Lesson 5

Contemporary Global Governance and the United Nations

Objectives:
Following this lesson, the student ought to be able to:

1. describe global governance;

2. identify the United Nations’ tasks and functions; and
3. identify global governance issues in the twenty-first century.

Global Governance

Despite the lack of a single world authority, states in an international order

continue to adhere to some global rules, implying a semblance of world order.

The multiple intersecting processes that generate this order are called global
governance. Global governance can come from a variety of places:

1. Multinational corporations invest in different nations, yet their product

offers in each country are not coordinated. (international rules that govern
interactions between states instead of private companies).
2. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can persuade individual nations
to behave in a certain way, even though they do not have formal state
power (ex., International animal protection NGOs can pressure
governments to pass animal cruelty laws).
3. Powerful transnational businesses significantly influence international labor
regulations, environmental legislation, and trade policy.
4. The need for global democracy or good governance can impact how
international actors act.

International Organization

The term "international organization" (I.O.) refers to organizations like the

United Nations and institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the World
Bank. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs) are sometimes referred
to as I.O.s. The phrase refers to international intergovernmental organizations or
groupings predominantly composed of member states. One common misconception
regarding I.O.s is that it's a collection of apps (union or merger). As a stand-alone
entity, I.O.s has the potential to be impactful. Listed are the following powers of the
I.O.s:

1. I.O.s have classification authority. I.O.s develop stable global standards by

inventing and using categories. The United Nations, for example, defines a
refugee, and states must accept refugees who cross their borders. This
ability to build identity has far-reaching consequences.
 1. I.O.s can change meanings. This is a more general function that is linked to
the first. I.O.s are regarded as a legitimate source of information by states,
organizations, and individuals. As a result, the meanings (security and
development) impact numerous policies. The United Nations, for example,
defines security as "safety from military aggression and environmental
devastation."

3. I.O.s can disseminate norms. Norms are widely recognized standards of

behavior that promote consistency while not formal laws. I.O.s define and fix
meanings and transmit their ideas worldwide, establishing global norms. Because
I.O.s are staffed with independent specialists in many domains, they can disperse
norms. World Bank economists, for example, have earned a reputation as
development specialists with some authority. I.O.s have the potential to do both good
and damage. They can promote essential standards such as environmental
conservation and human rights. They can become closed communities that refuse to
question their ideas. Ex. Nobel Prize-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz criticized the
IMF for using a “one-size-fits-all” approach when economists recommended
developing countries.

United Nations

In today's globe, the United Nations is the most prominent I.O. Even though
the organization is far from perfect, it has prevented another global war. For this
reason, the United Nations should be seen as a success. U.N. is composed of six
organs:

1. The General Assembly is the prime deliberative body and the only entity in
which all member states are represented equally in debate, consideration,
and policymaking.
2. Security Council is the organ that commits to preserving peace and
security.
3. The Economic and Social Council is the United Nations' main body for
collaboration, policy review, policy dialogue, and recommendations on
social, economic, and environmental issues.
4. Trusteeship Council is tasked with administering international oversight for
11 trust territories and ensuring adequate independence and
self-government procedures.
5. The International Court of Justice is the United Nation’s principal judicial
organ.
6. Secretariat is the organ responsible for executing the daily activities
assigned by the five other organs.

Five permanent members with veto power:

1. China
2. France
3. Russian Federation
4. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
 5. United States of America

According to Oppenheim's International Law: United Nations, Permanent

membership in the Security Council was granted to five states based on their
significance in the years following World War II.

The permanent members are all nuclear-armed states that were allies in
World War II and the war's winners. No matter how much support a "substantive"
draft Council resolution obtains from other nations, anyone can prevent it from being
approved.

The veto clause was later referred to as the Yalta formula. According to the
available data, the major powers—the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom,
and China—all supported the idea of unanimity, not only because they wanted to
work together but also to safeguard their sovereign rights and interests.

