CSMA/ CDIt is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision detection network protocol to

transmit data frames. The CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control layer. Therefore,
it first senses the shared channel before broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it
transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was successful. If the frame is successfully
received, the station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in the CSMA/CD, the station
sends a jam/ stop signal to the shared channel to terminate data transmission. After that, it waits
for a random time before sending a frame to a channel.
CSMA/ CA It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance network protocol for
carrier transmission of data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium access control layer.
When a data frame is sent to a channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether the
channel is clear. If the station receives only a single (own) acknowledgments, that means the data
frame has been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets two signals (its own and one
more in which the collision of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared channel.
Detects the collision of the frame when a sender receives an acknowledgment signal
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to avoid the collision: 1)Interframe space: In
this method, the station waits for the channel to become idle, and if it gets the channel is idle, it
does not immediately send the data. Instead of this, it waits for some time, and this time period is
called the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is often used to define the priority of the
station2).Contention window: In the Contention window, the total time is divided into different
slots. When the station/ sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a random slot
number of slots as wait time. If the channel is still busy, it does not restart the entire process,
except that it restarts the timer only to send data packets when the channel is
inactive.3)Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the sender station sends the data
frame to the shared channel if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.
What is Multiplexing? Multiplexing is a technique used to combine and send the multiple
data streams over a single medium. The process of combining the data streams is known as
multiplexing and hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.Multiplexing is achieved
by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines n input lines to generate a single output
line. Multiplexing follows many-to-one, i.e., n input lines and one output line.Demultiplexing is
achieved by using a device called Demultiplexer (DEMUX) available at the receiving end. DEMUX
separates a signal into its component signals (one input and n outputs). Therefore, we can say that
demultiplexing follows the one-to-many approach.

Advantages of Multiplexing:1)More than one signal can be sent over a single medium.2)The
bandwidth of a medium can be utilized effectively.

Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical devices that allow
hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one another. For example Repeater,
Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Brouter, and NIC, etc.
1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they not only
amplify the signal but also regenerate it. When the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and
regenerate it at its star topology connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port
device.
2. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of
filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination. It is also used for
interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus
making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges 1)Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source station and the
frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special frame called
the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
3. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the
switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
Types of Switch1)Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and do not
offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks or for use as an expansion to a
larger network.2)Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as VLANs,
QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex networks and allow for centralized
management.3)Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but are
typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to medium-sized networks.
Error Detection Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic
Redundancy Check (CRC). In both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to confirm that bits
received at other end are same as they were sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are
considered corrupted.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains
valid data. This technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using
polynomials. The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder.
Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the actual bits. Actual data bits
plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmits data bits as codewords.
Error Correction In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:
Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it requests back the
sender to retransmit the data unit.
Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data received, it executes error-
correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some kinds of errors.
The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where retransmitting is
not expensive. For example, fiber optics. But in case of wireless transmission retransmitting may cost too
much. In the latter case, Forward Error Correction is used.

Routing 1A Router is a process of selecting path along which the data can be transferred from
source to the destination. Routing is performed by a special device known as a router.2 )A Router
works at the network layer in the OSI model and internet layer in TCP/IP model A router is a
networking device that forwards the packet based on the information available in the packet
header and forwarding table.3)The routing algorithms are used for routing the packets. The
routing algorithm is nothing but a software responsible for deciding the optimal path through
which packet can be transmitted.4) The routing algorithm initializes and maintains the routing
table for the process of path determination.
 Types of routing
Dynamic Routing1)It is also known as Adaptive Routing.2)It is a technique in which a
router adds a new route in the routing table for each packet in response to the changes in the
condition or topology of the network.3)Dynamic protocols are used to discover the new routes to
reach the destination.4)In Dynamic Routing, RIP and OSPF are the protocols used to discover the
new routes.5)If any route goes down, then the automatic adjustment will be made to reach the
destination.
Static Routing1)Static Routing is also known as Nonadaptive Routing.2)It is a technique in
which the administrator manually adds the routes in a routing table.3)A Router can send the
packets for the destination along the route defined by the administrator.4)In this technique,
routing decisions are not made based on the condition or topology of the networks
1. Distance Vector Routing Protocol :These protocols select the best path on the basis of hop counts to
reach a destination network in a particular direction. Dynamic protocol like RIP is an example of a
distance vector routing protocol. Hop count is each router that occurs in between the source and the
destination network. The path with the least hop count will be chosen as the best path.
Features – 1)Updates of the network are exchanged periodically. 2)Updates (routing information) is not
broadcasted but shared to neighbouring nodes only. 3)Full routing tables are not sent in updates but only
distance vector is shared.
2. Link State Routing Protocol :These protocols know more about Internetwork than any other distance
vector routing protocol. These are also known as SPF (Shortest Path First) protocol. OSPF is an example
of link-state routing protocol.
Features – 1)Hello, messages, also known as keep-alive messages are used for neighbor discovery and
recovery. 2)Concept of triggered updates is used i.e updates are triggered only when there is a topology
change. 3)Only that many updates are exchanged which is requested by the neighbor router.
Congestion control Congestion causes choking of the communication channel. When too many
packets are displayed in a part of the subnet, the subnet's performance degrades. Hence, the network's

