WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

MODULE III
2
 Digital Modulation and Detection
3

 Digital transceivers much cheaper, faster, and more power

efficient than analog transceivers.
 Digital modulation offers a number of other advantages
over analog modulation:
 Higher spectral efficiency
 Powerful error correction techniques
 Resistance to channel impairments
 Efficient multiple access strategies
 Better security and privacy
 Low power/cost implementation
 Digital Modulation and Detection…
4

 Digital modulation and detection consist of transferring

information in the form of bits over a communication
channel.
 The bits are binary digits taking on the values of either 1 or
0.
 The bits are derived from an information source which is
digital or analog and passed through an A/D converter.
 Digital modulation consists of mapping the information bits
into an analog signal for transmission over the channel.
 Detection consists of estimating the original bit sequence
based on the signal received over the channel.
 Digital Modulation and Detection…
5

 There are two main categories of digital modulation:

 Amplitude/Phase modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Amplitude and phase modulation embeds the information
bits into the amplitude or phase of the transmitted signal,
which is more susceptible to variations from fading and
interference.
 Once the modulation technique is determined, the
constellation size must be chosen.
 Modulations with large constellations have higher data rates
for a given signal bandwidth, but they are more susceptible
to noise, fading, and hardware imperfections.
 Geometric Representation of
6
Signals
 The modulator constructs a distinct signal ( ) of duration T
seconds if the message source that emits one symbol every T
seconds denoted by 1, 2, … .
 The essence of geometric representation of signals is to
represent any set of M energy signals si( ) as linear
combinations of N orthonormal basis functions, where N ≤ M.
 Using a Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization procedure it can be
shown that any set of M signals S = {s1(t), s2(t),…,sM(t)} can be
represented as a linear combination of N ≤ M real
orthonormal basis functions {φ1(t), . . . , φN(t)}.
 Geometric Representation of
7
Signals…
 Each si(t)  S can be represented in terms of its basis function
representation as

 sij is a real coefficient representing the projection of si(t) onto

the basis function φj (t) .
 Geometric Representation of
8
Signals…
 Let si = (si1, . . . , siN ) be the vector of coefficients {sij} in the
basis representation of si(t).
 si the signal constellation point corresponding to the signal
si(t). The signal constellation consists of all constellation points
{s1, . . . , sM}.
 The representation of si(t) in terms of its constellation point si
called its signal space representation, and the vector space
containing the constellation is called the signal space.
 Geometric Representation of
9
Signals…
 A two-dimensional signal space is
illustrated with the ith axis
corresponding to the basis
function φi(t), i = 1, 2.
 Geometric Representation of
10
Signals…
 In Binary Phase Shift Keying(BPSK) two symbols are
transmitted, 1 and 0 and phase angles of carriers are 0 and
180
 In case of binary PSK, we require only one basis function of
unit energy

 The pair of signals s1(t) and s2(t) used to represent binary

symbols 0 and 1 are
 Geometric Representation of
11
Signals…
 Geometric Representation of
12
Signals…
 The transmitted signals 1( ) and 2( ) can be expressed in
terms of basis function as

 The coordinates of message points are

 Geometric Representation of
13
Signals…
 Error Probability of Binary PSK
14

 In order to make a decision in favor of symbol 1 or 0, the

signal space is partitioned into decision regions .

 Can be partitioned into two regions :

 The set of points closest of message point 1 at √ b
 The set of points closest of message point 0 at -√ b
 Obtained by constructing the midpoint of the line joining the
two message points.
 Error Probability of Binary PSK…
15

 Decision rule:
 If the received signal point falls in region 1, a decision is taken
that signal 1( ) was transmitted  Binary symbol 1.
 If the received signal point falls in region 2, a decision is taken
that signal 2( ) was transmitted  Binary symbol 0
 Two kinds of erroneous decisions can be made:
 If signal 1( ) is transmitted, but due to noise received signal falls
in region 2  Receiver decides in favor of 2( )
 If signal 2( ) is transmitted, but due to noise received signal falls
in region 1  Receiver decides in favor of 1( )
 Digital Signalling for Flat fading
16
Channels
 The performance of the digital modulation techniques when
used over channels with flat fading.
 There are two performance criteria of interest:
 Probability of error, defined relative to either symbol or bit errors
 Outage probability, defined as the probability that the
instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio falls below a given threshold.
 Flat fading can cause a dramatic increase in either the
average bit error probability or the signal outage
probability.
 In a fading environment the received signal power varies
randomly over distance or time as a result of shadowing
and/or multipath fading.
 Digital Signalling for Flat fading
17
Channels…
 In fading, s, the SNR per symbol, is a random variable with
distribution ps() and so Ps(s) is also random.
 The performance metric when s is random depends on the
rate of change of the fading.
 There are three different performance criteria that can be
used to characterize the random variable Ps :
 The outage probability, Pout, defined as the probability that γs falls
below a given value corresponding to the maximum allowable Ps.
 The average error probability,Ps , averaged over the distribution
of γs.
 Combined average error probability and outage, defined as the
average error probability that can be achieved some percentage
of time or some percentage of spatial locations.
 Outage Probability
18

 The outage probability relative to γ0 is defined as,

where γ0 specifies the minimum SNR required for acceptable

performance.
 In Rayleigh fading the outage probability becomes

 For a given outage probability, the required average SNR γs

is
 Outage Probability…
19

 In decibels this means that 10 log γs must exceed the target 10

log γ0 by

 The quantity Fd is called the dB fade margin.

