Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics

CAPTER THREE
CRITICAL FLOW
3.1. Criterion for a critical state of flow
V
• The Froude number of critical flow is unity F = ,
gL

F = 1 Critical Flow Where V= mean velocity of flow

F< 1 Sub Critical Flow L= Characteristic length = hydraulic radius (D) for open channel
F > 1 Super critical Flow
• The specific Energy and specific force are minimum
• The discharge is maximum at critical flow for a given channel section
• The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth at critical flow
o If this criterion is to be used in any problem, the following conditions must be satisfied

Flow parallel or gradually varied

Channel of small slope

Energy coefficient assumed to be unity
• The velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is equal to the celerity of small gravity
waves (C=√gh ) in shallow water caused by local distribution.
• Flow at the critical state is unstable
o A minor change in specific energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth

Note:
• If the critical sate of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of channel, known as the critical section
• If the critical sate of flow exists throughout the entire length of the channel or over a reach of the channel the flow in the
channel is a critical flow

3.2.The section Factor for critical flow

The section factor for critical flow computation (Z) is the product of the water area and the square root of the hydraulic depth.

A Z2
Z = A = A D ⇒ Z = A D⇒ D = 2
2 2

T A
V2 D
For critical flow = , by substituting
2g 2

V2 D z2 V 2 A2 VA Q
= = 2
⇒ Z 2
= ⇒ Z = ⇒ Z = c
2g 2 2A g g g

Therefore Qc = Z c g ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.1)

Where Qc represent the discharge that would make the depth y critical and know as the critical discharge. When the energy
coefficient is not assumed to be unity

g
Q = Z
α
c c ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3.2)

Eq. (3.1 and 3.2) are very useful tool for the computation and analysis of critical flow in open channel, when the discharge is give
the equations will give the critical section factor (Zc). and hence the critical Depth yc.
Section factor (Z) for different channel –section shape is give as

Z =
2
my 2 .5 Z =
[y * ( b + my ) ]1 .5
Rectangular: Z = by 1 .5
Triangular: Trapezoidal:
2 b + 2 my
To simplify the computation of critical flow, dimensionless curves showing the relation between the depth and the section factor Z
have been prepared for different type of channels sections. These self-explanatory curves will help to determine the depth y for a
given section factor Z and vice versa.

By Belete B. AAiT Department of Civil Engineering October 2011

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
Example 3.1. Compute the critical depth and velocity of the trapezoidal channel its section given in the figure and carrying a discharge
of 45m3/sec.

1
1.5
4.0m
Solution
Given Q 45
b=4.0m
Q c = Z c g ⇒ Z c = = = 14 . 37
g ( 9 . 81 )
m=1.5
Z=
[ y * (b + my ) ]
1 .5
=
[ y * ( 4 + 1.5 y ] = (4 y + 1.5 y 2 )1.5 = 14.37 ⇒ yc = 1.85m
Q= 45m3/sec b + 2my 4 + 2 *1. 5 * y 4 + 3y

A = (b + my c ) yc = ( 4 + (1.5 * 1.85)) * 1.85 = 12.53m 45

2 Q
V = = = 3.59m / s
A 12.53
First Hydraulic Exponent (M)
In many computations involving a wide range of depths in channel, such as in the GVF computations, it is convenient to express
the variation of Z with y in an exponential form. The (Z-y) relationship Z 2 = C1 y M is found to be very advantageous. In this
equation C1= a coefficient and M= an exponent called first hydraulic exponent. It is found that generally M is a slowly –varying
function of the aspect ratio for most of the channel shapes.
y A dT 
M = 3T −
T dy 
An estimate of M can also be obtained by the relation
A
Example 3.2: Obtain the value of the first hydraulic exponent (M) for
a) Rectangular channel
b) Exponential channel where the area A=K1ya