communication channel is called congested if packets are traversing the path experience primarily over the
path propagation delay.

Principles of Congestion Control

The open-loop solutions It provides an excellent design to ensure that the problem does not occur in the first
place. The designing tools include deciding to accept new traffic, discarding packets and scheduling the packets at
various network points. The open-loop solution's decisions are independent of the current state of the network.

Closed-loop solutions It makes the decision based on the concept of a feedback loop. The feedback Notes
loop enables the closed-loop system to monitor the procedure to detect when and where congestion occurs.
After that, it passes the information to the places where they can take actions.The system's monitoring
depends on the percentage of all packets discarded for drawback of buffer area, the average queue lengths,
the multiple packets that time out and are retransmitted, the normal packet delay and the standard deviation
of packet delay.
Congestion control algorithm
Token bucket Algorithm
1)The leaky bucket algorithm has a rigid output design at an average rate independent of the bursty
traffic.2)In some applications, when large bursts arrive, the output is allowed to speed up. This calls for a
more flexible algorithm, preferably one that never loses information. Therefore, a token bucket algorithm
finds its uses in network traffic shaping or rate-limiting.3)It is a control algorithm that indicates when
traffic should be sent. This order comes based on the display of tokens in the bucket. 4)The bucket
contains tokens. Each of the tokens defines a packet of predetermined size. Tokens in the bucket are
deleted for the ability to share a packet.5)When tokens are shown, a flow to transmit traffic appears in the
display of tokens.6) No token means no flow sends its packets. Hence, a flow transfers traffic up to its
peak burst rate in good tokens in the bucket.

Load Shedding
It is one of the approaches to congestion control. Router contains a buffer to store packets and route it to
destination. When the buffer is full, it simply discards some packets. It chooses the packet to be discarded
based on the strategy implemented in the data link layer. This is called load sheddingLoad shedding will use
dropping the old packets than new to avoid congestion. Dropping packets that are part of the difference is
preferable because a future packet depends on full frame.To implement an intelligent discard policy,
applications must mark their packets to indicate to the network how important they are. When packets have
to be discarded, routers can first drop packets from the least important class, then the next most important
class, and so on.
Advantages The advantages of load shedding are given below −1)It can be used in detection of
congestion.2)It can recover from congestion.3)reduces the network traffic flow.4)Synchronised flow of
packets across a network.5)Removes the packets before congestion occurs.
What is a Web Browser? The web browser is an application software to explore www (World Wide
Web). It provides an interface between the server and the client and requests to the server for web
documents and services. It works as a compiler to render HTML which is used to design a webpage.
Whenever we search for anything on the internet, the browser loads a web page written in HTML,
including text, links, images, and other items such as style sheets and JavaScript functions. Google
Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Safari are examples of web browsers.
What is World Wide Web World Wide Web, which is also known as a Web, is a collection
of websites or web pages stored in web servers and connected to local computers through the
internet. These websites contain text pages, digital images, audios, videos, etc. Users can access the
content of these sites from any part of the world over the internet using their devices such as
computers,laptops, cell phones, etc. The WWW, along with internet, enables the retrieval and
display of text and media to your device.

