ablation effect of discharge will damage the insulation
other samples, and the change rate of the sample perimeter pressboard and then lead to the gradual emergence of
at 0–0.8 ms is much greater than that at other times, impurities from the insulation pressboard in the transformer
which is because multistreamer discharge has wider and oil. Particles may be close to the needle electrode during
more discharge channels, and its ionization intensity is much discharge and thus affect the propagation of discharge.
stronger. Therefore, it is necessary to study the motion law of various
Fig. 12 shows that the ratio of discharge length to discharge impurities.
gap of sample 2 is the largest and that of samples 1 and 4 is There are three main reasons for generating bubbles in
the smallest. With the occurrence of discharge, the electron transformer oil: 1) gases in the liquid; 2) current emitted
moves faster, so the ratio of discharge length to discharge gap from the electrode, which heats and gasifies the nearby liquid;
is larger. and 3) high-energy electrons in liquid collide with liquid
Fig. 13 implies that the ratios of discharge diameters to molecules. Thus, the gases are ionized and produced. When
discharge gaps of samples 3 and 5 are similar because the discharge occurs, due to the tunneling effect, when electrons
discharge patterns of samples 3 and 5 are similar. After are emitted from the needle into the transformer oil, the
0.8 ms, the change trend of the ratio of discharge diameters liquid near the needle will be quickly heated, resulting in a
to discharge gap is slow, and the discharge diameter remains large number of bubbles near the needle. To deeply study
unchanged. the influence mechanism of different factors on particles

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1148 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRICAL INSULATION, VOL. 29, NO. 3, JUNE 2022

of the discharge and breakdown characteristics and explore

the discharge mechanism of flow transformer oil-containing
particles, it is necessary to understand the particle dynamic
behavior characteristics.

A. Analysis of Particle Trajectory

The experimental observation method in Section II is
used to photograph the typical particle positions. A single
photograph reflects only the position of the particles in the
transformer oil at a certain time rather than the trajectory.
To obtain the motion track of particles in transformer oil,
photographs with a duration of approximately 3 s were
photographed, and thousands of photographs were separated.
In the figures, the X-axis represents the horizontal movement
distance, the Y -axis represents the vertical motion distance, the
electric field direction is consistent with the negative direction
of the Y -axis, and the oil flow direction is consistent with the
X-axis. The oil flow direction is the X positive half axis and
the negative half axis because the oil tank is cylindrical.
Set 0.04 ms before the start of discharge as the zero time,
and record the coordinates of three typical bubbles ( An , Bn ,
and Cn ) and two typical paper fibers (Dn and E n ) every
0.02 ms, where n is the sample number. Set the discharge
time as zero time. Two interval images (the interval time of
the image is the reciprocal of the frame rate of the high- Fig. 14. Typical particles and trajectory in sample 2. (a) t = −0.04 ms.
speed camera, i.e., 0.02 ms) before and after discharge were (b) t = −0.02 ms. (c) t = 0 ms. (d) t = 0.02 ms. (e) t = 0.04 ms.
(f) Trajectory of typical particles in sample 2.
selected to analyze the motion of bubbles. The typical sample
(Sample 2) with the widest range of motion of particles is
shown as an example.
As shown in Fig. 14, when discharge occurs, bubble A2 and
paper fiber D2 will slightly accelerate downward motion. The
impact of the discharge causes downward oil flow near the
needle electrode. By comparing the trajectories of A1 and D1 ,
it can be seen that the effect of oil flow on bubbles and paper
fibers is similar.
In Fig. 15, the particles obtain a negative charge after
colliding with the grounding electrode (plate electrode) and
then move toward the high voltage electrode (needle electrode)
Fig. 15. Typical particles and trajectory in sample 1. (a) Typical particles
and run along the oil flow direction because of the electric in sample 1. (b) Trajectory of typical particles in sample 1.
field and flow field. After colliding with the high voltage
electrode, the particles obtain a positive charge. Due to the
charge polarity reversal, the particles begin to move to the
grounding electrode and still move forward with the oil flow.
The particles collide with the grounding electrode and then
repeat periodically.
Fig. 16 shows that after the formation of the particles,
the electrons were emitted from the needle electrode and
accumulated on the surface of the particles. The repulsion of
charges with the same polarity will separate the charges from
the surface of the particles and lead to elliptical propagation
of the discharge. Discharge is often accompanied by the Fig. 16. Typical particles and trajectory in sample 3. (a) Typical particles
generation of current pulse. The process of current generation in sample 3. (b) Trajectory of typical particles in sample 3.
is the process of charge injection, which produces energy.
The electrical energy is converted into heat, which causes the
transformer oil evaporate. change the direction of motion on the surface of the pressboard
When discharge occurs, particle A4 , which just moves to and slow down, and finally gradually float up under the effect
the tip of the needle, will first move rapidly downward, then of buoyancy, as shown in Fig. 17. A comparison of A4 and

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YANG et al.: ANALYSIS OF DISCHARGE IMAGE AND PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS OF NEEDLE PLATE IN TRANSFORMER OIL 1149

Fig. 17. Typical particles and trajectory in sample 4. (a) Typical bubbles
in sample 4. (b) Trajectory of typical particles in sample 4.