Can a permanent member of the U.N. be removed?

Under Article 108, all amendments to the charter must be approved by

two-thirds of the General Assembly, including all permanent members of the Security
Council — the United States, Britain, France, Russia, and China. So, Russia's vote
would be needed to remove it from the council, which is unrealistic.

Moscow has used the veto 143 times since it was first employed by the Soviet
Union in 1946, significantly more often than the United States (86 times), Britain (30
times), China, or France (18 times each). The U.N. General Assembly expelled
Russia from the Geneva-based UN Human Rights Council at the beginning of April.

The Russian Federation succeeded to the Soviet Union's seat, including its
permanent membership on the Security Council in the United Nations after the 1991
dissolution of the Soviet Union, which initially co-founded the U.N. in 1945.

Which country left the U.N.?

Indonesia announced its decision to leave the U.N. "at this moment and under
the present conditions" in a letter dated January 20, 1965, and its decision to
"resume full collaboration with the United Nations and to get back participation in its
activities" in a telegram dated September 19, 1966.

Which countries are not members of the U.N.?

Currently, there are 195 nations in the world. This number includes the Holy
See and the State of Palestine, two non-member observer nations, together with the
193 United Nations member states.

The Pope likes to stay out of direct engagement with world affairs. However,
according to other sources, if the Holy See applied, questions might be raised about
whether it could satisfy the U.N.'s definition of a country (mainly if it can contribute to
international security) and whether it was a legitimate religious organization than a
state.

Palestine has applied for full United Nations membership multiple times.
Palestine has been limited to permanent observer status because of its violent and
ongoing territorial dispute with U.N. member Israel. Several crucial
members—including the United States, United Kingdom, and France, three
permanent members of the Security Council—refuse to allow Palestine to become a
member until its conflict with Israel is resolved peacefully.

Who controls the U.N.?

The U.N. Secretary-General, General Assembly, and Security Council have

most of the control over the United Nations. These elements control much of the
U.N.'s decisions and operations. However, the U.N. charter devolves power across
many different bodies, and no one has ultimate control over the U.N.

When a nation joins the U.N., it pledges to resolve disagreements amicably,

refrain from using force or threatening others, and not assist nations that disagree
with the U.N.'s policies.

Is the U.N. allowed to intervene?

Nothing in the current Charter "shall authorize the United Nations to intervene
in areas which are basically within the domestic jurisdiction of any State," therefore
even in times of crisis or when the state machinery oppresses its citizens, the United
Nations is prohibited from doing so.

The U.N. now provides emergency aid and assistance to citizens of Ukraine
and its neighboring countries, focusing on women, children, the elderly, and people
with disabilities. More than 1,400 UN employees are present in all 24 Ukraine's
oblasts.

The absence of an army is the U.N.'s primary shortcoming. It was once

intended to include a military element in the Security Council to solve issues more
effectively. The concept, however, simply existed on paper.

Trust Territories Agreements. The Trusteeship agreements were concluded

between the United Nations and the administrating power. They were: Approved by
resolutions; Transmitted in documents of the General Assembly, Security Council,
and the Trusteeship Council; Published in the U.N. Treaty Series, and cited in the
papers with the agreement's text for each available research guide page for the
territory.

Territory Administered by Agreement Resolution

Western Samoa New Zealand A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
1946
 Tanganyika United Kingdom A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
1946
Rwanda-Urundi Belgium A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
1946
Cameroons under United Kingdom A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
British administration 1946
Cameroons under France A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
French administration 1946
Togoland, under United Kingdom A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
British administration 1946
Togoland under France A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
French administration 1946
New Guinea Australia A/RES/63 (I) of December 13,
1946
Nauru Australia, New Zealand A/RES/140 (II) of November
and the United Kingdom 1, 1947
Trust territory of the United States S/RES/21 (1947) of April 2,
Pacific Islands 1947
Italian Somaliland Italy A/RES/442 (V) of December
2, 1950

After World War II, the United Nations was founded with a single mission: to
ensure international peace and security. Today, the U.N. plays a role in addressing
various concerns that threaten international stability. The United Nations enshrined
human rights in international law through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in 1948. The organization has evolved into a tool for countries to identify areas of
agreement and work together to address challenges.