HTTP 1)HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.2)It is a protocol used to access the
data on the World Wide Web (www).3)The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the
form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.4)This protocol is known as HyperText
Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that allows us to use in a hypertext environment where
there are rapid jumps from one document to another document.5)HTTP is similar to the FTP as it
also transfers the files from one host to another host. But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses
only one connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.6)HTTP is used to carry the
data in the form of MIME-like format.

Features of HTTP: 1)Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP

client initiates a request and waits for a response from the server. When the server receives the
request, the server processes the request and sends back the response to the HTTP client after
which the client disconnects the connection. The connection between client and server exist only
during the current request and response time only. 2)Media independent: HTTP protocol is a
media independent as data can be sent as long as both the client and server know how to handle
the data content. It is required for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-
type header. 3) Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each
other only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both the client and server
do not retain the information between various requests of the web pages.
Internet The Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being used by
almost every person across the globe. It connects millions of computers, webpages, websites, and servers.
Using the internet we can send emails, photos, videos, and messages to our loved ones. Or in other words,
the Internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers and electronic devices(that support
Internet). It creates a communication medium to share and get information online. If your device is
connected to the Internet then only you will be able to access all the applications, websites, social media
apps, and many more services. The Internet nowadays is considered the fastest medium for sending and
receiving information. Working of internet The internet works with the help of clients and
servers. A device such as a laptop, which is connected to the internet is called a client, not a server
as it is not directly connected to the internet. However, it is indirectly connected to the internet
through an Internet Service Provider (ISP) and is identified by an IP address, which is a string of
numbers. Just like you have an address for your home that uniquely identifies your home, an IP
address acts as the shipping address of your device. The IP address is provided by your ISP, and
you can see what IP address your ISP has given to your system.A server is a large computer that
stores websites. It also has an IP address. A place where a large number of servers are stored is
called a data center. The server accepts requests send by the client through a browser over a
network (internet) and responds accordingly.
E mail and its working ( protocoal)
The email refers to the electronic means of communication of sending and receiving messages over the
Internet. Email is the most common form of communication nowadays. An email has significantly evolved
over the past couple of years. There are now stronger sync and messaging features along with stronger
security and spam-related features.Components of an Email: 1)Sender: The sender creates an email
in which he records the information that needs to be transferred to the receiver.2)Receiver: The receiver
gets the information sent by the sender via email.3) Email address: An email address is just like a house
address where the communication arrives for the sender and receiver and they communicate with
each other.
4)Mailer: The mailer program contains allows the ability to read, write, manage and delete the emails like
Gmail, Outlook, etc.5)Mail Server: The mail server is responsible for sending, receiving, managing, and
recording all the data proceeded by their respective mail programs and then processing them to their
respective users.6)SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. SMTP basically uses the
internet network connection to send and receive email messages over the Internet.
Protocols of Email: 1)POP: POP stands for post office protocol for email. Similar to a post office,
our approach is just to drop the email over the service mail provider and then leave it for services to
handle the transfer of messages. We can be even disconnected from the Internet after sending the email via
POP. Also, there is no requirement of leaving a copy of the email over the web server as it uses very little
memory. POP allows using concentrate all the emails from different email addresses to accumulate on a
single mail program. Although, there are some disadvantages of POP protocol like the communication
medium is unidirectional, i.e it will transfer information from sender to receiver but not vice versa.
2)IMAP: IMAP stands for Internet message access protocol. IMAP has some special advantages over
POP like it supports bidirectional communication over email and there is no need to store conversations on
servers as they are already well-maintained in a database. It has some advanced features like it tells the
sender that the receiver has read the email sent by him.

Working of Email:1)When the sender sends the email using the mail program, then it gets redirected
to the simple mail transfer protocol which checks whether the receiver’s email address is of another
domain name or it belongs to the same domain name as that of the sender (Gmail, Outlook, etc.). Then the
email gets stored on the server for later purposes transfer using POP or IMAP protocols. 2)If the receiver
has another domain name address then, the SMTP protocol communicates with the DNS (domain name
server) of the other address that the receiver uses. Then the SMTP of the sender communicates with the
SMTP of the receiver which then carries out the communication and the email gets delivered in this way
to the SMTP of the receiver. 3)If due to certain network traffic issues, both the SMTP of the sender and
the receiver are not able to communicate with each other, the email to be transferred is put in a queue of
the SMTP of the receiver and then it finally gets receiver after the issue resolves. And if due to very bad
circumstances, the message remains in a queue for a long time, then the message is returned back to the
sender as undelivered.