Solution

a) Z = by 1.5 ⇒ Z 2 = b 2 y 3 ⇒ C1 = b 2 , M = 3
dA
b) A = k1 y a ⇒ T = = k1ay a −1
dy

y A dT  y  k1 y a a −2 
M = 3T −
A
=
T dy  k1 y a 
3
 1 k ay a −1
−
k1ay a −1
k1 a ( a − 1) y {  }

M =
1
k1 y a −1
[ ]
3k1ay a −1 − k1 ( a − 1) y a −1 = (3a − ( a − 1)) = 3a − a + 1 = 2 a + 1

3.3 Transitions

The concepts of specific energy and critical energy are useful in the analysis of transition problems. Transitions in rectangular channels
are presented here. The principles are equally applicable to channels of any shape and other types of transitions.

3.3.1 Channel with a Hump

a) Subcritical Flow

Consider a horizontal, frictionless rectangular channel of width B carrying discharge Q at depth y1. Let the flow be subcritical. At a
section 2 (Fig.3. 1) a smooth hump of heights ∆Z is built on the floor. Since there are no energy losses between sections 1 and 2,
construction of a hump causes the specific energy at section to decrease by Z. Thus the specific energies at sections 1 and 2 are,

V12
E1 = y1 +
2g
E 2 = E1 − ∆Z

Figure: 3. 1. Channel transition with a hump

By Belete B. AAiT Department of Civil Engineering October 2011

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
Since the flow is subcritical, the water surface will drop due to a decrease in the specific energy. In Fig. (3.2), the water surface which
was at P at section 1 will come down to point R at section 2. The depth y2 will be given by,

V22 Q2
E2 = y 2 + = y2 +
2g 2 gB 2 y 22

Figure 3.2. Specific energy diagram for Fig. (3.1)

It is easy to see from Fig. (3.2) that as the value of ∆ Z is increased, the depth at section 2, or y2 , will decrease. The minimum depth is
reached when the point R coincides with C, the critical depth. At this point the hump height will be maximum, ∆Zmax , y2 = yc =
critical depth, and E2 = Ec = minimum energy for the flowing discharge Q. The condition at ∆Zmax is given by the relation,

Q2
E 1 − ∆ Z max = E 2 = E c = y c +
2 gB 2 y c2

The question may arise as to what happens when ∆Z > ∆ Zmax. From Fig. (3.2) it is seen that the flow is not possible with the given
conditions (given discharge). The upstream depth has to increase to cause and increase in the specific energy at section 1. If this
modified depth is represented by y1' ,
Q2
E 1' = y 1' + ( withE 1' > E 1 andy 1' > y 1 )
2 gB 2 y 1' 2
At section 2 the flow will continue at the minimum specific energy level, i.e. at the critical condition. At this condition, y2 = yc , and,
Q2
E 1 − ∆ Z max = E 2 = E c = y c +
'

2 gB 2 y c2

Recollecting the various sequences, when 0 < ∆ Z < ∆Zmax the upstream water level remains stationary at y1 while the depth of flow
at section 2 decreases with ∆Z reaching a minimum value of yc at ∆Z = ∆Zmax . (Fig.3.2). with further increase in the value of ∆Z,
(i.e., for ∆Z >∆Zmax, y1will change to y1' while y2 will continue to remain yc). The variation of y1 and y2 with ∆Z in the subcritical
regime can be clearly seen in Fig.3.3

Figure 3.3: Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow over a hump Figure 3.4. Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow over a hump

b) Supercritical Flow

If y1 is in the supercritical flow regime Fig (3.2) shows that the depth of flow increases due to the reduction of specific energy. In Fig
(3.2) point P` corresponds to y1 and point R` to depth at the section 2. Up to the critical depth, y2 increases to reach yc at ∆Z = ∆ Zmax
For ∆ Z > ∆Zmax, the depth over the hump y2 = yc will remain constant and the max upstream depth y1 will change. It will decrease to
have a higher specific energy E1` by increasing velocity V1. The variation of the depths y1 and y2 with ∆Z in the supercritical flow is
shown in Fig. (3.4).

