Module-2

1 Overview of material handling systems

Material handling is defined by the Material Handling Industry of America1 as “the
movement, protection, storage and control of materials and products throughout the process
of manufacture and distribution, consumption and disposal.

Material handling is one of the activities in the larger distribution system by which materials,
parts, and products are moved, stored, and tracked in the world’s commercial infrastructure.
The term commonly used for the larger system is logistics, which is concerned
with the acquisition, movement, storage, and distribution of materials and products, as
well as the planning and control of these operations in order to satisfy customer demand.
Logistics operations can be divided into two basic categories: external logistics and internal
logistics. External logistics is concerned with transportation and related activities that
occur outside of a facility. Internal logistics, more popularly known as material
handling, involves the movement and storage of materials inside a given facility.
1.1 Types Material Handling Equipment
A great variety of material handling equipment is available commercially. The equipment
can be classified into five categories [21]: (1) transport equipment, (2) positioning equipment,
(3) unit load formation equipment, (4) storage equipment, and (5) identification
and control equipment.
Transport Equipment. Material transport equipment is used to move materials
inside a factory, warehouse, or other facility. The five main types of equipment are (1)
industrial trucks, (2) automated guided vehicles, (3) rail-guided vehicles, (4) conveyors,
and (5) hoists and cranes.
Positioning Equipment. This category consists of equipment used to handle parts
and other materials at a single location: for example, loading and unloading parts from
a production machine in a work cell. Positioning is accomplished by industrial robots
that perform material handling and parts feeders in automated assembly. Hoists used at a single
location can also be included in this category.

Unit Load Formation Equipment. The term unitizing equipment refers to

(1) containers used to hold individual items during handling and (2) equipment used to
load and package the containers. Containers include pallets, tote pans, boxes, baskets,
barrels, and drums, some of which are shown in Figure. Although seemingly mundane,
containers are very important for moving materials efficiently as a unit load,
rather than as individual items. Pallets and other containers that can be handled by forklift
equipment are widely used in production and distribution operations. Most factories,
warehouses, and distribution centers use forklift trucks to move unit loads on pallets.

Storage Equipment. Although it is generally desirable to reduce the storage of

materials in manufacturing, it seems unavoidable that raw materials and work-in-process
spend some time in storage, even if only temporarily. And finished products are likely to
spend time in a warehouse or distribution center before being delivered to the final customer.
Accordingly, companies must give consideration to the most appropriate methods
for storing materials and products prior to, during, and after manufacture.
Storage methods and equipment can be classified into two major categories:
(1) conventional storage methods and (2) automated storage systems.

Identification and Control Equipment. The scope of material handling includes

keeping track of the materials being moved and stored. This is usually done by affixing
some kind of label to the item, carton, or unit load that uniquely identifies it. The most
common label used today is a bar code that can be read quickly and automatically by
bar code readers. This is the same basic technology used by grocery stores and retail
merchandisers. An alternative identification technology that is growing in importance is
RFID (for radio frequency identification). Bar codes, RFID, and other automatic
identification
Techniques

1.3 Design Considerations in Material Handling

Material handling equipment is usually assembled into a system. The system must be
specified and configured to satisfy the requirements of a particular application. Design of
the system depends on the materials to be handled, quantities and distances to be moved,
type of production facility served by the handling system, and other factors, including
available budget. This section considers these factors that influence the design of the material
handling system.
1.3.1 Material Characteristics. For handling purposes, materials can be classified by
the physical characteristics. Design of the material handling system must take these factors
into account. For example, if the material is a liquid that is to be moved over long
distances in great volumes, then a pipeline is the appropriate transport means. But this
handling method would be infeasible for moving a liquid contained in barrels or other
containers. Materials in a factory usually consist of solid items: raw materials, parts, and
finished or semifinished products.
1.3.2 Flow Rate, Routing, and Scheduling. In addition to material characteristics,
other factors must be considered in determining which type of equipment is most appropriate
for the application. These other factors include (1) quantities and flow rates of
materials to be moved, (2) routing factors, and (3) scheduling of the moves.
The amount or quantity of material to be moved affects the type of handling system
that should be installed. If large quantities of material must be handled, then a dedicated
handling system is appropriate. If the quantity of a particular material type is small but
there are many different material types to be moved, then the handling system must be
designed to be shared by the various materials moved
Routing factors include pickup and drop-off locations, move distances, routing
variations, and conditions that exist along the routes. Given that other factors remain
constant, handling cost is directly related to the distance of the move: The longer the
move distance, the greater the cost. Routing variations occur because different materials
follow different flow patterns in the factory or warehouse.
Scheduling relates to the timing of each individual delivery. In production as well as
in many other material handling applications, the material must be picked up and delivered
promptly to its proper destination to maintain peak performance and efficiency of
the overall system. To the extent required by the application, the handling system must
be responsive to this need for timely pickup and delivery of the items.