Fig. 19. Comparison of particle trajectories of different samples.

Fig. 18. Typical particles and trajectory in sample 5. (a) Typical particles
in sample 5. (b) Trajectory of a typical bubble in sample 5.

C4 shows that the oil flow strength at different positions varies

greatly.
Fig. 18 shows that the particles move along the oil flow in
the transformer oil and gradually close to the needle electrode.
Then, the particles move horizontally along the needle tip. Fig. 20. Stress analysis of bubbles and particles in oil.
Therefore, the motion process of the particles can be divided
into ascending and descending stages. The motion track of
the direction of liquid surface. The electric field force can
the particles in several groups showed that the time of the
deform bubbles, whereas the surface tension can restrain the
particles in the ascending stage was shorter, so the particles
deformation of bubbles. The motion of the bubbles near the
in the transformer oil were mainly in the descending stage.
streamer discharge will be affected by the repulsion force
In the descending stage, the particles directly contact the
of the streamer discharge, which depends on the discharge
needle electrode. The cathode electron emission on the surface
location. The direction of the pressure gradient force is from
of the needle electrode can provide the initial electron for the
high pressure to low pressure. Due to the viscous force of
electron avalanche process inside the particle.
transformer oil, the velocity distribution between needle-plate
In order to better reveal the mechanism of particle motion,
electrodes is not uniform. The velocity in the middle is the
the trajectories of particles before and after the discharge for
highest. The closer to the electrodes, the lower the velocity
different samples are compared in Fig. 19. The transformer
is. The velocity near the surface of the electrodes approaches
oil has certain fluidity due to the impact of the discharge.
zero. It can be seen from the trajectory of bubbles that the
Therefore, the bubbles will move irregularly under the
motion of the bubbles is mainly in the negative direction of the
combined action of buoyancy and oil flow after leaving the
Y -axis. Therefore, the motion direction of bubbles is mainly
upper surface of the pressboard. After collision, the trajectory
affected by the drag force.
of bubbles will change significantly. In this process, bubbles
The motions of particles are dominated by gravity (Fg ),
may approach the needle electrode again, thus affecting the
buoyancy (Fb ), drag force (FD ), electric field force (FE ), and
propagation of discharge. Similar to bubbles, suspended paper
pressure gradient force (Fp ). The drag force of particles is
fibers will move irregularly under the action of force and oil
along the Y -axis since the particles are mainly precipitated
flow. These paper fibers will interfere with the propagation of
from the insulating pressboard. The trajectory of particles
streamer discharge.
is mainly in the direction of the Y -axis. Thus, the motion
As shown in Fig. 20, the motions of bubbles are dominated
direction of particles is mainly affected by the force in the
by gravity (Fg ), buoyancy (Fb ), drag force (FD ), electric field
Y -axis.
force (FE ), pressure gradient force (Fp ), and surface tension.
The direction of drag force is related to the velocity. Therefore,
the horizontal motions are affected by the drag force. Thus, the B. Analysis of Particle Size
direction of the drag force for the bubble is along the X-axis. The number of particles increases greatly before and after
The direction of surface tension in liquid is tangent to discharge, but the increased range of the size for particles

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1150 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON DIELECTRICS AND ELECTRICAL INSULATION, VOL. 29, NO. 3, JUNE 2022

edge detection, was applied to extract features of the

streamer discharge. The extracted contour discharge
image can more directly reflect the morphological
characteristics of streamer discharge.
2) The results of the image and experiment show that the
shape of the PD is affected by the discharge gap distance
and the thickness of the insulation pressboard. When
the gap distance is 0.5 mm and the thickness of the
pressboard is 0.5 mm, the discharge has an irregular
shape that is like ellipse. In other samples, the discharge
shows branch bifurcation. When the gap distance is
larger than 0.5 mm, the discharge is more intense.
3) The ratio of discharge perimeter, length, and diameter
to discharge gap of different samples is compared
Fig. 21. Relationship between large particles and discharge time.
to quantitatively analyze the discharge characteristics.
When the thickness of the insulation pressboard is
0.5 mm and the gap distance is 1.0 mm, the discharge
perimeter, length, and diameter ratio are the largest,
which means that the discharge is the most intense.
4) The channel of streamer discharge will generate
bubbles due to strong ionization; therefore, particles
of different sizes will be formed after impacting the
pressboard, and the particles of different channels may
not be synchronized. The more channels and stronger
ionization there are, the more gas is produced. Under
the impact of discharge, bubbles may split. Bubbles and
paper fibers will move under the action of buoyancy and
oil flow, and their motion laws are similar, but the former
tends to float up and the latter tends to precipitate. The
Fig. 22. Relationship between small particles and discharge time. oil flow velocity at different positions is different, and
the oil flow velocity at the needle tip is the largest.

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