U.N. carries the functions of:

1. delivering humanitarian aid

2. upholding international law
3. promoting sustainable development

The organization uses good offices, diplomacy, and mediation. To maintain

international peace and security, it does the following:

1. peacekeeping processes in countries with domestic conflicts

2. peace-building tasks in nations freed from conflict
3. lessening the risk of reversing into conflict
4. setting the groundwork for sustainable peace and development
5. agree on the global battle against terrorism
6. works for the removal of nuclear weapons and other instruments of mass
destruction

The U.N. takes responsibility for reviewing, monitoring, reporting, and

commending human rights from a country-based perspective. Ultimately, it governs
the responsibility to protect conceptual, institutional, political, and operational
advancement. The U.N. coordinates emergency responses and supports rapid
humanitarian response in delivering humanitarian aid.

U.N. Security Council Composition

Five permanent members: China, France, the Russian Federation, the United
Kingdom, and the United States, and ten non-permanent members elected for
two-year terms by the General Assembly (with the end of the term year):

Albania (2023)
Brazil (2023)
Gabon (2023)
Ghana (2023)
India (2022)
Ireland (2022)
Kenya (2022)
Mexico (2022)
Norway (2022)
United Arab Emirates (2023)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDG) were set to promote sustainable

development. In 2015, MDG was changed into the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDG). These goals are the plan for achieving a better and more sustainable future.

The 17 Sustainable Development Goals are the following:

1. No Poverty
2. Zero hunger
3. Good health and well-being
4. Quality education
5. Gender equality
6. Clean water and sanitation
7. Affordable and clean energy
8. Decent work and economic growth
9. Industry, innovation, and infrastructure
10. Reduced inequalities
11. Sustainable cities and communities
12. Responsible consumption and production
13. Climate action
14. Life below water
15. Life on land
16. Peace, justice, and strong institutions
17. Partnerships for the goals

The members understand that eradicating poverty and other forms of

deprivation requires initiatives that promote health and education, reduce inequality,
and stimulate economic growth. All United Nations Member States endorsed the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2015, which offers a shared detailed
plan for peace and prosperity for people and the world today and in the future. Over
the following 15 years, specific targets for each aim must be met. Everyone,
including governments, the commercial sector, civil society, and the general public,
must have a role in achieving the goals.

Another way to look at SDGs is the five Ps:

1. People – promote health and safety; Improve public moral

2. Planet–balanced ecology; Scientific and technological capabilities
3. Peace – maintain peace and order
4. Partnership – comfort and convenience of inhabitants
5. Prosperity – economic prosperity and social justice; Full
employment of residents; Preservation and enrichment of culture

The Security council's veto power over resolutions has been one of the U.N.'s
challenges since its foundation. For example, the U.S. Security Council vetoed the
U.N. resolution in December 2017 that required the U.S. president to withdraw the
recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital city. In effect, a resolution was not
passed. The new government of Lebanon openly defied the Security Council's many
resolutions on the Israeli-Lebanon conflict. The Philippines voted against a U.N.
general assembly committee draft resolution on the human rights crisis in Myanmar
concerning the Rohingya people.

U.N. identifies challenges confronting the U.N. based on knowledge, norms,

policy, institutions, and compliance:

1. In terms of knowledge, the U.N. is underappreciated regarding how its

convening capacity and mobilizing power are used to help funnel and
consolidate learning from outside and ensure its discussion and
dissemination among governments.
1. Different member-states opposing moral structures of social behavior
complicate forming a normative standard.
2. In drafting propositions, problems occur when only the member-states are
heard. U.N. belittles the helping hand of non-governmental organizations
and global public opinion. Sometimes recommendations are not executed.
3. Institutions can also be placed where ideas are cornered and left behind.
The modality and processes for enforcing international norms and laws are
not present. Some U.N. staff members violate, cheat and challenge them.

