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Advanced Topics in Autonomous Robotics

Chapter 10
Linear control of manipulators

Instructor : Dr. Raouf Fareh

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Outline

1. Introduction to control systems

2. PID control

3. Computed torque control

4. Fractional order PID control

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System overview: Tracking control

Desired workspace
Real Workspace
trajectory
trajectory
𝑥! 𝑦! 𝑧!
x𝑦𝑧
Inverse
Kinematics Forward
Kinematics

Joint space 𝜃! 𝜃̇! 𝜃̈! 𝑒 𝜏

Robot 𝜃 𝜃̇
Controller
desired manipulator
trajectory

The Objective is to design a controller to ensure a good tracking in joint space and workspace
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Introduction to control systems

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Introduction to control systems

v In control systems, we aim to manage a device or process's operation to achieve desired
outcomes. We do this by continuously measuring the system's output, comparing it with
our target, and adjusting inputs to minimize any differences. This process ensures stable
and efficient performance, crucial in robotics, machines, and various automated systems.

v A key feature of control systems is the feedback loop. It involves taking the output and
feeding it back into the system as input. This loop helps in self-correction and maintaining
the system's stability, ensuring it consistently achieves the set goals even in the presence of
disturbances or changes.

v Controllers aim to minimize tracking errors, counteract disturbances, and filter out noise,
ensuring precise alignment with desired paths or values.
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PID Controller
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PID Controllers
l This note examines a particular control structure that has become almost
universally used in industrial control.

l It is based on a particular fixed structure controller family, the so-called PID

controller family.

l These controllers have proven to be robust and extremely beneficial in the

control of many important applications.

l PID stands for:

– P (Proportional)

– I (Integral)

– D (Derivative)
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PID Controllers
• Four modes of control commonly used for most
applications are:
– Proportional (P)

– Proportional Integral (PI)

– Proportional Derivative (PD)

– Proportional Integral Derivative (PID)

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PID Controllers
We assume that the PID controller is placed in a closed-loop unity feedback system
as shown in figure below. The variable e(t) denotes the joint space tracking error,
which is sent to the PID controller.

Desired PID 𝜏 Robot Real

Trajectories Trajectories
𝑞! ; 𝑞̇ ! ; 𝑞̈ ! Controller Manipulator 𝑞; 𝑞̇

The control signal 𝜏(t) from the controller to the robot is equal to:
𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝜏 𝑠 = 𝐾! 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾" / 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾#
𝑑𝑡

Using Laplace transform, the Transfer function of the PID is

𝑇𝑎𝑢(𝑠) 𝐾"
𝐶 𝑠 = = 𝐾! + + 𝐾# 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠
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PID Controllers
How do the PID parameters affect system dynamics?
𝜏(𝑠)

The effects of increasing each of the PID controller parameters 𝐾! , 𝐾" , and 𝐾# are
summarized in table below

NT: No definite trend. Minor change.

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Fractional Order PID Controller

(FOPID)
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Limitations of Standard PID Controllers

The standard PID suffers from some limitations, such as:

v Struggle with Non-linearity: Less effective in systems with unpredictable behaviors.
v Fixed Dynamics Challenge: Can't adapt to changes in system dynamics over time.
v Noise Sensitivity: The derivative component is vulnerable to noise, potentially causing
instability.
v Tuning Complexities: Achieving optimal parameters for complex systems is often
challenging.
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Fundamentals of Fractional Calculus

v Introduction: Fractional calculus is a branch of mathematical analysis that extends the
concept of derivatives and integrals to non-integer orders. It offers a more general
framework for understanding dynamic processes.
v Historical Insight: The idea dates back to Leibniz and has evolved through
contributions by mathematicians like Riemann and Liouville. Though it has centuries-old
roots, its practical applications in control systems and other fields have gained
momentum only in recent decades.
v Core Principle: At its heart, fractional calculus deals with the concept of Dα, where D
represents differentiation or integration and α is a real number (fractional order: like 0.2;
0.5,…). This allows for a continuous spectrum of operations, bridging the gap between
integer orders (1, 2, ..).
v Significance in Control Systems: The ability of fractional calculus to model systems
with memory properties makes it invaluable in control engineering. It provides tools for
designing controllers that can handle complex, non-linear dynamics more effectively
than traditional integer-order models.
v The Conceptual Leap: By extending the mathematical toolbox beyond integers,
fractional calculus enables a deeper understanding and control of systems that exhibit
complex behaviors. This includes processes with fractal characteristics or those that
cannot be neatly categorized into classical dynamical models.
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Fractional Order PID Controllers: The Concept

v Extension of Classic PID: Begin by reiterating that Fractional Order PID Controllers
(FOPID or 𝑃𝐼 ! 𝐷 " ) extend the traditional PID model by introducing fractional powers to
the integral and derivative terms. This adjustment provides a higher degree of flexibility
in controller design.

v Mathematical Formulation: Present the mathematical formula of a FOPID controller:

𝜏 = 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾$ 𝐷 %! 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝐷 " 𝑒; where 𝐾# , 𝐾$ and 𝐾& are the proportional, integral, and
derivative gains respectively, and λ and μ represent the fractional orders of the integral
and derivative terms. This formula showcases the controller's ability to handle more
complex dynamics than its integer-order counterparts.

