Ethiopian civil service

university
Highway Engineering

Chapter Two
Stress in Pavements
Stress in pavements
2.1. Stress in flexible pavements
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass
2.1.2 Stress in a layered system
2.2 . Stress in rigid pavements
2.2.1 Stress due to vehicle loading
2.2.2 Stress due to curling
2.2.3 Stress due to friction

2
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass
 The response of a pavement structure to traffic
loading is mechanistically modeled by computing
stresses and strains within its layers.
 Excessive stresses may cause fatigue cracking
and/or surface rutting , finally it may led both
structural and functional failure.
 These failure distresses are minimized by use of
effective balanced pavement designs.

3
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)
Although pavement structures are layered structures,
we start with a discussion of the stresses in a
homogeneous half space.
Originally Boussinesq developed his equations for a
point load but later on the equations were extended for
circular wheel loads.
If the modulus ratio between the pavement and the
subgrade is close to unity the Boussinesq theory can be
applied to determine the stresses, strains and deflection
in the subgrade.

4
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)
 The half space has an elastic modulus E and a
Poisson ratio v.
 A small cylindrical element with a center at a
distance z below the surface and r from the axis of
symmetry is shown.
 Due to axisymmetry, there are only three normal
stresses, σz, σr, σt, and one shear stress, τrz, which is
equal to τzr. These stresses are functions of q, r/a,
and z/a.

5
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (cont’d)
Figure 2-1
Homogeneous half space
subjected to a circular load with a
radius a and a uniform pressure q.

6
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)
Foster and Ahlvin has developed charts as provided
here from Figure 2-2 to Figure 2-6 (assuming the half
space is incompressible with a Poisson ratio of 0.5.) for
determining
 Vertical stress σz,
 Radial stress σr,
 Tangential stress σt,
 Shear stress τrz, and
 Vertical deflection w.

7
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

Figure 2-2:Vertical
stress due to circular
loading (Foster and
Ahlvin, 1954)

8
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

Figure 2-3: Radial

stress due to circular
loading (Foster and
Ahlvin, 1954)

9
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

Figure 2-4: Tangential stress due to circular loading (Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

10
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

Figure 2-5: Shear stress

due to circular loading
(Foster and Ahlvin, 1954)

11
 2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

Figure 2-6:
Vertical
deflection due to
circular loading
(Foster and Ahlvin,
1954)

12
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

After the stresses are obtained from charts, the strains can be
computed from

13
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)
 If the contact area consists of two circles, the
stresses and strains can be computed by
superposition.
 When the wheel load is applied over a single
contact area, the most critical stress, strain,
and deflection occur under the center of the
circular area on the axis of symmetry, where
τrz=0 and σt= σr, so σz and σt are the principal
stresses.

14
Example 2.1
The figure below shows A homogenous half space
subjected to the circular load each 25.4cm in diameter and
spaced at 50.8cm on cenetrers. The pressure on the circuar
area is 345kpa. The half space hace elastic modulus 69mpa
and poisson ratio 0.5. determine the vertical stress, strain
and defelaction at point A, which is located 25.4cm below
the center of one circle.
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)
The stresses, strain, and deflection on the axis of symmetry
of a wheel load applied to a pavement (similar to a load applied
to flexible plate) with radius a and a uniform pressure q, can
be computed by:
Eq 2.2

Eq 2.3

Eq 2.4

Eq 2.5

Eq 2.6

16
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

• When v=0.5, the deflection equation is simplified to:

Eq 2.7

• On the surface of the loaded half space, z=0, the deflection

is
Eq 2.8

17
Example 2.2
For the same arrangement as the previous example except
that only the left leading area exists and the poison’s ratio is
0.3 determine the stresses, strains & deflection at A.
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

 If the load is applied on a rigid plate such as that

used in plate loading test, the deflection is the same at
all points on the plate, but the pressure distribution
under the plate is not uniform and is expressed as:
Eq 2.9

Where
r = the distance from the center point where the pressure is to
be determined and
q= the average pressure which is equal to the load
divided by the area.
19
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

 Figure 2-7. Differences between flexible and rigid plates

20
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)
The smallest pressure is at the center and equals to
one half of the average pressure. The pressure at the
edge is infinity. The deflection of the rigid plate is given
by: Eq 2.10

All the above analysis is based on the assumption that

the flexible pavement is homogeneous, isotropic and
semi-infinite.
21
2.1.1 Stress in homogeneous mass (Cont’d)

 With these assumptions, Bousinesq theory has the

following drawbacks:
 Flexible pavements are multilayered structures with
each layer having its own modulus of elasticity.
 The pavement layer and the subgrade soil are not
perfectly elastic.
 The assumption that the load is uniformly
distributed may not be true.

