This article was downloaded by: [University Library Utrecht]

On: 11 June 2014, At: 22:16

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Studies in Higher Education

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cshe20

The relevance of emotional

intelligence for leadership in a higher
education context
a
Dominique Rene Parrish
a
Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of
Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
Published online: 16 Oct 2013.

To cite this article: Dominique Rene Parrish (2013): The relevance of emotional
intelligence for leadership in a higher education context, Studies in Higher Education, DOI:
10.1080/03075079.2013.842225

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2013.842225

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
 Studies in Higher Education, 2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2013.842225

The relevance of emotional intelligence for leadership in a higher

education context
Dominique Rene Parrish*

Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW

2522, Australia

This paper reports on a case-study research investigation that sought to identify the
relevance of emotional intelligence for effective higher education academic
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

leadership. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, pre and post a leadership

capacity development intervention, to gather broad data on participants’
experiences, insights, and engagement in leadership and the utilisation of
emotional intelligence in leading. The study found that emotional intelligence is
recognised as a highly relevant and important requirement for academic
leadership in higher education. Additionally, the investigation ascertained that
emotional intelligence traits related to empathy, inspiring and guiding others and
responsibly managing oneself were most applicable for academic leadership. The
views of participants regarding the relevance of these emotional intelligence
traits in academic leadership are presented. Illustrations of how these emotional
intelligence traits might manifest in a higher education context are also discussed.
Keywords: emotional intelligence; effective leadership; traits; case study;
leadership development

Introduction
Ramsden (1998) alludes to the existence of two opposing paradigms of influence on the
success of an institution – leadership and management. These two paradigms are
collectively acknowledged in the higher education sector as constituting academic
governance. Management, often perceived to be the less desirable, has been described
in higher education terms as intrusive, restrictive and grounded in unnecessary admin-
istrative tasks that are concerned with functional effectiveness and efficiency (Ramsden
1998). Leadership on the other hand is seen to be collaborative in nature, focused on
setting and motivating others in new directions and aligned to achieving established
and shared goals that promote high quality teaching and learning (Ramsden 1998;
Knight and Trowler 2000; Osseo-Asare, Longbottom and Murphy 2005). Research
findings suggest that leaders and leadership play a vital role in a university’s success
(Bryman 2009; Scott, Coates and Anderson 2008) and that effective leadership and
sound governance are critical factors in sustaining and improving the quality and per-
formance of an institution (Gibbs, Knapper and Picinnin 2009; Osseo-Asare, Longbot-
tom and Murphy 2005). Effective higher education leadership is posited to promote a
culture that is conducive to outstanding learning and teaching and a central requirement

*Email: [email protected]

© 2013 Society for Research into Higher Education

 2 D.R. Parrish

for academic excellence (Knight and Trowler 2000). Zaccaro, Kemp and Bader (2004)
suggest that leadership traits contribute significantly to leadership effectiveness, leader-
ship development and career progression. However, in the higher education setting, lea-
dership positions are often filled by academic staff who have limited experience in
formal management or leadership roles and responsibilities (Rowley and Sherman
2003). Such leaders may not necessarily aspire to managerial or leadership roles and
as such may have inadequate training or preparation. Anderson and Johnson (2006)
assert that formal leadership development in higher education is lacking, maintaining
that most of the leadership development that takes place is the result of individuals
‘learning on the job’ (1). These sentiments together with concerns that leadership train-
ing is not valued by institutions are resoundingly affirmed in the literature (e.g. Mar-
shall 2006; Rowley and Sherman 2003; Scott, Coates and Anderson 2008),
highlighting the need for academic leadership capacity development to be enhanced.
Bryman (2007) suggests that leadership training programmes in higher education
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

should be designed to develop features associated with effective leadership. Two

studies, undertaken by Bryman (2007) and Gibbs, Knapper and Picinnin (2009) have
established measures of what effective higher education leadership might involve.
Bryman (2007) conceptualised 11 behaviours for effective higher education leadership
(see Table 1), while Gibbs, Knapper and Picinnin (2009) developed nine clusters of
effective leadership practice (detailed in Table 1). Looking beyond the specific
higher education context, Kouzes and Posner (1998) identified five elements of effec-
tive leadership (see Table 1) that have been extensively applied in numerous settings
and are highly regarded across a variety of organisations, disciplines, and demographic
backgrounds as a sound basis for effective leadership.
For the purposes of this research study, a Leadership Competency Framework
(LCF) consisting of five leadership practices was developed by the researcher as a
basis for examining and contextualising academic leadership transpiring across the
11 case studies. This LCF was conceptualised through an iterative process that firstly
mapped and then synthesised the Bryman (2007) behaviours, Gibbs, Knapper and
Picinnin (2009) practices and Kouzes and Posner’s (1998) elements of effective leader-
ship as illustrated in Table 1. The ensuing LCF practices (detailed in Table 1) assimi-
lated the components of the three leadership models and were conceived to be a suite of
practices that reflected effective academic leadership. This LCF was subsequently used
in the analysis of the interview transcripts.