 Average Probability of Error
20

 The average probability of error is used as a performance

metric when Ts ≈ Tc.
 It is assumed that γs is roughly constant over a symbol time.
 The average probability of error is computed by integrating
the error probability in AWGN over the fading distribution:

where Ps(γ ) is the probability of symbol error in AWGN with SNR γ.

 For a given distribution of the fading amplitude r, pγs(γ ) is
computed as
 EQN(1)
 Average Probability of Error…
21

 In Rayleigh fading the received signal amplitude r has the

Rayleigh distribution
 EQN(2)
 The SNR per symbol for a given amplitude r is
 EQN(3)

 where σ2n = N0/2 is the PSD of the noise in the in-phase and
quadrature branches.
 Differentiating both sides of this expression yields
 EQN(4)
 Average Probability of Error…
22

 Substituting EQN(3) and EQN(4) in EQN(1) and EQN(2) we get,

 σ2Ts/σ2n is taken as the average SNR per symbol γs . Therefore

 which is the exponential distribution. For binary signaling this

reduces to

 The bit error probability of BPSK is given as,

 Average Probability of Error…
23

 Integrating the equation for BER of BPSK over pγb(γ ) we get

the average probability of error for BPSK in Rayleigh fading:

 It is observed that the performance of BPSK converge at high

SNRs.
 If more than one bit is transmitted, we call it as probability of
symbol error ( ). In QPSK, two bits are transmitted therefore
 Comparison of error probabilities
24
of BPSK in AWGN and fading
 For binary PSK the bit error probability in AWGN decreases
exponentially with increasing γb.
 In fading the bit error probability for all the modulation
types decreases just linearly with increasing γb.
 Problems
25

Q) Determine the average SNR per bit of BPSK modulation in

Rayleigh slow-fading channel such that 95% of the times,
average probability of bit error is less than 10-4 .
 Multicarrier Modulation
26

 In multicarrier modulation the transmitted bitstream is divided

into many different sub-streams and send these over many
different subchannels.
 Inder ideal conditions, these sub-channels are orthogonal.
 The data rate on each of the subchannels is much less than
the total data rate, and the corresponding subchannel
bandwidth is much less than the total system bandwidth.
 Each subchannel has a bandwidth less than the coherence
bandwidth of the channel, so the subchannels experience
relatively flat fading and less ISI.
 The subchannels in multicarrier modulation need not be
contiguous, so a large continuous block of spectrum is not
needed for high-rate multicarrier communications.
 Multicarrier Modulation…
27

 Multicarrier modulation can be implemented in

several ways:
 Vector Coding
 Digital implementation (OFDM) un which ISI can be
completely eliminated
 Data Transmission Using Multiple
28
Carriers
 The simplest form of multicarrier modulation divides the data
stream into multiple sub-streams to be transmitted over
different orthogonal subchannels centered at different
subcarrier frequencies.
 In order to ensure that the sub-streams experience negligible
ISI,
 The symbol time on each sub-stream much greater than the delay
spread of the channel OR
 The sub-stream bandwidth less than the channel coherence
bandwidth.
 Data Transmission Using Multiple
29
Carriers…
 Consider a system with data rate R and bandwidth B.
 Assume that the coherence bandwidth Bc < B, so the signal
experiences frequency selective fading.
 In multicarrier modulation this wideband system is broken into N
subsystems in parallel, each with subchannel bandwidth BN =
B/N and data rate RN ≈ R/N.
 For sufficiently large N, the subchannel bandwidth BN = B/N
<< Bc, which ensures relatively flat fading on each subchannel.
 In time domain, the symbol time TN of the modulated signal in
each subchannel is proportional to the subchannel bandwidth
1/BN.
 Data Transmission Using Multiple
30
Carriers…
 So BN << Bc implies that TN ≈ 1/BN >> 1/Bc ≈ Tm, where
Tm denotes the delay spread of the channel.
 i.e. if N is sufficiently large, the symbol time is much
greater than the delay spread, so each subchannel
experiences little ISI degradation.
 Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels
31
 Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
32

 In the multicarrier transmitter in the figure, the bit stream is

divided into N sub-streams via a serial-to-parallel converter.
 The nth sub-stream is linearly modulated (typically via QAM or
PSK) relative to the subcarrier frequency fn and occupies
bandwidth BN.
 Assuming raised cosine pulses for g(t) we get a symbol time TN
= (1+β)/BN for each sub-stream, where β is the roll-off factor
of the pulse shape.
 The modulated signals associated with all the subchannels are
summed together to form the transmitted signal, given as
 Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
33

 For nonoverlapping subchannels we set fi = f0+i(BN), i = 0, . . .