22
Example 2.3
A plate-leading test using a plate of 30.5cm diameter was
performed on the surface of the sub-grade. A total lead of
35.6 KN was applied & a deflection of 2.54cm was
measured. Assuming that the sub-grade has a poison’s ration
of 0.3, determine the elastic modulus of the sub grade.

30.5mm

35.6 KN

2.54 cm
2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems
 In actual case, flexible pavements are layered systems
with better materials on the top and cannot be
represented by a homogeneous mass.
 Various multilayer theories for estimating stresses and
deflection have been proposed.
 However, basic theories that utilize assumptions close
to actual conditions in flexible pavement are those
proposed by Burmister.

24
2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems(cont’d)
Burmister first developed solutions for two-layer
system and then extended them to a three-layer system
with the following assumptions:
 Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic and linearly
elastic with elastic modulus E, and Poisson’s ratio v.
 The material is weightless and infinite in lateral
directions, but of finite depth, h, whereas the
underlying layer is infinite in both the horizontal
and vertical directions.
 A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface over a
circular area of radius a. 25
2.1.2 Stresses in Layered Systems(cont’d)
The layers are in continuous contact and continuity
conditions are satisfied at the layer interfaces, as
indicated by the same vertical stresses, shear stresses,
vertical displacement and radial displacement.
For frictionless interface, the continuity of shear
stress and radial displacement is replaced by zero shear
stress at each side of the interface.

26
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
The exact case of a two layer system is the full depth
asphalt pavement construction in which a thick layer of
hot-mix asphalt is placed directly on the subgrade.
If the pavement is composed of three layers (e.g.,
surface course, base course and subgrade) the stresses
and strains in the surface layer can be computed by
combining the base course and the subgrade into a
single layer.
Similarly the stresses and strains in the subgrade
can be computed by combining the surface course
and the base course.
27
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Vertical Stress: - the stresses in a two layer system
depends on modulus ratio E1/E2 and the thickness radius
ratio h1/a.
•Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on the
distribution of vertical stress under the center of the circular
loaded area when h1/a = 1 and v = 0.5.

•Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement thickness and

modulus ratio on vertical stresses, σc, at the pavement-
subgrade interface.

28
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Figure 2-8 shows the effect of pavement layer on the distribution
of vertical stress under the center of the circular loaded area when
h1/a = 1 and v = 0.5.

29
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Figure 2-9 shows the effect of pavement thickness and modulus ratio on
vertical stresses, σc, at the pavement-subgrade interface.

30
Example 2.4
A circular load with a radius of 15.2cm and a uniform pressure of
552KPa is applied on a two-layer system. The subgrade has an
elastic modulus of 35MPa and can support a maximum vertical
stress of 55KPa. If the HMA has an elastic modulus of 3.45GPa,
what is the required thickness of a full-depth pavement? If a thin
surface treatment in applied on a granular base with an elastic
modulus of173MPa, what is the thickness of the base course
required?
12.5 cm

552 Kpa

E1= 3.45Gpa 55 Kpa

E2= 35Mpa
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Deflection: - Surface and interface deflection have
been used as criteria for pavement design.
Vertical surface deflection have been used as a
criterion of pavement design. The surface deflection
under a uniformly circular loaded area is given in terms
of the defection factor F2 (Figure 2-10) as:

Eq 2.11

•F2 is a function of E1/E2 and h1/a, For

homogeneous half space with h1/a= 0, F2=1 and V =
0.5, and load is applied on rigid plate so the equation
for wo becomes: Eq 2.12
32
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)

• The interface deflection between the two layers is also

used as a criterion of pavement design and expressed in
terms of deflection factor F (Figure 2-11 & 2-12) as:
Eq 2.13

33
 Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Figure 2-10:
Vertical surface defl’n
factor for two layer
system. (Burmister,
1943)

34
 Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Figure 2-11:
Vertical interface
deflection factor for
two layer system,
E1/E2=10 and
E1/E2=25 (Haung,
1969)