Emotional intelligence and effective academic leadership

Increasingly there is evidence to suggest that emotional intelligence is linked to effec-
tive leadership in higher education (Bryman 2009; Coates and Anderson 2007; Dule-
wicz and Higgs 2003; George 2000; Herbst 2007; Rantz 2002; Rowley and Sherman
2003; Scott, Coates and Anderson 2008). The emotional intelligence competency of
empathy has been identified as crucial for effective leadership in higher education
(Bryman 2007, 2009; Coates and Anderson 2007; George 2000). Other emotional intel-
ligence competencies that have emerged as important attributes of effective higher edu-
cation leaders include leaders managing their emotions and the emotions of others
(Herbst 2007; Ying and Ting 2010); engaging in accurate self-assessment that
evokes an understanding of one’s strengths and limitations (Rantz 2002; Rowley and
Sherman 2003); and maintaining high levels of personal integrity, exercising persist-
ence and instilling trust (Bryman 2007, 2009; Rantz 2002; Rowley and Sherman 2003).
 Studies in Higher Education 3

Table 1. The LCF practices and the research contributing to the conceptualisation of this
framework.
Exemplary Effective leadership
Leadership Effective leadership leadership practices practices (Gibbs,
competency behaviours (Bryman (Kouzes and Posner Knapper and
framework practices 2007) 1998) Picinnin 2009)
Providing a clear sense Providing a clear sense Inspiring shared Articulating a
of direction and/or of direction and/or vision: enthusing convincing
strategic vision strategic vision others with a rationale for
vision of how change
things could be Identifying
and presenting teaching
strategies for problems and
attaining this turning them into
vision opportunities
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

Creating and fostering Creating a structure and Enabling others to Building a

a positive arrangements to act: having community of
collaborative work support and facilitate confidence in the practice
environment where the direction set abilities of Devolving
staff support and Creating and fostering a individuals and leadership
facilitate the positive, supportive enabling them to
direction set and collaborative achieve to their
work environment potential
Facilitating or enabling
opportunities for
participation in key
decision-making and
encouraging open
communication
Protecting staff
autonomy
Having integrity and Being trustworthy as a Modelling the way: Establishing
credibility, being leader having integrity credibility and
considerate, Having personal and acting as a role trust
trustworthy and integrity, being model in both
empathetic, treating considerate, and actions and words
staff fairly and treating staff fairly
acting as a role Having credibility and
model acting as a role
model
Communicating Providing Encouraging the Recognising and
developments and communication heart: being rewarding
providing about developments empathetic to the excellent
constructive and providing needs and teaching and
feedback on feedback on personalities of teaching
performance performance individuals and development
tailoring
recognition and
feedback to meet
these needs and
temperament

(Continued)
 4 D.R. Parrish

Table 1. (Continued)
Exemplary Effective leadership
Leadership Effective leadership leadership practices practices (Gibbs,
competency behaviours (Bryman (Kouzes and Posner Knapper and
framework practices 2007) 1998) Picinnin 2009)
Proactively promoting Proactively advancing Challenging the Marketing the
the interests of the the department’s/ process: engaging department as a
department/ institution’s cause in ongoing teaching success
institution within networking on its examination of Supporting
and external to the behalf internally and why and how change and
university, external to the things are done innovation
respecting existing university and willingly Involving
culture but seeking Respecting existing allowing others to students
to advance values culture while seeking scrutinise and
through a vision for to instil values challenge one’s
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

the department/ through a vision for own actions

institution the department/
institution

Despite the acknowledged affordances of emotional intelligence for higher edu-

cation leadership, there is a seeming lack of emotional intelligence amongst higher edu-
cation leaders (Anderson and Coates 2009; Dulewicz and Higgs 2003; Herbst 2007).
As such, it has been suggested that further research should focus on identifying the
emotional intelligence traits most relevant to academic leadership (Coco 2011; Ying
and Ting 2010). The study that underpins this paper aimed to achieve this by identify-
ing the emotional intelligence traits that were deemed most significant in relation to the
facilitation of academic leadership practices (specifically those detailed in the LCF). In
identifying these traits, the research focused on ascertaining how emotional intelligence
competencies and abilities might manifest in a higher education academic leadership
context. While this study only focused on the relevance and value of emotional intelli-
gence for academic leadership it is recognised that the intelligence quotient (IQ) of a
leader could also have a significant bearing on leadership acumen.

Emotional intelligence competencies and abilities

While there are a number of alternate models of emotional intelligence, Herbst and
Maree (2008) attest that there are three models predominantly used in emotional intel-
ligence research, these being the Bar-On (1997), Goleman (1995) and Salovey and
Mayer (1990). Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) model conceptualises emotional intelli-
gence in terms of interconnected cognitive abilities, while Bar-On (1997) provides a
mixed model that describes emotional intelligence in terms of the interconnected
emotional and social competencies, skills and enablers that influence behaviour. Gole-
man’s (1998) model presents emotional intelligence in terms of four dimensions, each
with a set of competencies associated with the personal dimensions or the interpersonal
dimensions of behaviour. In the context of this research study, the exploration of
emotional intelligence focused on the Mayer and Salovey ability model and the
Goleman competency model. The decision to focus on these two models of emotional
intelligence was based on the prevalence of both models being utilised and referenced
 Studies in Higher Education 5

in other related research studies and literature, situated in higher education and exam-
ining academic leadership (Ashkanasy and Dasborough 2003; Coco 2011; Dulewicz
and Higgs 2003; Greenockle 2010; Haskett and Bean 2005; Herbst 2007; Herbst and
Maree 2008; Marshall 2006; Scott, Coates and Anderson 2008; Ying and Ting 2010).
Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) ability paradigm of emotional intelligence (see
Table 2) divides emotional intelligence into four branches, each possessing a set of
developmentally sequenced abilities that are progressed through from lower order to
higher order abilities as a person becomes more emotionally intelligent. The four
branches of emotional intelligence abilities relate firstly to distinguishing, recognising,
evaluating and communicating emotions in oneself and in others; secondly, to using
emotions to assist with deliberations, prioritise judgements and make decisions or
solve problems having considered multiple viewpoints and important information;
thirdly to abilities associated with understanding emotions, why they might have man-
ifested and how they could potentially develop, for example how sadness could tran-
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