1.3.3 Plant Layout. The material handling system is an important factor in plant layout
design. When a new facility is being planned, the handling system should be considered
part of the layout. In this way, there is greater opportunity to create a layout that optimizes
material flow in the building and utilizes the most appropriate type of handling
system. In the case of an existing facility, there are more constraints on the design of the
handling system. The present arrangement of departments and equipment in the building
often limits the attainment of optimum flow patterns.
In process layouts, a variety of parts and/or products are manufactured in small or
medium batch sizes. The handling system must be flexible to deal with the variations.
Considerable work-in-process is usually one of the characteristics of batch production,
and the material handling system must be capable of accommodating this inventory.
Hand trucks and forklift trucks (for moving pallet loads of parts) are commonly used in
process layouts.
A product layout involves production of a standard or nearly identical types of
product in relatively high quantities. Final assembly plants for cars, trucks, and appliances
are usually designed as product layouts. The transport system that moves the product
is typically characterized as fixed route, mechanized, and capable of large flow rates. It
sometimes serves as a storage area for work-in-process to reduce effects of downtime
between
production areas along the line of product flow.
1.3.4 Unit Load Principle. The Unit Load Principle stands as an important and widely
applied principle in material handling. A unit load is simply the mass that is to be moved
or otherwise handled at one time. The unit load may consist of only one part, a container
loaded with multiple parts, or a pallet loaded with multiple containers of parts. In general,
the unit load should be designed to be as large as is practical for the material handling
system that will move or store it, subject to considerations of safety, convenience, and access
to the materials making up the unit load. This principle is widely applied in the truck,
rail, and ship industries. Palletized unit loads are collected into truck loads, which then
become larger unit loads themselves. Then these truck loads are aggregated once again
on freight trains or ships, in effect becoming even larger unit loads.
There are good reasons for using unit loads in material handling [16]: (1) multiple
items can be handled simultaneously, (2) the required number of trips is reduced,
(2) loading and unloading times are reduced, and (4) product damage is decreased

1.4 Conveyors
A conveyor is a mechanical apparatus for moving items or bulk materials, usually inside
a facility. Conveyors are generally used when material must be moved in relatively large
quantities between specific locations over a fixed path, which may be in the floor, above
the floor, or overhead. Conveyors are either powered or nonpowered. In powered conveyors,
the power mechanism is contained in the fixed path, using chains, belts, rotating
rolls, or other devices to propel loads along the path.

Types of Conveyors. A variety of conveyor equipment is commercially available.

The primary interest here is in powered conveyors. Most of the major types of powered
conveyors, organized according to the type of mechanical power provided in the fixed
path, are briefly described in the following:

Roller conveyors. In roller conveyors, the pathway consists of a series of tubes (rollers)
that are perpendicular to the direction of travel, as in Figure 10.8(a). Loads
must possess a flat bottom surface of sufficient area to span several adjacent rollers.
Pallets, tote pans, or cartons serve this purpose well.

Skate-wheel conveyors. These are similar in operation to roller conveyors. Instead of

rollers, they use skate wheels rotating on shafts connected to a frame to roll pallets,
tote pans, or other containers along the pathway, as in Figure 10.8(b). Skate-wheel
conveyors are lighter weight than roller conveyors.
Belt conveyors. Belt conveyors consist of a continuous loop, with half its length used
for delivering materials and the other half for the return run, as in Figure 10.8(c).
The belt is made of reinforced elastomer (rubber), so that it possesses high flexibility
but low extensibility.

Chain conveyors. The typical equipment in this category consists of chain loops in
an over-and-under configuration around powered sprockets at the ends of the pathway.
The conveyor may consist of one or more chains operating in parallel.

In-floor towline conveyor. These conveyors use four-wheel carts powered by moving
chains or cables located in trenches in the floor, as in Figure 10.8(d). The chain
or cable is the towline. Pathways for the conveyor system are defined by the trench
and towline, and the towline is driven as a powered pulley system.
Overhead trolley conveyor. A trolley in material handling is a wheeled carriage running
on an overhead rail from which loads can be suspended. An overhead trolley
conveyor, consists of multiple trolleys, usually equally spaced along a fixed track.