HTTPS HTTPS is an abbreviation of Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It is a secure

extension or version of HTTP. This protocol is mainly used for providing security to the data sent
between a website and the web browser. It is widely used on the internet and used for secure
communications. This protocol uses the 443 port number for communicating the data.This
protocol is also called HTTP over SSL because the HTTPS communication protocols are encrypted
using the SSL (Secure Socket Layer).By default, it is supported by various web browsers.Those
websites which need login credentials should use the HTTPS protocol for sending the data.
Advantage 1)The main advantage HTTPS is that it provides high security to users. 2)Data and
information are protected. So, it ensures data protection. 3)It helps users by performing banking
transactions.
 Presentation layer A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of
the information exchanged between the two systems.2)It acts as a data translator for a
network.3)This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.4)The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Funcation :Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of

converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the resulting message
over the network.2)Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in multimedia
such as text, audio, video.

7) Application LayerAn application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.2)It handles issues such as network transparency, resource
allocation, etc.3)An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.4)This layer provides the network services to the end-users. Funcation: File transfer,
access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to access the files in a
remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.2)Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.

Types of network: Local Area Network (LAN) –LAN or Local Area Network connects network
devices in such a way that personal computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The
group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private
addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other
computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the
larger W Advantages:1)Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.2)Easy to set
up and manage.3)Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.

Wide Area Network –WAN or Wide Area

Metropolitan Area Network: MAN or Network is a computer network that extends over a
Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area large geographical area, although it might be
than that covered by a LAN and a smaller area confined within the bounds of a state or country.
as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-
WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a
50km. It connects two or more computers that
connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via
are apart but reside in the same or different
cities. It covers a large geographical area and
telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited
may serve as an ISP (Internet Service Provider). to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or
MAN is designed for customers who need high- accessible to the public. The technology is high-
speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in speed and relatively expensive.There are two types of
terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN.
a Metropolitan Area Network. WAN is difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a
MAN, the fault tolerance of a WAN is less and there
is more congestion in the network.
 ATM and its layer: ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband
ISDN in the 1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet switching. Each cell is 53
bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Making an ATM call requires first sending a message to
set up a connection. Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both
constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple types of traffic with end-to-
end quality of service.