sition into anger; and finally, the fourth branch of emotional abilities is concerned
with appropriately managing and moderating emotions in oneself and in others.
Goleman’s (2000) competency paradigm of emotional intelligence (see Table 3)
categorises emotional intelligence into four dimensions. Each dimension has a corre-
sponding set of competencies related to either the personal dimensions of self-aware-
ness and self-management or the interpersonal dimensions of social awareness and
social skills. The personal competencies relate to understanding one’s own emotions,
how these emotions can influence behaviour and appropriately managing one’s

Table 2. Mayer and Salovey’s ability paradigm of emotional intelligence (adapted from Mayer
and Salovey 1997, 10).
Branches of the ability paradigm of emotional intelligence
Perceiving, Understanding and
appraising and analysing emotions to
expressing Emotional facilitation enable utilisation of Regulating and
emotions of thinking emotional knowledge managing emotions
Ability to identify Ability to use Ability to name Ability to be receptive
emotions in emotions to emotions and to good and bad
oneself prioritise thinking recognise links feelings
and direct attention between words and
to important emotions
information
Ability to identify Ability to use Ability to interpret the Ability to employ or
emotions in emotions to assist significance of disengage from an
others judgement emotions emotion depending
on its usefulness
Ability to Ability to use Ability to understand Ability to analyse
accurately emotions to feelings emotions in oneself
express consider multiple and others
emotions points of view
Ability to Ability to use Ability to recognise Ability to
differentiate emotions to likely transitions appropriately
between encourage specific among emotions manage emotions
accurate and problem solving
inaccurate approaches
feelings
 6 D.R. Parrish

Table 3. Goleman’s competence paradigm of emotional intelligence (adapted from Goleman

2000, 80).
Dimensions of the competence paradigm of emotional intelligence
Self awareness Self management Social awareness Social skills
Emotional self- Self control – keeping Empathy – Developing others –
awareness – disruptive emotions understanding bolstering the
recognising and impulses under others and taking abilities of others’
ones emotions control active interest in through feedback
and their effects their concerns and direction
Accurate self Trustworthiness – Organisational Leadership – the ability
assessment – consistent honesty awareness – to assume
rational and integrity empathizing at the responsibility and
judgement about organisational motivate with a
one’s strengths level convincing vision
and limitations
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

Self confidence – a Conscientiousness – Service orientation – Influence – employing

strong and responsibly recognizing and a range of
positive sense of managing oneself meeting convincing tactics
self-worth customers’ needs
Adaptability – Communication –
flexibility to adjust to listening and sending
situations and clear, convincing
overcome challenges messages
Achievement – drive to Change catalyst –
meet a personal ability to initiative
standard of new ideas and
excellence manage change
Initiative – willingness Conflict management –
to embrace resolve
opportunities disagreements and
negotiate resolutions
Building bonds –
nurturing and
maintaining
relationships
Teamwork and
collaboration –
promoting
cooperation and
working with others

emotions for a productive outcome. The interpersonal competencies are concerned with
understanding the emotions, associated behaviours and needs of others or the organis-
ation and appropriately managing, interacting with and leading others.
While the importance of emotional intelligence for effective leadership in higher
education and the benefits of incorporating emotional intelligence in the development
of leadership in higher education have been established, a lack of clarity around the
explicit emotional intelligence traits that are most significant for academic leadership
exists. This research investigation aimed to address this gap by identifying the emotion-
al intelligence traits that are most relevant for academic leadership and as such should
be developed in existing and future academic leaders. The study specifically focused on
faculty/department level leadership.
 Studies in Higher Education 7

Research methodology
A mixed mode case-study approach was used to investigate the relevance of emotional
intelligence for academic leadership practice at a faculty/department level in higher
education. Qualitative data were collected, through semi-structured interviews, to
facilitate this exploration. Eleven university academics from three different Australian
universities participated in this study. These 11 academics were a convenience sample.
Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007, p114) state that convenience sampling involves
choosing research participants ‘who happen to be available and accessible’.
An invitation to be involved in this research project was extended to each individual
involved in a wider leadership initiative. The research sample was subsequently gener-
ated by including every individual who indicated he or she was willing to be involved in
the research study. The one condition that each member of the research sample needed
to satisfy was that he or she participated in all of the tasks associated with the wider
leadership initiative and completed all of the research data collection activities. This
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

group of academics were pertinent to the investigation of emotional intelligence due