Despite establishing global norms and international laws, nation-states are

still relevant, for there will be no intergovernmental organization without them. The
states designed international and multinational agreements propelled by their
initiatives. The nation-states remain active agents of local and transnational realms
of concern. To conclude, contemporary governance defines the political scope of
globalization. Collaboration among nation-states is the only way to reform and
advance interstate relationships' roles and functions despite the real challenges
faced by the U.N.
 Lesson 6
A World of Regions and Asian Regionalism

Objectives:
Following this lesson, the student ought to be able to:

1. distinguish between regionalization and globalization;

2. describe how regions are developed and maintained;
3. examine the benefits and drawbacks of regionalism; and
4. identify the causes leading to greater integration of the Asian region before
the end of this section.

Governments, associations, society, and others develop regional

organizations and networks to deal with globalization. Globalization has increased
people's awareness of the world in general and specific regions such as Southeast
Asia. Globalization is globalization's spread and deepening of social ties and
consciousness over the world, time, and space.

Regionalism is seen as a political-economic phenomenon. The term

encompasses a broader area. It refers to the concentration of economic flows in a
given location. It can be investigated regarding identities, ethics, religion, ecological
sustainability, and health. It must be viewed as an emerging, socially constructed
phenomenon because it is a process. This indicates that regions are not inherent or
predetermined; they are created and defined by decision-makers in government,
business, and even social movements.

Regionalization is the widening social integration within the region and the
often undirected social and economic interactions. It refers to a political process by
the monetary policy if cooperation and coordination are present among countries.

A comprehensive economic dictionary defines regionalism as "an approach to

consideration and solution of economic problems" and creating regional state
associations; regionalization is defined as "the enhancement of economic, political,
and other links between the region and the states that are included in one region."

Regionalism is a political ideology that favors a specific region over a greater

area. It usually results from political separations, religious geography, cultural
boundaries, linguistic regions, and managerial divisions.

The perceived difference between Southerners and New Englanders is one

example of regionalism.

Countries, Regions, and Globalization

Mansfield and Milner state that economic and political definitions of the region
vary. There are a few essential characteristics on which everyone may agree:

1. Regions are countries located in the same geographical specified area. These
are "a mixture of more than two regions or an amalgamation of two regions,"
organized to control and "oversee flows and policy decisions.

2. Regionalization and regionalism should not be confused, as the former refers

to the "regional concentration of economic flows." In contrast, the latter refers
to the "regional concentration of economic flows." While the former is "a
political process marked by economic policy collaboration and coordination
among countries," "A political process defined by economic policy
collaboration and coordination across countries," according to the latter.

Countries form a regional association for several reasons:

1. For the sake of military defense. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), founded during the Cold War when numerous Western European countries
and the United States committed to protecting Europe from the Soviet Union, is the
most well-known defense organization. The Soviet Union created its regional
alliance, the Warsaw Pact, consisting of Eastern European countries under Soviet
domination.

2. Form regional organizations to pool their resources. This will improve their
exports and expand their leverage against trading partners. The Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) Organization was established in 1960 to regulate oil production
and sale. This integration became a source of great power in a world heavily reliant
on oil. The success of OPEC persuaded nine more oil-producing countries to join.
OPEC was formally formed in January 1961 by five countries: Saudi Arabia,
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Venezuela, following a summit held in Baghdad on September
10–14, 1960. Qatar (1961), Indonesia and Libya (1962), Abu Dhabi (1967), Algeria
(1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973), and Angola (1973) were among the latter
members admitted (2007). The UAE stands for the United Arab Emirates. OPEC
asserts that its members control roughly four-fifths of the world's proven petroleum
reserves and produce two-fifths of global oil production.