35
 Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
Figure 2-12:
Vertical interface
deflection factor for
two layer system,
E1/E2=50 and
E1/E2=100. (Haung,
1969)

36
Example 2.5
A total load of 89KN was applied on the surface of a two-
layer system through a rigid plate 30.5cm in diameter. Layer
1 has a thickness of 20.3cm and layer 2 has an elastic
modulus of 44.2Mpa. Both layers are incompressible with
Poisson ratio of 0.5. If the deflection of the plate is
2.54mm, determine the elastic modulus of layer 1.
30.5cm
89 KN
2.54cm

20.3cm

44.2 Mpa
Example 2.6
 The figure below shows a set of dual tires, each having a
contact radius of 11.5m and a contact pressure of 483 Kpa.
The center-to-center spacing of the dual is 34.5m. Layer 1
has a thickness of 15.2cm and an elastic modulus of
700Mpa and layer 2 has an elastic modulus of 70Mpa.
Determine the vertical deflection at point A, which is on the
interface beneath the center of one loaded area.
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)

Critical tensile strain: - The tensile strains at the bottom of the

asphalt layer have been used as design criteria to prevent fatigue
cracking.
The critical strain at the bottom of the first layer can be
computed from strain factor Fe (Figure 2-13) as:
Eq 2.14

The critical tensile strain under dual wheels or dual-tandem

wheels can be calculated from the same equation by correcting the
strain factor.

39
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)

Figure 2-13: Strain factor in

two layer systems for single
wheel. (Haung, 1973)

40
Example 2.7
The following figure shows a full depth asphalt pavement
thick subjected to a single wheel load of 40 KN having
contact pressure 467kpa. If the elastic modulus of the
asphalt layer is 1.04Gpa and that of the subgrade is 104mpa.
Determine the critical tensile strain in the asphalt layer.
40 KN

467 KN

1.04 Gpa 20cm

104 Mpa
Two-Layer Systems (cont’d)
 In most cases, the critical tensile strain occurs under
the center of the loaded area, where the shear stress
is zero . However, when both h1/a and E1/E2 are small,
the critical tensile strain occurs at some distance from
the center, as the pre -dominant effect of the shear
stress.
 Under such situations, the principal tensile strain is at the
radial distances 0, 0.5a, a, and 1.5a from the center were
computed, and the critical value was obtained

42
Three-Layer Systems
The three layer systems can be conceived as follows:
1. Top layer, representing all bituminous layers taken
together.
2. Middle layer, representing the unbounded base and
subbase courses and
3. Third layer, representing the subgrade.

43
 Three-Layer Systems (cont’d)

Figure 2-14 shows

a three-layer system
and the stress at the
interfaces of the axis
of symmetry.

44
Three-Layer Systems (cont’d)
At the axis of symmetry, tangential and radial stresses
are identical, σt= σr, and shear stress is equal to zero, τ
= 0.
Jones has developed a series of tables for determining
stresses in a three layer system for the following
dimensionless parameters:
Eq 2.15

45
Three-Layer Systems (cont’d)

Parts of Jones’s table is presented in Table 2-1, from which four

sets of stress factors, ZZ1, ZZ2, ZZ1-RR1, ZZ2-RR2, can be
obtained. The product of these factors and the contact pressure
gives the stresses as:

Eq 2.16

46
47
48
Three-Layer Systems (cont’d)
 From the continuity of horizontal displacements at the
interfaces, σ’r1 and σ’r2 can be computed from:

Eq 2.17

49
Three-Layer Systems (cont’d)

Once the stresses at the interface are calculated, strains can be

computed as:
For Vertical strains Eq 2 .18
{Bottom of Layer 1}

{Top of Layer – 2} Eq 2.19

For radial strains

{Bottom of Layer – 1} Eq 2.20

{Top of Layer – 2} Eq 2.21

50
Example 8
For the three-layer system shown in the figure below with a
= 12.2cm, q = 900Kpa, h1 = 15.2cm, h2 = 15.2cm, E1 =
2.8Gpa, E2 = 138Mpa, and E3 = 69Mpa, determine all the
stresses and strains at the two interfaces on the axis of
symmetry.
12.2 cm

q=

2.8 Gpa 15.2 cm

15.2 cm
138 Mpa
69 Mpa
 Stresses in
Rigid Pavements

52
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements
 The most important sources of stresses in rigid pavements are:
 Vehicle loads,

 Changes in temperature of the slab, and

 Friction between the slab and the subgrade or base course.