𝑞& , 𝑞̇ & 𝑒 𝑞, 𝑞̇ 𝑞& , 𝑞̇ & 𝑒 𝑞, 𝑞̇

𝜏 𝜏
PID Robot FOPID Robot

𝑑𝑒 𝜏 = 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾$ 𝐷 %! 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝐷 " 𝑒
𝜏 = 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾$ 2 𝑒𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾&
𝑑𝑡
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Fractional Order PID Controllers: The Concept

v Key Advantages: Emphasize the significant benefits of incorporating fractional calculus
into PID controllers, such as enhanced robustness to changes in system dynamics,
improved control precision, and the ability to fine-tune the controller's response to a
specific process or system behavior.

v Control Flexibility: Highlight the concept of "tuning flexibility" that comes with FOPID
controllers. The fractional orders λ and μ add two more tuning parameters to the
traditional PID, allowing for a much more nuanced control strategy that can be tailored to
the specific needs of a wide range of systems, from highly oscillatory systems to those
with long time delays.

v Real-World Implications: Discuss the implications of fractional order control in real-

world applications. For example, in systems where the process dynamics are not well
understood or are subject to change, FOPID controllers can adapt more effectively than
traditional PIDs, maintaining system stability and performance.
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Fractional Order PID Controllers: The Concept

Transfer function
𝑞& , 𝑞̇ & 𝑒 𝑞, 𝑞̇ 𝑞& , 𝑞̇ & 𝑒 𝑞, 𝑞̇
𝜏 𝜏
PID Robot FOPID Robot

𝑑𝑒
𝜏 = 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾$ 2 𝑒𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾& 𝜏 = 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾$ 𝐷 %! 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝐷 " 𝑒
𝑑𝑡

𝑇(𝑠) 𝐾$ 𝑇(𝑠) 𝐾$
𝐶 𝑠 = = 𝐾# + + 𝐾& 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠 = = 𝐾# + ! + 𝐾& 𝑠 "
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠 𝐸(𝑠) 𝑠
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Computed Torque Control

v One of the most common controllers in robotics is a computed torque controller, also known
as inverse dynamics.
v The preceding controller is based on the feedback linearization principle which is an
approach that maps a nonlinear model into a linear one and treats it as such as we will show
momentarily. Consequently, one can utilize linear controllers such as PD and PID controllers
to control nonlinear systems.
v For example, the dynamics equation of a robot is usually represented as follows,

where 𝑞,𝑀(⋅),𝐶(⋅),𝐺(⋅) and 𝜏 are a set of generalized coordinates, the inertia matrix, the
Coriolis/Centripetal vector, the gravity vector and the control input, respectively.

v One of many goals of a control engineer is to choose the control input 𝜏 so that the robot
should follow a desired trajectory (i.e. denoted as 𝑞𝑑𝑒s or 𝑞𝑑 for short). The
aforementioned equation can be rewritten as

where Λ depends on the chosen controller

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Computed Torque Control

Consequently, this make the robot behave as the following linear system 𝑞̈ = 𝑞̈ &

Defining Λ as follows 𝑒 = 𝑞& − 𝑞

v So, the compted torque control law, can be written as follows:

𝜏 = 𝑀 𝑞 𝑞̈ & + 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝑒̇ + 𝐶 𝑞, 𝑞̇ + 𝐺(𝑞)

v As the dynamic model is given by

Ø The error dynamic is always deduced by inserting the control law in the dynamic model

𝑀 𝑞 𝑞̈ & + 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝑒̇ + 𝐶 𝑞, 𝑞̇ + 𝐺(𝑞)

After simplification, the roor dynamics is

𝑞̈ & − 𝑞̈ + 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝑒̇ = 0 ↔ 𝒆̈ + 𝑲𝒑 𝒆 + 𝑲𝒅 𝒆̇ = 𝟎
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Computed Torque Control

Stability of the error dynamics

Given the error dynamics: 𝑒̈ + 𝐾# 𝑒 + 𝐾& 𝑒̇ = 0

Define the following state variables: 𝑥) = 𝑒 and 𝑥* = 𝑒̇

𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥̇ ) = 𝑥* 𝑥̇ ) 0 1 𝑥)
C𝑥 = 𝑒̇ C𝑥̇ = 𝑒̈ = −𝐾 𝑒 − 𝐾 𝑒̇ = −𝐾 𝑥 − 𝐾 𝑥 = −𝐾 −𝐾& 𝑥*
* * # & # ) & *
𝑥̇ * #

Finally, the error dynamics can be written as

0 1 𝑥)
𝑋̇ = −𝐾 −𝐾& 𝑋 where 𝑋 = 𝑥
# *

+
The characteristic equation of this eroor dynamics is given as follows:

det 𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 * + 𝐾& s + 𝐾# = 0

It is clear that the error dynamics satisfies the exponential stability for any positive gains 𝐾#
and 𝐾& , and consequently the error converges to the equilibrium point (i.e., qdes→ q).
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Computed Torque Control

v The block diagram of the computed torque can be given as follow