ATM Adaption Layer (AAL) – It is meant for isolating higher-layer protocols from details of
ATM processes and prepares for conversion of user data into cells and segments it into 48-byte
cell payloads. AAL protocol excepts transmission from upper-layer services and helps them in
mapping applications, e.g., voice, data to ATM cells.
Physical Layer – It manages the medium-dependent transmission and is divided into two parts
physical medium-dependent sublayer and transmission convergence sublayer. The main functions
are as follows: 1)It converts cells into a bitstream.2)It controls the transmission and receipt of bits
in the physical medium.3)It can track the ATM cell boundaries.
ATM Layer – It handles transmission, switching, congestion control, cell header processing,
sequential delivery, etc., and is responsible for simultaneously sharing the virtual circuits over the
physical link known as cell multiplexing and passing cells through an ATM network known as
cell relay making use of the VPI and VCI information in the cell header.
What are IEEE 802 wireless standards?IEEE 802 is a collection of networking
standards that cover the physical and data link layer specifications for technologies such as
Ethernet and wireless. These specifications apply to local area networks (LANs) and metropolitan
area networks (MANs). IEEE 802 also aids in ensuring multivendor interoperability by promoting
standards for vendors to follow.Essentially, the IEEE 802 standards help make sure internet
services and technologies follow a set of recommended practices so that network devices can all
work together smoothly.IEEE 802 is divided into different parts that cover the physical and data
link aspects of networking. The family of standards is developed and maintained by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee, also called the
LMSC.
FRAMING Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices consisting of a wire
in which data is transmitted as a stream of bits. However, these bits must be framed into discernible blocks
of information. Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set
of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. Ethernet, token ring, frame relay, and other data link layer
technologies have their own frame structures. Frames have headers that contain information such as error-
checking codes.
1. Character/Byte Stuffing: Used when frames consist 2. Bit Stuffing: Let ED = 01111 and if data =
of characters. If data contains ED then, a byte is stuffed
01111
into data to differentiate it from ED.
Let ED = “$” –> if data contains ‘$’ anywhere, it can be –> Sender stuffs a bit to break the pattern i.e.
escaped using ‘\O’ character. here appends a 0 in data = 011101.
–> if data contains ‘\O$’ then, use ‘\O\O\O$'($ is –> Receiver receives the frame.
escaped using \O and \O is escaped using \O). –> If data contains 011101, receiver removes
Disadvantage – It is very costly and obsolete method. the 0 and reads the data.
 OSI Model 1)OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer. 2)OSI consists of seven layers, and each
layer performs a particular network function. 3)OSI model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model
for the inter-computer communications. 4)OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller
and manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
1) Physical layer The main functionality of the 2) Data-Link Layer 1)This layer is
physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one responsible for the error-free transfer of
node to another node. 2)It is the lowest layer of the OSI data frames.2)It defines the format of the
model. 3)It establishes, maintains and deactivates the data on the network. 3)It provides a reliable
physical connection. 4)It specifies the mechanical, and efficient communication between two
electrical and procedural network interface specifications. or more devices. 4)It is mainly responsible
Functions of a Physical layer: 1)Line for the unique identification of each device
Configuration: It defines the way how two or more that resides on a local network.
devices can be connected physically. 2)Data FUNCATION :Error Control: Error control
Transmission: It defines the transmission mode is achieved by adding a calculated value
whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is
mode between the two devices on the network.
placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is
3) Network Layer It is a layer 3 that manages device
sent to the physical layer. If any error seems
addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network.
to occurr, then the receiver sends the
It determines the best path to move data from source to
the destination based on the network conditions, the acknowledgment for the retransmission of
priority of service, and other factors. The Data link layer is the corrupted frames.
responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
Functions of Network Layer:
1)Internetworking: An internetworking is the main 4) Transport Layer The Transport layer is
responsibility of the network layer. It provides a a Layer 4 ensures that messages are
logical connection between different transmitted in the order in which they are
devices.2)Addressing: A Network layer adds the sent and there is no duplication of data. The
source and destination address to the header of the main responsibility of the transport layer is to
frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on transfer the data completely. It receives the
the internet. data from the upper layer and converts them
5) Session Layer It is a layer 3 in the OSI model. into smaller units known as segments.
2)The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and FUNCATION Flow control: The transport
synchronizes the interaction between communicating layer also responsible for flow control but it
devices. FUNCATION: Dialog control: Session layer acts is performed end-to-end rather than across a
as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between two single link. Error control: The transport layer
processes or we can say that it allows the communication is also responsible for Error control. Error
between two processes which can be either half-duplex control is performed end-to-end rather than
or full-duplex.Synchronization: Session layer adds some across the single link. The sender transport
checkpoints when transmitting the data in a sequence. If layer ensures that message reach at the
some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of destination without any error.
data, then the transmission will take place again from the
 What is Transmission media?

Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the sender to
the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.

1 The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the form of bits
through LAN(Local Area Network). 2)It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data
communication. 3) In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.In a fibre
based network, the bits in the form of light pulses. 4)In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase,
transmission media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
5) The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and
vacuum. Types of transmission media:

Guided Media It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are
transmitted. It is also known as Bounded media.

Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with
each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency
range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz. A twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

Types of Twisted pair:

1 Unshielded Twisted Pair:An Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

unshielded twisted pair is widely used in
telecommunication. Following are the categories o It is cheap.
of the unshielded twisted pair cable: o Installation of the unshielded twisted
Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines pair is easy.
that have low-speed data.Category 2: It can support o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
upto 4Mbps.Category 3: It can support upto
16Mbps.Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps.
Therefore, it can be used for long-distance
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:
communication.