 These factors tend to result in deformations of the concrete

slab, which cause tensile, compression, and flexural
stresses of varying magnitude.
 The temperature and moisture gradients causes Curling
and the traffic loading cause Corner, edge, and interior
slab stresses.
 Also the friction between slab and foundation causes due to
drying shrinkage, thermal heating and cooling, and foundation
movement.
53
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
1. Stresses due to vehicle loading
Three methods can generally be used to determine
stresses and deflections in concrete pavements due
to vehicle loading:
 Westergaard’s formulas
 Influence charts
 Finite element analysis
Westergaard’s formulas derived to examine three
condition of loading: corner loading, interior loading
and edge loading far away from any corner are
described.

54
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Westergaard’s assumptions
i. The concrete slab acts as homogenous, isotropic and
elastic solid in equilibrium
ii. The reactions of the subgrade are vertical only and
they are proportional to the deflection of the slab.
iii. The thickness of the concrete slab is uniform.
iv. The load at the interior and corner is distributed
uniformly over a circular contact area and the
circumference of the contact area at the corner is tangent
to the edge of the slab.
v. The edge loading is distributed uniformly over a
semi-circular area, the diameter of the semi-circle
being at the edge of the slab.
55
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 Corner Loading: when a circular load is applied near the corner of
the concrete slab, the stress, c, and the deflection, c, at the corner
are given by:

Eq 2.22 Eq 2.23

 Where P is the load,

k is the modulus of the subgrade reaction,
h is the thickness of the concrete slab,
a is the contact radius, and
l is the radius of relative stiffness defined as:
In which E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete, v is
Poisson ratio of concrete.
Eq 2.24

56
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)

Fig 2.15. A slab subjected to corner load

57
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)

 The results obtained by applying the finite element method

of analysis are:

Eq 2.25 Eq 2.26

 Where c is the side length of a square contact area . If a

load is applied over a circular area, the value of c must be
selected so that the square and the circle have the same
contact area: so that c=1.772a.

58
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 Modulus of subgrade reaction, k, is the constant in a classic
works rigid pavement and is defined as:

Where p is the reactive pressure (determined by means of plate

loading test) and ∆ is the deflection of the slab.

59
Example 2.9
The following shows a concrete slab subjected to a corner loading .The
modulus of elasticity of subgrade is Given 27 .2 MN/m3 , the thickness of
concrete is 254 mm , the applied load is 44.5 kN over circularradius of
15.2cm. Determine the maximum stress and deflection due to corner loading.
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Interior loading: The stress due to the interior circular
loading of radius a is given as:
Eq 2.27

In which l is the radius of relative stiffness and

Eq 2.28

The deflection due to interior loading is

Eq 2.29

61
Example 10
Same as Example 2.2 except that the load is applied in the
interior, as shown in the next Determine the maximum stress and
deflection due to interior loading.
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Edge loading: The stresses & deflection due to edge
loading as formulated by Westergaard are:
 For circular contact area
Eq 2.30

Eq 2.31

 For semicircular contact area

Eq 2.32

63
Example 2.11
Same as Example 2.2, except that the load is applied to the slab
edge, as shown in the next Figure. Determine the maximum stress
and deflection under both circular and semicircular loaded areas.
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
When a load is applied over a set of dual tyres, the equation can
be used after converting the contact area of the dual tyres into a
radius, a of equivalent circular contact area as:

Eq 2.33
Where
Pd is the load on dual tyres
q is the contact pressure
Sd is the spacing of the tyres

65
Example 2.12
Using Westergaard's formulas, determine the maximum stress in
Examples 2.9, 2 .10, and 2.11 if the 44.5-kN load is applied on a
set of duals spaced at 35.6 cm on centers, as shown in the next
Figure, instead of 15.2 cm circular area curling stress in the interior
and at the edge of the slab shown in the fig
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
2. Curling stress
 A change in temperature through the slab causes differential
expansion or contraction between the top and bottom which
results curling of the slab upward and downward.
 The weight of the slab restrains the slab from curling
upward and downward. Consequently, stresses known as
curling or wrapping stresses develop in the slab.
 During the day, when the temperature at the top of the slab is
greater than that of the bottom, the top tends to expand with
respect to the neutral axis while the bottom tends to contract.