to the fact that their involvement in the wider leadership initiative meant they were
engaging in explicit activities to develop and appreciate the relevance of emotional
intelligence for academic leadership, particularly in the context of them leading a
faculty-based initiative. The multiple case study methodology provided the opportunity
for broad and robust generalisation of the findings. Replication of findings across the 11
cases escalated the importance of the finding(s) and determined the emotional intelli-
gence traits most applicable for academic leadership (Yin 2003).
The range of participant demographics was broad in respect to gender, age, disci-
pline area, leadership experience, roles and responsibilities, as well as the number of
years working in the sector (see Table 4 for an overview of the demographics of the
participants).
Semi-structured interviews were conducted pre and post participants’ engagement in
a leadership capacity development initiative, which included a focus on emotional intel-
ligence. The focus of the pre-intervention interviews was to gather qualitative information
about the participants’ positive experiences and insights into academic leadership. The
post-intervention interviews explored participants’ perceptions of how emotional intelli-
gence can enhance leadership practice and sought to identify specific examples of the
practice of emotionally intelligent leadership (see Appendix 1 for basic questions that
were used in the semi-structured interviews). Interviews were transcribed and the inter-
view transcripts were validated by the research participants prior to data analysis. Tran-
scripts were coded and then analysed using QSR International’s NVivo 8® software
programme (Doncaster, Australia). An interpretive grounded theory approach was
adopted in the coding and analysis of the interview data (Charmaz 2000; Cohen,
Manion and Morrson 2007). Participants’ descriptions of successful leadership were
coded in relation to the LCF practices and the emotional intelligence competencies
(Goleman 2000) and abilities (Mayer and Salovey 1997). A subjective decision was
made by the researcher as to whether the qualitative information aligned to specific
LCF practice(s) and/or emotional intelligence competencies or abilities. NVivo matrix
queries were conducted on the coded interview data to identify instances where emotional
intelligence abilities and/or competencies were employed in relation to the performance
of LCF practices. From these NVivo queries a mapping of the emotional intelligence
competencies and abilities exercised by the case-study participants in relation to the per-
formance of the LCF practices was generated. Scrutiny of this data resulted in the
 8 D.R. Parrish

Table 4. Demographic profile of the research participants.

Years with
Participant1 Gender Age Institution institution Current leadership role
Joanne Female 45–54 University 1 5–9 Postgraduate Coordinator
Jennifer Female 45–54 University 2 10–14 Programme and Unit
Coordinator
Jacqueline Female 45–54 University 3 10–14 Associate Dean (Teaching and
Learning)
Noreen Female 45–54 University 2 20+ Coordinator units and courses,
Associate Dean (Academic)
Ashleigh Female 35–44 University 1 10–14 None reported
Roger Male 45–54 University 1 0–4 Project Manager and Senior
Lecturer
Mackenzie Male 25–34 University 2 5–9 Curriculum Coordinator.
Faculty Unit leader
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

John Male 45–54 University 3 20+ Associate Dean (Academic),

Topic Coordinator
Simon Male 35–44 University 3 5–9 Course Coordinator, School
Higher Degree Committee
Chair. Member of school’s
Leadership group
David Male 35–44 University 2 10–14 Postgraduate Coordinator
Skye Female 25–34 University 1 5–9 Chair of a School Committee
1
The names given are pseudonyms and not the actual names of the participants.

identification of the greatest to least replication of findings across the 11 cases. The
emotional intelligence competencies and abilities that were perceived to be most relevant,
in regard to the facilitation of academic leadership, were those with the greatest replica-
tion. A similar methodological approach to this investigation of leadership in higher edu-
cation was adopted by Rantz (2002).
Five major limitations associated with this research study have been identified.
Firstly, generalisability, which is a recognised limitation of all case study research;
however, the investigation of concepts across a broad range of contexts and people
is posited as an attempt to address this limitation. Secondly, the subjectivity of the
data analysis and the source of the qualitative data is acknowledged. However, the
incorporation of more descriptive and detailed information in the examination of
emotional intelligence is proposed as a counterbalance to this limitation. A third poten-
tial limitation was the researcher, who had a well-developed understanding of and
enthusiasm for emotional intelligence. This could be a limitation if the researcher is
somewhat less objective in the collection and analysis of data because of her enthu-
siasm for the topic. Throughout this study the researcher was mindful of the potential
for bias that her role could beget and strived to ensure that she was objective at all times,
particularly in regard to data analysis. The sample size of only 11 cases can be seen as a
limitation. However, according to Yin (2003) six to 10 cases can provide compelling
support for the development of a theoretical framework. Finally, this research investi-
gation focused only on the relevance of emotional intelligence and not cognitive intel-
ligence for effective academic leadership. While it is acknowledged that both cognitive
and emotional intelligence are critical factors for effective academic leadership this
research investigation deliberately sought to only examine the relevance of emotional
intelligence for academic leadership.
 Studies in Higher Education 9

Findings
Emotional intelligence was recognised by all of the case-study participants to be highly
relevant and an important requirement for academic leadership. This was a reflection of
the literature that identified the importance of emotional intelligence for leadership in
higher education (Greenockle 2010; Herbst 2007; Herbst and Maree 2008; Scott,
Coates and Anderson 2008; Ying and Ting 2010). The general feeling expressed by
the case study participants was that leaders in higher education who possessed strong
emotional intelligence were more respected by peers, colleagues and subordinates
and performed more effectively as leaders. These leadership capabilities were seen to
be a consequence of the fact that the individual leaders would be more sensitive and
responsive to the emotional needs and actions of others. A comment articulating the
sentiments of many noted:

I would argue emotional intelligence is the most relevant thing if you want to be effective.
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

The more and the better you can understand the emotional and social interactions of
working with people then I just think the better off you’ll be. To me it is just completely
illogical to think and believe that a manager or leader in higher education could ignore the
emotional dimensions of staff interactions. (David)