Religion, oil reserves, geography, and political and economic interests are
some ways members differ. For example, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab
Emirates have enormous per capita oil reserves; they are also relatively strong
financially and have considerable flexibility in adjusting their production. With the
world's second-largest resource and a small (but rapidly growing) population, Saudi
Arabia has long dominated global production and prices. On the other hand,
Venezuela has the largest reserves but produces only a fraction of Saudi Arabia’s.

3. To build regional blocs to safeguard their independence from superpower

politics. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was founded by the presidents of Egypt,
Ghana, India, Indonesia, and Yugoslavia to achieve the following goals:
World peace and international cooperation
Human rights
National sovereignty
Racial and national equality
Non-intervention
Peaceful conflict resolution

Due to the association's refusal to support either the communist countries in

Eastern Europe or the First World Capitalist democracies in Western Europe and
North America, it is non-aligned. It has 120 member countries. The movement was
never formalized and continues to exist up to the present.

1. The economic downturn forces countries to band together. After foreign

currency speculators and worried international banks demanded that the Thai
government repay its debt, the Thai economy collapsed in 1996. The economy was
bankrupt due to a quick withdrawal of foreign capital. The crisis affected other Asian
countries as their currencies depreciated, and foreign investments were rushed out.
The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries decided to create
an emergency fund with China, Japan, and South Korea to prepare for a crisis in
which the Asian economy stabilized. ASEAN became more unified and coordinated
as a result of the problem. Since its inception as a pro-American alliance, the
organization has gone a long way since it formed a coalition of pro-American
countries and supported the U.S. intervention in Vietnam.

Non-State Regionalism

Communities also engage in regional organizing. This new regionalism varies

in forms: tiny associations include a few actors and focus on a single issue. Massive
continental unions address many common problems, from territorial defense to food
security. They rely on the power of individuals, non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), and associations to connect to pursue a particular goal.
 Regionalism is identified with reformists who share the same values, norms,
institutions, and systems outside of traditional mainstream institutions. Some
non-profits collaborate with governments to bring about social change. Those who
work with governments are part of the institutional framework that allows civil society
organizations to voice and impact technocratic policymaking. For example, the
ASEAN Human Rights Declaration was produced in 2009. Still, the regional body left
it up to the member countries to adopt the declaration's principles as they saw fit.

New regionalism organizations used this official declaration to pressure these

governments to pass laws and regulations protecting and promoting human rights in
ASEAN countries. Left-wing governments in South America are backing the
Hemispheric Social Alliance's opposition to the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA). In Latin America and the Caribbean, National Associations and
Networks and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) meet at conferences,
summits, and dialogues with presidents and ministers. The Citizen Diplomacy Forum
influences American states' policies and programs.

In Southeast Asia, the organization of an ASEAN Parliamentarian for Human

Rights was partly the result of NGOs and civil society groups pushing to “prevent
discrimination, uphold political freedom and promote democracy and human rights
throughout the region.

Left-wing governments in South America support resisting the North American

Free Trade Agreement by the Hemispheric Social Alliance (NAFTA). In Latin
America and the Caribbean, National Associations, Networks, and NGOs meet in
forums, summits, and talks with presidents and ministers. The Citizen Diplomacy
Forum is a non-profit organization that works to influence the policies and programs
of American states. The regional network of NGOs and trade unions dedicated to
protecting and promoting the rights and welfare of migrant workers is the Migrant
Forum in Asia. These organizations' primary source of strength is their moral
standing and capacity to combine lobbying and pressure politics. They are, however,
underfunded and have a limited impact on world politics.

New regionalism differs from traditional state-to-state regionalism when

identifying problems. Advocates for new regionalism, such as the NGO Global
Forum, regard these problems as outdated economic and environmental models.
They imply profit-driven market-based economic development plans that pay little
attention to social well-being, especially among the poor. Another difficulty for new
regionalists is the potential for internal strife.