67
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 Because the weight of the slab restrains the downward curling,
compressive and tensile stresses are induced at the top and
bottom of the slab respectively.
 At night, when the temperature at the top is lower than that of
the bottom of the slab, the effect is reversed.

Fig 2.16

68
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 Another explanation of curling stress can be made in
terms of the theory of a plate on a Winkler, or liquid
foundation. A Winkler foundation is characterized by a
series of springs attached to the plate, as shown in Figure
below
figure 2.17
Curling of slab due to
temperature gradient .

69
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Bending of Infinite Plate
 The difference between a beam and a plate is that the beam is
stressed in only one direction, the plate in two directions.
 Hook’s law:

 Generalization of Hook’s law

z
= + +
x
y
= + +

Fig 2.18

70
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 For stresses in two directions, the strain in x direction
can be determined by the generalized Hooke's law.
Eq 2.34

In which E is the elastic modulus of concrete.

The first term on the right side of the above equation
indicates the strain in the x direction caused by stress in the
x direction ; the second term indicates the strain in the x
direction caused by stress in the y direction . Similarly,
Eq 2.35

71
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 When the plate is bent in the x direction, εy= 0, because the
plate is so wide and well restrained that no strain should ever
occur unless near the very edge. Setting the above Eqn. to 0
yields
Substituting these and solving for σx gives
Eq 2.36

Eq 2.37
(the stress in the bending direction )

Eq 2.38 (The stress in the perpendicular direction of bending)

 When bending occurs in both directions as in the case of

temperature curling, the stresses in both directions must be
superimposed.

72
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Let ∆t represent differential between the top and bottom of the
slab and αt represents the coefficient of thermal expansion
of concrete.
FIG 2.19
Temperature gradient in
concrete slab .

73
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)

If the slab is free to move and the temperature at the

top is greater than that at the bottom, the top will
expand by a strain of (αt ∆t /2) and the bottom will
contract by the same strain, as in Fig.
If the slab is completely restrained and prevented from
moving, compressive strain will result at the top and a
tensile strain at the bottom . The maximum strain is

Eq 2.39

74
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 Therefore the stress in the x direction due to bending in
the x direction and also the stress in the y direction due to
bending in the y direction , is
Eq 2.40

 The stress in the x direction due to bending in the y

direction is

Eq 2.41

 The total stress is the sum of these two eqn:

Eq 2.42

75
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
The preceding analysis is based on the assumption that
the temperature distribution is linear throughout the
depth of the slab . This is an approximation, because
the actual temperature distribution is nonlinear.
 Curling Stresses in Finite Slab
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 The fig shows below a finite slab with lengths Lx in the x
direction and Ly in the y direction .
Eq 2.43

 Where Cx and Cy are correction factor for finite slab in the x & y
direction. Similarly, the stress in the y direction is:

Eq 2.44

77
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Bradbury (1938) developed a simple chart for determining
Cx and Cy , as shown in Figure . The correction factor Cx
depends on Lx /l and Ly/l in the respective directions.
 Where l is the radius of relative stiffness, defined as:

Eq 2.45

Where E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete, h is the

thickness of the slab, v is Poisson ratio of concrete, and k is
the modulus of subgrade reaction.

78
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)

Fig 2.20
Stress correction
factor for finite slab

79
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
• In the above equations, the computed stresses are the maximum
interior stresses at the center of the slab.
• The edge stress at the mid span of the slab can be determined
from:
Eq 2.46

• in which σ may be σx or σy depending on whether C is Cx or Cy.

Note that this Eqn is the same as interior stress when the Poisson
ratio at the edge is taken as 0.

80
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)

Unless actual field measurements are made, it is

reasonable to assume a maximum gradient of
0.055oC/mm to 0.077oC/mm during the day and about
half values at night.
Stresses due to curling may be quite large and
cause concrete to crack when combined with loading
stresses. However, they are not usually considered in the
thickness design of pavement slab.

81
 Example 2.13
Determine the maximum curling stress in the interior and at the
edge of the slab shown in the next figure.
= 7.62 m

5*10 -6 mN/mm/ 0 C
20 0F= 11.1 0 C
54.2 mN/m2
= 20.3 c m
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
3. Stresses due to Friction
 The friction between a concrete slab and its foundation
causes tensile stress in the concrete, in the steel
reinforcements, if any and in the tie bars. It is the criteria for
 The spacing of plain concrete contraction joints
 Steel reinforcement for long spaced concrete pavements
 The number of tie bars required.