The study identified emotional intelligence traits related to empathy, inspiring and guiding
others and responsibly managing oneself as most applicable for academic leadership. The
most significant emotional intelligence trait identified, by the case-study participants, as
critical to academic leadership practice was empathy. Empathy was equally, significantly
identified in the literature (Bryman 2007, 2009; Greenockle 2010; Scott, Coates and
Anderson 2008; Ying and Ting 2010) as crucial for higher education leadership. Most
commonly, empathy was explained by the case study participants as the need for
leaders to accurately identify and understand a person, their concerns, needs and abilities
and then appropriately manage the person in light of this understanding to promote pro-
ductivity and success. Comments explaining this notion included:
You need to understand how people might feel about things or you need to be able to put
yourself in their position or predict what they are going to feel. (Jennifer)

Being able to look at things from another person’s point of view and just understand it at
that emotional level what’s motivating them and why they are doing what they are doing.
(Jacqueline)

I think all that stuff about understanding where everyone else is coming from and being
able to see where people are where their strengths and weaknesses are where they’re com-
fortable, where they’re not comfortable trying to read their reactions. You know that
person is going to feel threatened by XYZ so how can I know the way they function
so how can I couch this how can I make this appealing to them what would motivate
them? (Joanne)

The second most significant emotional intelligence trait for academic leadership was
identified as the ability of leaders to inspire and guide others. This emotional intelli-
gence trait is concerned with being able to positively influence, motivate and direct
others to achieve to their full potential and thereby meet the needs of the institution
and situation or circumstance. This emotional intelligence trait has strong links with
aspects of transformational leadership namely idealised influence, inspirational motiv-
ation and individualised consideration. A number of studies have identified the impor-
tance of this emotional intelligence trait for higher education leadership, particularly in
 10 D.R. Parrish

the context of transformational leadership (Barling, Slater, and Kelloway 2000; Carter
2006; Greenockle 2010; Rantz 2002; Rowley and Sherman 2003; Scott, Coates and
Anderson 2008; Ying and Ting 2010). The manifestation of this emotional intelligence
trait in academic leadership was in regard to convincing others of the need for a shared
strategic vision/direction and effectively engaging them in recognising the role they
have in achieving this vision/direction. Comments affirming the need for leaders to
inspire and guide others to achieve a shared vision/direction included:
Having to draw people together and convince them and persuade them that it was a good
idea has actually given me a chance to quite consciously think about this idea of I’ve got a
task to do, I’ve got to get a group of people to gather around and get them on board and
thinking through that in quite a different way. There needs to be reasonably clear com-
munication about everything, people need boundaries and rules or guidelines as to
exactly what needs to be done. (John)

For me leadership is being able to look forward and to see the bigger picture and being
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

able to then lead others to where you want to go or where you think the organisation
or the department needs to go. (Mackenzie)

A good or effective leader is someone who can see where they are at, dream where they
want to be and then strive to get there. It obviously takes a lot of courage and the good
leaders are those who are constantly challenging themselves and others to pursue what
they want to do. (Roger)

The next most important emotional intelligence trait for academic leadership was ident-
ified as the ability of the leader to responsibly manage themselves. This emotional intel-
ligence trait encompassed the capacity of the leader to be able to keep disruptive
emotions and impulses under control, maintain a high standard of conduct that provides
a positive role model for others and foster relationships that are considerate and pro-
fessional in interactions with others. The conduct of the leader was a focus of numerous
discussions across the case study interviews. Specific characteristics were highlighted
as extremely important in maintaining a high standard and positive role model. This
included the leader treating staff fairly and justly; being trustworthy and honest and
ensuring deadlines and negotiated deliverables and outcomes are met. The literature
also acknowledged the importance of leaders responsibly managing themselves and
maintaining a high standard of conduct (Greenockle 2010; Rantz 2002; Rowley and
Sherman 2003; Bryman 2007, 2009; Ying and Ting 2010). Comments acknowledging
the importance of leaders responsibly managing themselves included:
If you’re going to effectively lead a team of completely different people then they have to
trust you that you have good intentions basically and that you’ll look after them. (Ashleigh)

Leaders need to be able to stay calm in the face of quite strong emotions from other
people. But I think they also need a really strong moral compass they need to be sure
that what they’re doing is ethically and morally not just defendable but what the majority
would think was the right thing to do and they have to be able to stick to that in the face of
a lot of pushing and pulling from external environments and from internal strong-willed
people. (Noreen)

Discussion
This study found that emotional intelligence traits related to empathy, inspiring and
guiding others and responsibly managing oneself were most applicable for academic
 Studies in Higher Education 11

leadership. Case study participants described ways in which these emotional intelli-
gence traits might manifest in practice in the higher education context, which further
elucidates the relevance of the traits. A synthesis of the elements of each emotional
intelligence trait – empathy, inspiring and guiding others and responsibly managing
oneself – is provided together with illustrations of how these traits might manifest in
practice.