Asian Regionalism

Asian Regionalism is a new concept among continental communities. Unique

to cooperation and collaboration goals, it has a 50-year-old ASEAN group. The
ASEAN community is composed of 3 pillars:
 1. The political security community emphasizes human rights, drugs, foreign
relations, defense, law, and transnational crimes.

2. The economic community adheres to significant roles of monitoring:

Economic ministers, finance ministers

Central bank governor free trade area
Investment area agriculture and forestry
Transport minister's science and technology
Energy mineral
Tourism free trade agreements
Sectoral bodies in the arena of the economic community
Telecommunication and information technology ministers

3. In the socio-cultural community, an avenue for cooperation among the

ministers responsible is provided for:

Culture and art sports

Disaster management education
Environment health
Information labor
Rural development poverty eradication
Women youth
Civil service matters

ASEAN also partnered with the 3 East Asian countries (China, Japan, and
South Korea) called ASEAN+3. The goal is to address the 1997 Asian financial crisis
and help each other cope. Some aspects led to a greater Asian integration:

1. Integration has been market-driven. Various systems, institutions,

procedures, social relations, and infrastructures exist for countries to
exchange.

2. Formal institutions such as Asian Development Bank were established. It

aids its members and partners by providing loans, technical assistance,
grants, and equity investments. It focuses its service on food production
and rural development to serve the agricultural region.

3. Economic grants and overseas development assistance are made available

by better Asian economies. For example, the Japanese International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) aims to work on human security and quality
growth. It targets to promote international cooperation and the
development of the Japanese and global economy by supporting
developing regions' socio-economic development, recovery, or economic
stability.

4. Production networks have expanded. Economies are mainly on

comparative advantage through the regional division of labor.
 5. Cooperation among the ASEAN and East Asian countries ensued in the
ASEAN+3 Financial ministers’ establishment of two economic structures:
the Chiang Mai Initiative and the Asian Bond Market Initiative. The strategy
aims to strengthen policy dialogue, coordination, and collaboration on
common financial, monetary, and fiscal issues.

6. If the E.U. is rules-based, ASEAN follows a consensus rule as an approach

to decision-making. This process prevents the collision of cultural beliefs
and economic policies that are understandably difficult to unite because of
the region’s diverse archipelagic lives.

Contemporary Challenges to Regionalism

The revival of aggressive nationalism and populism is the most serious. The
failure to dissolve NATO after the fall of the Soviet Union has been the foundation of
Vladimir Putin's anti-NATO rhetoric in Russia. Even the U.S.'s relationship with NATO
has become problematic after the U.S. president demonized the organization as
leeching off American military power without giving anything in return.

The European Union is today's most crisis-plagued regional organization. The

region's ongoing financial crisis forces Greece to consider exiting the E.U. to acquire
more economic policy freedom. The United Kingdom has decided to go to the
European Union because of anti-immigrant sentiment and a populist campaign
against Europe. The media has coined the word "Brexit."

Members of ASEAN are still debating how much sovereignty member

countries should give up to benefit regional stability. The association's relationship
with East Asia has also been a source of contention. Asian countries disagree over
how to relate to China, with the Philippines not getting the other countries to support
its condemnation of China's West Philippine Sea occupation. The resistance was
spearheaded by Cambodia and Laos, who favored diplomacy over confrontation.
Still, the actual cause was the vast growth in Chinese investments, which helped
these nations. Some formerly authoritarian governments democratized this
participatory regionalism clashed with ASEAN’s policy of non-interference. Civil
society organizations in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand have requested that
other democratic countries take a more open stance toward foreign criticism.

Finally, there are diverse perspectives on what regionalism should be used

for. Western governments may see regional organizations as more than just
economic structures; they may also be a tool for political democracy. Democracy,
according to Singapore, China, and Russia, is a barrier to adopting and deepening
economic globalization because continual public inquiry and protracted debate
hinder implementation or result in ambiguous decisions. The time-consuming
procedures of democracy must give way to efficiency.