Fig. 2. 21
Arrangement of Steel
and joints in rigid
pavements

83
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
The volume change caused by the variation of temperature
and moisture has two important effects on concrete:
 Induces tensile stresses and causes the concrete to crack
 Causes the joints to open and decrease the efficiency of
load transfer.
The figure on the next slide shows a concrete pavement
subjected to a decrease in temperature.
Due to symmetry, the slab tends to move from both ends
towards the center, but the subgrade prevents it from moving;
thus, frictional stresses are developed between the slab and the
subgrade.
84
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 The amount of friction depends on the relative
movement, being zero at the center where no
movement occurs and maximum at some distance
from the center where the movement is fully
mobilized.
Fig 2.22
Stresses due to friction

85
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 The tensile stress in concrete is greatest at the center and
can be determined by equating frictional force per unit
width of the slab to the tensile stress as:
Where:
σc = stress in the concrete
γc = unit weight of concrete
Eq 2.47
L = length of the slab
fa = average coefficient of friction
between the slab and the subgrade,
usually taken 1.5.

86
Example 2.14
Given a concrete pavement with a joint spacing of 7 .6 m
and a coefficient of friction of1 .5, as shown in the Figure
below, determine the stress in concrete due to friction.
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Joint Opening: The spacing of joints in plain concrete
pavement depends more on the shrinkage characteristics of the
concrete than on the stress in the concrete.
• Longer joint spacing causes the joint to open wider and
decreases the efficiency of load transfer. The opening of the
joint can be determined approximately by:
Eq 2.48

Where
 ∆L = joint spacing caused by temperature change and drying shrinkage of
concrete,
αt = coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete, generally 9 to 10.8x10-6
/ oC,
ε = drying shrinkage coefficient of concrete, approximately 0.5 to 2.5x104
L = joint spacing or slab length,
 ∆T = change in temperature,
C = adjustment factor for friction layers, 0.65 for stabilized and 0.8 for
granular base. 88
Example 2.15
Given AT = 60°F (33°C), at = 5.5 x 106/°F (9.9 x 10_
S/°C), e = 1.0 X 10-4 , C = 0.65, and the allowable joint
openings for undoweled and doweled joints are 1 .3 and 6 .4
mm, respectively, determine the maximum allowable joint
spacing .
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
Steel Stress:
 Steel is used in concrete pavements as reinforcements, tie
bars, and dowel bars .The design of longitudinal and
transverse reinforcements and the tie bars across longitudinal
joints are determined based on the stresses due to friction
assuming that tensile stresses are taken by steel alone.
 Reinforcements: Wire fabric or bar mats are used to increase
the joint spacing and to tie the cracked concrete together
and maintain load transfer through aggregate interlock, but
not to increase the structural capacity of the slab. but are used
for two purposes : to increase the joint spacing and to tie
the cracked concrete together and maintain load transfers
through aggregate interlock.
90
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
The design of longitudinal and transverse reinforcements
are calculated by assuming that all tensile stresses are taken by
the steel alone, so σch must be replaced by Asfs , Therefore :
Where
 As = the area of steel required per width
 fs = allowable stress in steel
Eq 2.49

The steel is usually placed at the mid depth and discontinued

at joints. However, in actual practice the same amount of steel
is used throughout the length of the slab.
91
Example 2.16
Determine the wire fabric required for a two-lane concrete pavement, 20.3 cm
thick18.3 m long, and 7 .3 m wide, with a longitudinal joint at the center, as
shown in the Figure below.

18.3 m 7.3 m

20.3 cm
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)
 Tie bars: are place along the longitudinal joint to tie the two
slabs together so that the joints will be tightly closed and the
load transfer across the joints can be ensured.
 The amount of steel required for the tie bars can be determined
as:
Eq 2.50

Where:
As = the area of steel required per length
L’ = the distance from the longitudinal joints to the free edges
where no bars exist.

93
2.2. Stresses in Rigid Pavements (cont’d)

For two or three-lane highways, L’ is the lane width. If tie

bars are used in all three longitudinal joints of four-lane
highways, L’ is equal to the lane width for the outer joints and
twice the lane width for the inner joints.
The length of the tie bars is governed by the allowable bond
stress.

94