Empathy
Empathy in relation to understanding and appreciating how others might be inspired to
perform and achieve surfaced as a critical emotional intelligence trait that had relevance
across four of the LCF practices (providing direction and/or vision; creating and foster-
ing a positive work environment; having integrity and being a role model; and commu-
nicating developments and providing feedback). This emotional intelligence trait
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

manifests in practice as leaders who in consultation with their team, negotiate realistic
and appropriate timeframes and performance goals. They ensure that each member of
their team has the necessary resources, skills and capacity to accomplish the negotiated
goals. It requires the leader to be able to accurately discern the motivations, interests,
concerns and needs of those in their team. These leaders aptly utilise the skills of indi-
viduals, identify areas where professional development is required and harness the
appropriate opportunities to engender necessary development. These leaders manage
conflict in a just, timely and fair manner and establish a work environment whereby
individuals feel safe to ask questions, are supported to express their concerns and are
encouraged to contribute to key decisions. These leaders strive to ensure that all
members of the team respect and value the contributions of others and are likewise
respected and valued for their contributions. Comments illustrating the importance of
this emotional intelligence trait with regard to how it might manifest in practice were:

The key is motivation if you can read people then you can figure out what motivates them,
what are the carrots for that person and what’s the turn off for that person and if I want
them to do something I have to appeal to their motivators so how can I do that?
What’s in it for them and what will appeal to them. (Joanne)

Being in tune with what other people are thinking and feeling and being able to predict
how they might react to a certain thing which gives you some strategies to head off
that potential issue. Like you know that person is going to feel threatened by XYZ so
how can I know the way they function so how can I couch this how can I make this appeal-
ing to them what would motivate them I’ll appeal to that instead. (Jacqueline)

When an issue flares up or a problem flares up or someone complains about something the
first thing I’m doing is asking myself, where is all this coming from? What’s really
prompting this sort of response? Is it something around lack of clarity or is it something
that’s been said or something that’s been done by somebody? Has it been my own
response that’s contributed to it? (Mackenzie)

Inspiring and guiding others

Inspiring and guiding others, which focuses on being able to positively influence,
motivate and direct others to achieve to their full potential was found to be relevant
in regard to four of the LCF practices investigated (providing direction and/or
vision; creating and fostering a positive work environment; having integrity and
 12 D.R. Parrish

being a role model; and promoting interests of the department/institution). This

emotional intelligence trait manifests in practice as leaders who regularly communicate,
reinforce and reiterate the strategic direction and associated implementation plan. These
leaders convince others of the need for the strategic direction; and they motivate, direct
and assist individuals to understand the role they have in achieving the strategic direc-
tion and executing the implementation plan. Assets for this emotional intelligence trait
are that the leader has confidence in the direction set and is resilient to setbacks and
challenges that may be encountered. Additionally, these leaders will continually
assess the relevance of the strategic direction and implementation plan to ensure its cur-
rency and identify any transformations to the direction or implementation plan that may
be warranted or needed. They are able to honestly distinguish the current status of the
strategic direction and what actions need to be managed to progress to achievement of
the strategic direction. These leaders also have a good understanding of the relationship
between the strategic direction and the institutional goals and mandates. They are able
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

to communicate this relationship and in doing so further convince others of the need for
the strategic direction. An unquestionable requirement of this capability is that the
leader has a clear understanding of the strategic direction, implementation plan and
roles and responsibilities of those engaged in the implementation plan. Comments illus-
trating the value of this emotional intelligence trait and how it might manifest in prac-
tice included:

It’s not a matter of just having a vision it is being able to convince other people of the
value of your vision. Most people are motivated by self interest and from an organis-
ational perspective if people can see from your communication of your vision how
your vision ties into their needs and interests, if you can successfully communicate the
self motivating interests of your vision and the benefits of your vision for them so that
they support and try to realise the vision then the leadership has been successful. (Roger)

Good leadership is about being able to inspire and motivate and come up with ways of
being able to facilitate a particular idea or vision that you have in mind. So in a sense tra-
velling at the head of people or some idea and being able to somehow elicit from that
group of people their skills, their abilities to be able to actually move forwards to whatever
you are working towards. I would see a leader for example walking around, spending time
with their employees or their colleagues to try and pick up what’s troubling them, what
inspires them and so on. (John)

Responsible management of self

The ability of a higher education leader to responsibly manage themselves particularly
in regard to keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under control, maintaining high
standards, providing a positive role model, and fostering professional relationships was
found to be relevant in regard to four of the LCF practices investigated (providing direc-
tion and/or vision; creating and fostering a positive work environment; having integrity
and being a role model; and communicating developments and providing feedback).
This emotional intelligence trait manifests in practice as leaders who conscientiously
manage their emotions and behaviour to create positive situations and relationships
with colleagues. These leaders appreciate and are responsive to the impact that their
actions and disposition can and do have on others and the situation. They regularly
reflect on their performance as a leader and are candid in identifying strategies that
they need to adopt to develop themselves. The crucial asset for this capability is that
the leader is honest in their assessment of themselves. Accurate self-assessment is
 Studies in Higher Education 13

the critical foundation for identifying the appropriate and responsible action needed in a
situation or interaction. This self-assessment could also be informed by peer and sub-
ordinate assessment feedback. In this research investigation, case study participants
repeatedly confirmed the benefits and importance of responsible management of self;
however, it was also acknowledged that it is a significantly lacking capability in the
higher education setting. Case-study participants described the practice of this emotion-
al intelligence trait in their own contexts in comments such as:

It’s that conscious thing about looking at a situation and going oh gee I didn’t go well
there what went wrong and how can I improve that for next time and then the next
time it does happen you actually consciously make a change to the way you react or
the way you behave. (Joanne)

I think being self aware is really important so being aware of your own emotions is really
important and how they can affect others and being I guess in someways really con-
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

sciously aware of how you are feeling so that you can be mindful of that when you are
leading others and really mindful of how those emotions might be affecting others. I
think probably what I’ve been able to do now that I wasn’t able to do before was to actu-
ally understand how my emotions can impact on others. I’ve certainly learnt and tended to
think more and respond to my own emotions and my own emotional response to things.
(Mackenzie)