In 2007, the Asia-Pacific Economic Council (APEC) included countries that

accounted for 37% of the world's population. These countries are members of
smaller groups. Similarly, it will be difficult for states to reject all types of global
economic integration; it will also be difficult to abandon their regions. Even if the
United Kingdom leaves the E.U., it must continue trading with its immediate
neighbors and comply with numerous E.U. regulations.

Lesson 7
Global Culture and Media

Objectives:
Following this lesson, the student ought to be able to:

1. investigate how various media influence various forms of global integration;

2. compare the social impacts of multiple media on the processes of
globalization;

3. explain the dynamic between local and international cultural production;

and

4. define responsible media consumption.

Culture

Culture is a cohesive style of human knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors

through which people learn and pass on their abilities to future generations. Its
progress has been affected by the media. Historically, media underwent five stages
of action, from the earliest forms to the most complex one:

1. Oral communication. Communication through the mouth. Humans could

communicate and share information thanks to the invention of language.
Language has become a vital tool for learning about the world and its
cultures. It aided people in relocating and settling down. Markets, trade,
and cross-continental trading routes arose due to oral communication.

2. Script. Distance became a hindrance to oral communication. Humans could

communicate over a more significant area and extended period, thanks to
the invention of the hand. It made it possible to indefinitely codify economic,
 cultural, religious, and political traditions. Knowledge, beliefs, and actions
were written down and passed to future generations and other nations and
cultures.

3. Printing press. With the discovery of the printing press, print items could
be continuously produced, reproduced, and circulated. Written records
were mass-produced, allowing everyone access to previously only
available information to the wealthy, powerful, and religious. Globalization
was influenced by the transformation of numerous institutions throughout
this period of media development.

4. Electronic media. The telegraph, telephone, radio, film, and television are
examples of this. These media's enormous reach continues to open up
new viewpoints on the economic, political, and cultural processes of
globalization financial, political, and cultural processes. Radio served as a
platform for worldwide brands to promote themselves. The analog type
was primarily used to watch U.S. presidents' speeches and U.N. Security
Council meetings. Both radio and television became mediums for
observing international events.

5. Digital media relies on digital codes. Any digital electrical equipment can
create, modified, and save it. The internet and computer networks are
used to transfer digital content. Candidates in politics utilize social media
to campaign and promote their agendas. It allows for product advertising
and online business transactions in economics.

Media is a carrier of culture. It's a method for bringing individuals from diverse
cultures together. The only outcomes of globalization’s influence on culture are
cultural differentialism, cultural convergence, and cultural hybridity.

Cultural differentialism views cultural differences as immutable. As the West

and non-western civilizations interplay or come into touch due to globalization, a
clash of cultures such as the West and Islam is inevitable.

Cultural convergence says that cultures are becoming increasingly similar due
to globalization. The culture of rich and progressive countries becomes culture (ex.,
K-pop culture).

Cultural hybridity suggests that cultures are mingling more and more due to
globalization. (For example, Chabacano, a Spanish-based language that
demonstrates linguistic hybridity resulting from the fusion of two cultures.) Due to this
tendency, new cultural forms in language, food, fashion, the arts, and music will
emerge. These consequences determine how local and global cultural production
interact.

Globalization, a term created from globalization and localization, is a relatively

recent idea characterized by increased cultural contact. Due to globalization, local
cultures continue to accommodate and assimilate the world's cultures. Around the
world, media has created and reproduced cultural items. Media-induced increases in
cultural exchanges result in outcomes that show the vitality of local cultures
influenced by global culture.

Functions of Media

"A technique of conveying something, such as a communication conduit," Lule

explains. In technical terms, a person's voice is a channel. When pundits use the
term media (plural of medium), they refer to mass communication technology. Print
media includes books, magazines, and newspapers. Broadcast media includes
radio, film, and television. The internet and mobile mass communication are
examples of digital media. E-mail, internet sites, internet-based video, and audio are
examples of online media.