Other conveyor types. Other powered conveyors include vibration-based systems

and vertical lift conveyors. Screw conveyors are powered versions of the
Archimedes screw, the water-raising device invented in ancient times, consisting
of a large screw inside a tube, turned by hand to pump water uphill for irrigation
purposes. Vibration-based conveyors use a flat track connected to an electromagnet
that imparts an angular vibratory motion to the track to propel items in the
desired direction.

Conveyors can also be classified as (1) single direction, (2) continuous loop, and
(3) recirculating. Section 10.3.2 presents equations and techniques for analyzing these
conveyor systems. Single direction conveyors are used to transport loads one way from
origination point to destination point, as depicted in Figure

1.5 Automated Guided Vehicles

An automated guided vehicle system (AGVS) is a material handling system that uses
independently
operated, self-propelled vehicles guided along defined pathways.2 The AGVs
are powered by on-board batteries that allow many hours of operation (8–16 hr is typical)
before needing to be recharged. A distinguishing feature of an AGVS, compared to railguided
vehicle systems and most conveyor systems, is that the pathways are unobtrusive.
Types of Vehicles. Automated guided vehicles can be divided into the following
categories: (1) towing vehicles for driverless trains, (2) pallet trucks, and (3) unit load
carriers,
illustrated in Figure 10.5. A driverless train consists of a towing vehicle (the AGV)
pulling one or more trailers to form a train, as in Figure 10.5(a). It was the first type of
AGVS to be introduced and is still widely used today. A common application is moving

heavy payloads over long distances in warehouses or factories with or without intermediate
pickup and drop-off points along the route. For trains consisting of 5–10 trailers, this
is an efficient transport system.
Automated guided pallet trucks, Figure 10.5(b), are used to move palletized loads
along predetermined routes. In the typical application the vehicle is backed into the loaded
pallet by a human worker who steers the truck and uses its forks to elevate the
load slightly. Then the worker drives the pallet truck to the guide path and programs
its destination, and the vehicle proceeds automatically to the destination for unloading.
1.5.1 Vehicle Guidance Technologies. The guidance system is the method by which
AGVS pathways are defined and vehicles are controlled to follow the pathways. The
technologies used in commercial AGV systems for vehicle guidance include (1) imbedded
guide wires, (2) paint strips, (3) magnetic tape, (4) laser-guided vehicles (LGVs), and
(5) inertial navigation.

laser-guided vehicles (LGVs) operate without continuously defined pathways. Instead, they
use a combination of dead reckoning and reflective beacons located throughout the plant that
can be identified by on-board
laser scanners. Dead reckoning refers to the capability of a vehicle to follow a given route
in the absence of a defined pathway in the floor.
Inertial navigation, also known as inertial guidance, involves the use of on-board
Gyroscopes and/or other motion sensors to determine the position of the vehicle by detecting
changes in its speed and acceleration. It is the same basic navigation technology
used for guided missiles, aircraft, and submarines. When used in AGVS installations,
magnetic transponders imbedded in the floor along the desired pathway are detected by
the AGV to correct any errors in its position.

1.6 Automated Storage Systems

The storage equipment described in the preceding section requires a human worker to
access the items in storage. The storage system itself is static. Mechanized and automated
storage systems are available that reduce or eliminate the amount of human intervention
required to operate the system. The level of automation varies. In less automated
systems, a human operator is required to handle each storage/retrieval transaction. In
highly automated systems, loads are entered or retrieved under computer control, with
no human participation except to input data to the computer. Table 11.2 lists the advantages
and disadvantages as well as typical applications of automated storage systems.
An automated storage system represents a significant investment, and it often requires
a new and different way of doing business. Companies have a variety of reasons
for automating the storage function. Table 11.3 provides a list of possible objectives and
reasons behind company decisions to automate their storage operations.
Automated storage systems divide into two general types: (1) fixed-aisle automated
storage/retrieval systems and (2) carousel storage systems. A fixed-aisle AS/RS consists
of a rack structure for storing loads and a storage/retrieval machine whose motions are
linear (x–y–z motions), as pictured in Figure 11.5. By contrast, a carousel system uses
storage baskets attached to a chain-driven conveyor that revolves around an oval track
loop to deliver the baskets to a load/unload station, as in Figure 11.6. The differences
between
an AS/RS and a carousel storage system are summarized in Table 11.4. Both types

include horizontal and vertical

structures, with the horizontal configuration being much
more common in both cases.