,N −1.
 The sub-streams then occupy orthogonal subchannels with
bandwidth BN, yielding a total bandwidth NBN = B and data
rate NRN ≈ R.
 This form of multicarrier modulation does not change the
data rate or signal bandwidth relative to the original system,
but it almost completely eliminates ISI for BN << Bc.
 Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
34

 Each sub-stream is passed through a narrowband filter (to

remove the other sub-streams), demodulated, and combined via
a parallel-to-serial converter to form the original data stream.
 Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
35

 Shortcomings of non-overlapping subchannels:

 In a realistic implementation, subchannels will occupy a larger
bandwidth than under ideal raised cosine pulse shaping.
 If ε/TN is the additional bandwidth required, then the subchannels
must be separated by (1+β +ε)/TN.
 Since the multicarrier system has N subchannels, the bandwidth
penalty for time limiting is εN/TN.
 Thus, the total required bandwidth for nonoverlapping subchannels
is

 Thus, this form of multicarrier modulation can be spectrally

inefficient.
 Multicarrier Modulation with Non -
overlapping Subchannels…
36

 Shortcomings of non-overlapping subchannels:

 Near ideal (and hence expensive) lowpass filters will be required
to maintain the orthogonality of the subcarriers at the receiver.
 This scheme requires N independent modulators and demodulators,
which entails significant expense, size, and power consumption.
 Problems
37

Q) Consider a multicarrier system with a total passband bandwidth

of 1 MHz. Suppose the system operates in a city with channel delay
spread Tm = 20 μs. How many subchannels are needed to obtain
approximately flat fading in each subchannel?
SOLUTION:
Coherence bandwidth, Bc = 1/Tm = 1/ 20 μs = 50kHz
To ensure flat fading, BN = B/N << Bc
Assume B/N = 0.1Bc = 5kHz
Therefore, N = 1 MHz/5kHz = 200
 Problems
38

Q) Consider a multicarrier system with TN = .2 ms: TN >> Tm for Tm

the channel delay spread, so each subchannel experiences minimal
ISI. Assume the system has N = 128 subchannels. If time-limited
raised cosine pulses with β = 1 are used and if the additional
bandwidth required (because of time limiting) to ensure minimal
power outside the signal bandwidth is ε = .1, then what is the total
bandwidth of the system?
SOLUTION:
Total bandwidth of the system = N(1 +  + ) / TN
= 128(1 + 1 + 0.1)/ 0.2 ms
= 1.344 MHz
 Multicarrier Modulation with
39
Overlapping Subchannels
 The spectral efficiency of multicarrier modulation can be
improved by overlapping the subchannels.
 The subcarriers must still be orthogonal so that they can be
separated out by the demodulator in the receiver.
 The subcarriers {cos(2π(f0 + i/TN)t + φi), i = 0,1, 2, . . . } form a
set of (approximately) orthogonal basis functions on the interval
[0, TN] for any set of subcarrier phase offsets {φi}.
 Since the carriers are orthogonal, the set of functions {g(t)
cos(2π(f0 +i/TN)t +φi), i = 0,1, . . . ,N −1} form a set of
orthonormal basis functions for appropriately chosen
baseband pulse shapes g(t): the family of raised cosine pulses
are a common choice for this pulse shape.
 Multicarrier Modulation with
40
Overlapping Subchannels…
 Consider a multicarrier system where each subchannel is
modulated using raised cosine pulse shapes with roll-off factor β.
 The bandwidth of each subchannel is then BN = (1+β)/TN.
 The ith subcarrier frequency is set to (f0 +i/TN), i = 0,1, . . . ,N −1,
for some f0, so the subcarriers are separated by 1/TN.
 The bandwidth of each subchannel is BN = (1+ β)/TN > 1/TN for
β > 0, so the subchannels overlap.
 Excess bandwidth due to time windowing will increase the
subcarrier bandwidth by an additional ε/TN.
 Multicarrier Modulation with
41
Overlapping Subchannels…
 Multicarrier Modulation with
42
Overlapping Subchannels…
 The total system bandwidth with overlapping subchannels is
given by

where the approximation holds for large N.

 With N large, the impact of β and ε on the total system

bandwidth is negligible, in contrast to the required

bandwidth of B = N(1+ β + ε)/TN when the subchannels
do not overlap.
 Problems
43

Q) Consider a multicarrier system with TN = .2 ms: TN >> Tm for Tm the channel

delay spread, so each subchannel experiences minimal ISI. Assume the system has
N = 128 subchannels. If time-limited raised cosine pulses with β = 1 are used and
if the additional bandwidth required (because of time limiting) to ensure minimal
power outside the signal bandwidth is ε = .1.Compare the required bandwidth of
a multicarrier system with overlapping subchannels versus nonoverlapping
subchannels using the parameters
Solution:
For overlapping system,

For non-overlapping system,

 Multicarrier Modulation with
44
Overlapping Subchannels…