Marshall McLuhan, a media theorist, once said, "The medium is the

message." He didn't imply that ideas (messages) are meaningless or have no effect
on people. His speech aimed to attract attention to how media reshapes civilizations
as a technology. As a result, television is more than just a medium for disseminating
information. It influences viewers' social conduct and reorients family behavior.
Today's smartphones allow users to communicate with several individuals
simultaneously in real time. This social shift is made possible by technology
(medium), not the message.

Various media, according to McLuhan, simultaneously extend and amputate

human senses. New media may broaden communication's reach and impair users'
communication abilities. It, like cell phones, raises people's emotions by allowing
them to communicate with more people simultaneously. However, it limits the senses
by making users more easily distracted and prone to multitasking. New media are
neither excellent nor negative by definition.

The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism

Many of these forerunners believe that global media tends to homogenize

culture. They said that as global media became more widely available, individuals
worldwide would begin to watch, listen to, and read the same things. Commentators
believe that media globalization coupled with American hegemony (dominant
influence) would create cultural imperialism whereby American values and cultures
would overwhelm all others, leading to consumerism. Given that it encourages
"homogenized, westernized, consumer culture," the term "cultural globalization" is an
excellent way to describe Western cultural imperialism.

Critiques of Cultural Imperialism

A proponent of cultural imperialism ignored that producers do not just make

media messages; audiences also consume them. Audience studies emphasize
media consumers' role as active participants in the meaning-making process who
interpret media "texts" through cultural lenses.

A text refers to the content of any medium in media studies. They invest a lot
of emotional energy in the process and get pleasure from it, depending on how well
the program or entertainment relates to them. Diverse interpretative groups react
differently to texts because they draw different meanings and pleasures. As a result,
people from all cultural backgrounds could comprehend the play uniquely.

Given the process of Hello Kitty, Pokemon, K-pop, globalized Asian Cuisine,
and the Asian brand Jollibee, It is no longer plausible to maintain that globalization is
a one-way process in which foreign cultures supplant domestic ones. It allows for
dynamic and cultural shifts; it's just a reflection of the phenomenon's complexity.

The Creation of Cyber Ghettos and Social Media

Cyber Ghettos are places on the internet where a social group is

marginalized. Aside from the nature of multiple audiences and geographical
tendencies in cultural creation, the internet and social media demonstrate that the
globalization of culture and ideas can take many forms. The benefits and downsides
of social networking are well documented. Access to these means of communication
has been democratized. Twitter and Facebook are free for anyone with an internet
connection or smartphone. Thanks to these new mediums, users can now be
consumers and information providers.

Social media have its dark side. Commentators began referring to the
emergence of the Splinternet and the phenomenon of cyber balkanization to refer to
the different bubbles people place themselves in online.

Cyberbalkanization is the division of the internet into smaller groups with

similar interests to the point where outsiders or people with opposing viewpoints are
treated with suspicion.

Splinternet characterizes the internet as splintering and dividing due to

various factors such as technology, commerce, politics, nationalism, religion, and
interest.

According to an article in Science, social media feeds pushing users to read

articles, memes, and videos shared by like-minded friends have worsened this
segmentation. Being on Facebook feels like being in a replication, reinforcing one's
previous thoughts and attitudes. This echo chamber prevents people from hearing or
reading ideas or information that contradict their own, causing them to become more
closed-minded.

Global online propaganda will be a massive threat as media globalization

deepens. Internet media have made the world interconnected. In a global media
world that allows politicians to peddle, users must be attentive and understand how
to separate fact from fiction as media consumers.

Conclusion

Media have varied effects on the globalization process. At one point, global
television was creating a global monoculture. Social media will splinter cultures and
ideas into bubbles of people who do not interact. The media will continue to
engender social changes. Thus, everyone must collectively discover ways of dealing
with them responsively and ethically.