Fixed-Aisle Automated Storage/Retrieval Systems

A fixed-aisle automated storage/retrieval system (AS/RS) is a storage system consisting
of one or more aisles of storage racks attended by storage/retrieval machines, usually
one S/R machine per aisle. The system performs storage and retrieval operations with
speed and accuracy under a defined degree of automation. The S/R machines (sometimes
referred to as cranes) are used to deliver materials to the storage racks and to retrieve
materials from the racks. Each AS/RS aisle has one or more input/output stations where
materials are delivered into the storage system and withdrawn from it. The input/output
stations are called pickup-and-deposit stations (P&D stations) in AS/RS terminology.
P&D stations can be manually operated or interfaced to some form of automated transport
system such as a conveyor or an AGVS (automated guided vehicle system).
1.7 Interfacing handling and storage with manufacturing {may be}

AS/RS Types. Several important categories of fixed-aisle automated storage/retrieval

system can be distinguished. The following are the principal types:
Unit load AS/RS. The unit load AS/RS is typically a large automated system designed
to handle unit loads stored on pallets or in other standard containers. The
system is computer controlled, and the S/R machines are automated and designed
to handle the unit load containers.
Deep-lane AS/RS. The deep-lane AS/RS is a high-density unit load storage system
that is appropriate when large quantities of stock are stored, but the number of
separate stock types (SKUs) is relatively small.
Mini load AS/RS. This storage system is used to handle small loads (individual parts
or supplies) that are contained in bins or drawers in the storage system. The S/R
machine is designed to retrieve the bin and deliver it to a P&D station at the end of
the aisle so that individual items can be withdrawn from the bins.
Man-on-board S/RS. A man-on-board (also called man-aboard) storage/retrieval
system represents an alternative approach to the problem of retrieving individual
items from storage. In this system, a human operator rides on the carriage of the
S/R machine.

1.8 Overview of Automatic Identification Methods.

Automatic identification and data capture (AIDC) refers to technologies that provide
direct entry of data into a computer or other microprocessor-controlled system without
using a keyboard. Many of these technologies require no human involvement in
the data capture and entry process. Automatic identification systems are being used
increasingly to collect data in material handling and manufacturing applications.
In material handling, the applications include shipping and receiving, storage, sortation,
order picking, and kitting of parts for assembly.

Nearly all of the automatic identification technologies consist of three principal components,
which also comprise the sequential steps in AIDC [8]:
1. Data encoder. A code is a set of symbols or signals that usually represent alphanumeric
characters. When data are encoded, the characters are translated into a
machine-readable code. (For most AIDC techniques, the encoded data are not
readable by humans.) A label or tag containing the encoded data is attached to the
item that is to be identified.
2. Machine reader or scanner. This device reads the encoded data, converting them to
alternative form, usually an electrical analog signal.
3. Data decoder. This component transforms the electrical signal into digital data and
finally back into the original alphanumeric characters.

Many different technologies are used to implement automated identification and

data collection. Within the category of bar codes alone (currently the leading AIDC
technology), more than 250 different bar code schemes have been devised. AIDC
technologies
can be divided into the following six categories

1.Optical. Most of these technologies use high-contrast graphical symbols that can be
interpreted by an optical scanner. They include linear (one-dimensional) and twodimensional
bar codes, optical character recognition, and machine vision.
2. Electromagnetic. The important AIDC technology in this group is radio frequency
identification (RFID), which uses a small electronic tag capable of holding more
data than a bar code. Its applications are gaining on bar codes due to several
mandates from companies like Walmart and from the U.S. Department of Defense.
3. Magnetic. These technologies encode data magnetically, similar to recording tape.
The two important techniques in this category are (a) magnetic stripe, widely used
in plastic credit cards and bank access cards, and (b) magnetic ink character recognition,
widely used in the banking industry for check processing.
4. Smart card. This term refers to small plastic cards (the size of a credit card) imbedded
with microchips capable of containing large amounts of information. Other terms
used for this technology include chip card and integrated circuit card.
5. Touch techniques. These include touch screens and button memory.
6. Biometric. These technologies are utilized to identify humans or to interpret vocal
commands of humans. They include voice recognition, fingerprint analysis, and retinal
eye scans.

Although the error rate in automatic identification and data collection technologies
is much lower than for manual data collection and entry, errors do occur in AIDC. The
industry has adopted two parameters to measure the errors:
1. First read rate (FRR). This is the probability of a successful (correct) reading by the
scanner in its initial attempt.
2. Substitution error rate (SER). This is the probability or frequency with which the
scanner incorrectly reads the encoded character as some other character. In a given
set of encoded data containing n characters, the expected number of errors = SER
multiplied by n.