I’m assuming anytime you’re leading you’re leading people so there is the potential for
misunderstandings to arise, so there’s potential for me to emotionally get triggered or
respond inappropriately to people instead of being able to perhaps see how my emotions
are affecting me and how I might be responding inappropriately. (David)

The importance for leaders to build positive relationships with others, treat staff fairly
and justly and role model appropriate behaviours and practices was also noted in regard
to the responsible management of self emotional intelligence trait. This manifests in
practice as leaders who ensure that their own deadlines, deliverables and outcomes
are met and maintain a performance standard that they expect from others. These
leaders treat others the way they would like to be treated. A critical requirement for
this is that the leader does not behave impulsively to an emotive trigger, but rather con-
templates their actions before responding, instead of acting hastily and potentially
bringing about a negative outcome.
The three emotional intelligence traits presented together with illustrations of how
they might manifest in practice are posited as a sound foundation upon which emotional
intelligence in higher education could be appreciated and developed.

Conclusion
A commonly perceived observation of academic leadership is that many leaders are
appointed because they are perceived to have excelled as an academic, often due to
research achievements, rather than because they have leadership or managerial experi-
ence or expertise (Scott, Coates and Anderson 2008; Yielder and Codling 2004).
Leaders in higher education are often assigned to leadership positions with little or
no preparatory leadership training or development and are expected to learn on the
job (Scott, Coates and Anderson 2008; Fielden 2009). In response to this, the value
of emotional intelligence informing recruitment, development, assessment and pro-
motion of academic leaders has been established (Coco 2011; Druskat, Sala and
Mount 2006; Dulewicz and Higgs 2003; Greenockle 2010; Herbst 2007; Herbst and
 14 D.R. Parrish

Maree 2008; Ying and Ting 2010; Zacarro, Kemp and Bader 2004). Further research
could seek to determine whether emotional intelligence assessments are good predic-
tors of leadership acumen and identify the potential value of these assessments being
used in the recruitment and promotion of academic leaders.
The research design and data collection for this study were primarily implemented
in Australia, an OECD member country. As such, the research outcomes are potentially
more/only valid in developed countries. Further research could explore whether
emotional intelligence is significant for academic leadership in institutions situated in
those countries that are not on the list of OECD member countries (e.g. India, Thai-
land). If emotional intelligence is found to be significant to academic leadership in
these countries, the research could then determine how the relevant emotional intelli-
gence traits might manifest in these higher education contexts.
The relationship and importance of cognitive intelligence (IQ) and emotional intel-
ligence (EQ) for leadership has been examined from a business perspective (Goleman
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

1998; Rosete and Ciarrochi 2005). However, this relationship and a position as to
which is more important – IQ or EQ – for academic leadership was not apparent in
the literature reviewed. Further research could be conducted to investigate whether
IQ or EQ is more important for academic leadership.

References
Anderson, M., and H. Coates. 2009. Balancing act: Challenges for educational leadership.
Professional Educator 8, no. 1: 32–37.
Anderson, Don, and Richard Johnson. 2006. Ideas of leadership underpinning proposals to the
Carrick Institute: A review of proposals from the ‘Leadership for Excellence in Teaching
and Learning Program’. http://www.olt.gov.au/resource-ideas-of-leadership-
underpinning-proposals-altc-2006 (accessed July 28, 2012).
Ashkanasy, N.M., and M.T. Dasborough. 2003. Emotional awareness and emotional intelli-
gence in leadership training. Journal of Education for Business 79, no. 1: 18–22.
Barling, J., F. Slater, and E.K. Kelloway. 2000. Transformational leadership and emotional
intelligence: An exploratory study. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 21,
no. 3: 157–61.
Bar-On, Reuven. 1997. The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): A test of emotional intelli-
gence. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Bryman, A. 2007. Effective leadership in higher education: A literature review. Studies in
Higher Education 32, no. 6: 693–710.
Bryman, Alan. 2009. Effective leadership in higher education: Final report. London: Research
and Development Series, Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
Carter, K. 2006. Leadership and emotional intelligence – What’s the link? Training and
Development in Australia 31, no. 1: 12–16.
Charmaz, K. 2000. Grounded theory: Objectivist and constructivist methods. In Handbook of
qualitative research, ed. N.K. Denzin and Y.S. Lincoln, 509–36. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks:
Sage.
Coates, H., and M. Anderson. 2007. Who’s leading our universities? Identifying Australia’s
higher education leaders. Professional Educator 6, no. 4: 26–31.
Coco, C.M. 2011. Emotional intelligence in higher education: Strategic implications for aca-
demic leaders. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice 11, no. 2: 112–17.
Cohen, Louis, Lawrence Manion, and Keith Morrison. 2007. Research methods in education.
6th ed. London: Routledge-Falmer.
Druskat, Vanessa, Fabio Sala, and Gerald Mount. eds. 2006. Linking emotional intelligence and
performance at work: Current research evidence with individuals and groups. Mahwah:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dulewicz, V., and M. Higgs. 2003. Leadership at the top: The need for emotional intelligence in
organizations. The International Journal of Organizational Analysis 11, no. 3: 193–210.
 Studies in Higher Education 15