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable

2 Shielded Twisted Pair
is not very high and not very low.
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the o An installation of STP is easy.
mesh surrounding the wire that allows the higher
o It has higher capacity as compared to
transmission rate.
unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data
transmission rate.
Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable is of two types:
1)Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission 1)Baseband transmission: It is defined as the
process of transmitting a single signal at high
media, for example, TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
speed.
2)The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two 2)Broadband transmission: It is defined as
conductors parallel to each other. the process of transmitting multiple signals
3)It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair simultaneously.
cable. 4)The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is
Advantage : 1) The data can be transmitted at
made up of copper, and the outer conductor is made up
high speed. 2)It has better shielding as
of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non- compared to twisted pair cable. 3) It provides
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor higher bandwidth.
from the outer conductor.
Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:
Fibre Optic 1)Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow
Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals strand of glass or plastic known as a core. A
for communication. 2) Fibre optic is a cable that holds core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
more the area of the core, the more light will be
the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to
transmitted into the fibre. 2)Cladding: The
send the data by pulses of light. 3)The plastic coating concentric layer of glass is known as cladding.
protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, The main functionality of the cladding is to
electromagnetic interference from other types of provide the lower refractive index at the core
wiring. 4)Fibre optics provide faster data transmission interface as to cause the reflection within the
core so that the light waves are transmitted
than copper wires.
through the fibre. 3)Jacket: The protective
coating consisting of plastic is known as a
UNGUIDED MEDIA: An unguided transmission
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to
transmits the electromagnetic waves without preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and
using any physical medium. Therefore it is also extra fibre protection.
known as wireless transmission.
Microwaves Microwaves are of two
In unguided media, air is the media through types:
which the electromagnetic energy can flow
o Terrestrial microwave
easily.
o Satellite microwave communication.

1) Radio waves
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
1)Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a
that are transmitted in all the directions of free technology that transmits the focused beam of a
space. 2)Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., radio signal from one ground-based microwave
transmission antenna to another.Microwaves are
the signals are propagated in all the directions.
the electromagnetic waves having the frequency
3) The range in frequencies of radio waves is in the range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.Microwaves
from 3Khz to 1 khz. 4)In the case of radio are unidirectional as the sending and receiving
waves, the sending and receiving antenna are antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by
not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.In
antenna can be received by any receiving this case, antennas are mounted on the towers
to send a beam to another antenna which is km
antenna.
away.
 What is Network Topology? Topology defines the structure of the network of how all
the components are interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology. Types of topology:
2) Ring Topology Ring topology is like a bus
1) Bus Topology The bus topology is designed in
topology, but with connected ends. The node
such a way that all the stations are connected
that receives the message from the previous
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
computer will retransmit to the next node. The
Each node is either connected to the backbone cable
data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
by drop cable or directly connected to the backbone
unidirectional. The data flows in a single loop
cable. When a node wants to send a message over
continuously known as an endless loop.
the network, it puts a message over the network.
Advantages of Ring topology
Advantages of Bus topology:1)Low-cost
1)Network Management: Faulty devices can
cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected
be removed from the network without bringing
to the cable without passing through a hub.
the network down. 2) Product
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
availability: Many hardware and software tools
2)Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair
for network operation and monitoring are
cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
available. 3)Cost: Twisted pair cabling is
support upto 10 Mbps.
inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
3) Star Topology Star topology is an arrangement installation cost is very low.
of the network in which every node is connected to
the central hub, switch or a central computer.The 5) Mesh topology Mesh technology is an
central computer is known as a server, and the arrangement of the network in which
peripheral devices attached to the server are known computers are interconnected with each other
as clients.Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to through various redundant connections.There
connect the computers.Hubs or Switches are mainly are multiple paths from one computer to
used as connection devices in a physical star another computer.It does not contain the
topology. switch, hub or any central computer which
acts as a central point of communication.The
Advantage: 1)Network control: Complex network
Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
control features can be easily implemented in the star Advantage:1)Reliable: The mesh topology
topology. Any changes made in the star topology are networks are very reliable as if any link
automatically accommodated. 2)Limited failure: As breakdown will not affect the communication
each station is connected to the central hub with its between connected computers.2)Fast
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not Communication: Communication is very fast
between the nodes.
affect the entire network. 3)Familiar technology: Star
topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost- Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices
effective. would not disrupt the communication
between other devices.

6) Hybrid TopologyThe combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.A

Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.When two or
more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies
are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring
topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting
these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.