Fielden, John. 2009. Mapping leadership development in higher education: A global study.
London: Research and Development Series, Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
George, J.M. 2000. Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human
Relations 53, no. 8: 1027–55.
Gibbs, Graham, Christopher Knapper, and Sergio Picinnin. 2009. Departmental leadership of
teaching in research-intensive environments. London: Research and Development Series,
Leadership Foundation for Higher Education.
Greenockle, K.M. 2010. The new face in leadership: Emotional intelligence. Quest 62, no. 3:
260–67.
Goleman, Daniel. 1995. Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Goleman, D. 1998. What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review 76, no. 6: 93–102.
Goleman, D. 2000. Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review 78, no. 2: 78–90.
Haskett, R.A., and J.P. Bean. 2005. Emotional intelligence and teaching success in higher edu-
cation. The Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education 1, no. 1: 13–22.
Herbst, H.H. 2007. The e-word in academic leadership: An investigation into the emotional
intelligence of managers in a higher education institution. South African Journal of
Higher Education 21, no. 1: 85–101.
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

Herbst, T.H., and K.G. Maree. 2008. Thinking style preference, emotional intelligence and lea-
dership effectiveness. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology 34, no. 1: 32–41.
Knight, P., and P.R. Trowler. 2000. Department-level cultures and the improvement of learning
and teaching. Studies in Higher Education 25, no. 1: 69–83.
Kouzes, Jim M. and Barry Z. Posner. 1998. Encouraging the heart. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Marshall, Stephen J. 2006. Issues in the development of leadership for learning and teaching in
higher education. http://www.olt.gov.au/resource-issues-development-leadership-learning-
macquarie-2008 (accessed May 2, 2013).
Mayer, J.D., and P. Salovey. 1997. What is emotional intelligence? In Emotional development
and emotional intelligence: Educational implications, ed. P. Salovey and D.J. Sluyter, 3–31.
New York: Basic Books.
Osseo-Asare, A.E., D. Longbottom, and W.D. Murphy. 2005. Leadership best practices for sus-
taining quality in UK higher education from the perspective of the EFQM Excellence
Model. Quality Assurance in Education 12, no. 2: 148–70.
Ramsden, Paul. 1998. Learning to lead in higher education. London: Routledge.
Rantz, R. 2002. Leading urban institutions of higher education in the new millennium.
Leadership and Organization Development Journal 23, no. 8: 456–66.
Rosete, D., and J. Ciarrochi. 2005. Emotional intelligence and its relationship to workplace per-
formance outcomes of leadership effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development
Journal 26, no. 5: 388–99.
Rowley, D.J., and H. Sherman. 2003. The special challenges of academic leadership.
Management Decision 41, no. 10: 1058–63.
Salovey, P., and J. Mayer. 1990. Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition & Personality
9: 185–211.
Scott, Geoff, Hamish Coates, and Michelle Anderson. 2008. Learning leaders in times of
change: Academic leadership capabilities for Australian higher education. http://www.
olt.gov.au/resource-academic-leadership-capacities-uws-2008 (accessed July 28, 2012).
Spendlove, M. 2007. Competencies for effective leadership in higher education. International
Journal of Educational Management 21, no. 5: 407–17.
Yielder, J., and A. Codling. 2004. Management and leadership in the contemporary university.
Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 26, no. 3: 315–28.
Yin, Robert K. 2003. Case study research: Design and methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks,
California: Sage.
Ying, Cheah Yeh, and Shirley Ken Tzu Ting. 2010. The relationship between emotional intelli-
gence and effective leadership among academic heads in higher learning educational insti-
tutions. Paper presented at the International Conference on Business and Economic
Research (ICBER 2010) March 15–16, in Sarawak, Malaysia.
Zaccaro, S.J., C. Kemp, and P. Bader. 2004. Leader traits and attributes. In The nature of leader-
ship, ed. J. Antonakis, A.T. Cainciolo and R.J. Sternberg, 101–24. California: Sage.
 16 D.R. Parrish

Appendix 1
The following questions formed the basis of the semi-structured interviews that were
conducted with the research participants to investigate the relevance of emotional intelligence
for leadership practice in higher education.
What do you think good leadership is?

What do you think effective leadership is?

What things do you value in a leader?

Can you give an example of good or effective leadership?

How would you differentiate leadership from management?

How do you perceive leadership in higher education?

Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014

What particular aspects or activities have contributed to your view of leadership in higher
education?

Where do you think leadership fits into higher education?

How do you see the ethical role of a leader? (e.g. authenticity, empathy, integrity, concept of
sharing)

What do you understand emotional intelligence to mean in practice?

How do you think emotional intelligence plays out in your institutional context?

Can you give examples of someone who has shown great emotional intelligence? And how they
demonstrated this emotional intelligence?

What emotional qualities do you think it’s important for leaders to have?

Why do you think it’s important for leaders to have these emotional qualities?

Do you think leadership can be developed?

What do you understand leadership capacity to be?

Participants were asked to describe a critical incident they had encountered in leading their
action learning project. The following questions were in regard to this incident.
How did you manage this incident?

How did you display leadership in this situation?

In what ways might you have managed this incident differently?

What things have contributed to your development of leadership strategies for managing
situations such as this?

Did you use emotional intelligence in managing this incident?

In what ways did you or could you have engaged emotional intelligence in managing this
situation?

Did the [Research] Project assist you in developing leadership or emotional intelligence
strategies that you exercised in this situation? If so can you provide details of this?
 Studies in Higher Education 17

Do you think emotional intelligence competencies are relevant for leadership in higher
education? Why/why not?

Have you used emotional intelligence in your leadership in a higher education context?

In what ways did you or could you have used emotional intelligence in your leadership in a
higher education context?
Downloaded by [University Library Utrecht] at 22:16 11 June 2014