Example 3.3: A rectangular channel has a width of 2.0 m and carries a discharge of 4.80m /sec with a depth of 1.60 m. At a certain
cross-section a small, smooth hump with a flat top and a height 0.10 m is proposed to be built.
a). Calculate the likely change in the water surface. Neglect the energy loss.
b). If the height of the hump is 0.50 m, estimate the water surface elevation on the hump and at a section upstream of the hump

Solution:
V1 1.5
Fr1 = = = 0.38 , it show the upstream flow is
gy1 9.81 * 1.60
subcritical and hump will cause a drop in the water surface
elevation. E1 = 1.60 + 0.115 = 1.715m

At section 2
E 2 = E 1 − ∆ Z = 1 . 715 − 0 . 1 = 1 . 615 m ⇒
Let the suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and downstream V 22 2 . 40 2
sections respectively as shown in the fig. E2 = y2 + ⇒ 1 . 615 = y 2 + ⇒ y 2 = 1 . 48 ,
2g 9 . 81 + 2 y 22
Q 4.8 q 2.40
q= = = 2.40m3 / sec/m ⇒ V1 = = = 1.50m / sec q2
1/3
 2 . 40 2 
B 2.0 y 1.60 yc = 3 =   = 0 . 837 m
2 2
g  9 . 81 
V 1.5
1
= = 0.115m Ec = 1 . 5 y c = 1 . 5 * 0 . 837 = 1 . 26 m
2g 2 * 9.81

By Belete B. AAiT Department of Civil Engineering October 2011

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
The drop at water surface elevation is ∆y = 1.60 − 1.48 = 0.02m V1' 2 0.294
E1' = Ec 2 + ∆Z ⇒ y1' + = E c 2 + ∆Z ⇒ y1' + '2 = 1.76
b). If ∆z=0.5 2g y1
E 2 = E1 − ∆Z = 1.715 − 0.5 = 1.215 Solving by trial and error and selecting the positive root gives
Ec 2 = 1.5 yc = 1.5 * 0.837 = 1.26 m y1’ >y2, y1’ =1.648m

The minimum specific energy required at section 2 is greater

than E2, (Ec2=1.26 >E2=1.215), the available specific energy at
that section . Hence , the depth at section 2 will be at the critical
depth and E2=Ec2=1.26m. The upstream depth y1 will increase
to a depth y1 such that the new specific energy at the upstream
section 1 is

Example 3.4: Water flow in a wide channel approaches a 10 cm high hump at 1.50 m/sec velocity and a depth of 1 m. Estimate
a) The water depth y2over the hump and
b) The hump height that will cause the crest flow to be critical.

Solution
b). For critical flow in a wide channel
a). Froude number at upstream of the hump is q= vy=1.5*1=1.5m3/sec/m
V 1.5
Fr1 = 1 = = 0.48 < 1( subcritica l ) Emin = Ec= 1.5(q2/g)1/3=1.5*(1.52/9.81)1/3=0.918m
gy1 9.81 *1
Therefore the maximum height of the hump for frictionless
flow over the hump is
V12 1.50 2
E1 = + y1 = + 1.0 = 1.115m
2g 19.62 ∆Zmax = E1-Emin = 1.115-0.918=0.197m
E 2 = E1 − ∆Z = 1.115 − 0.1 = 1.015m

q= V1y1=V2y2 ⇒ V2= V1y1/y2

V 22 V 2 y2
E2 = y2 + = y 2 + 1 12
2g 2 gy 2
V12 y12
y − E2 y +
3
2
2
2 = 0 ⇒ y 23 − 1.015 y 22 + 0.115 = 0
2g
There are three roots y=0.859m, 0.451m and -0.296m. Since the
third (negative) solution is physically impossible and the
second (smaller) one is for supercritical condition, they are
rejected for this subcritical hump. Thus the depth (y2)= 0.859m.

The water surface level dropped by

∆h= y1-y2-∆Z = 1-0.859-0.1=0.04m

3.3.2 Transition with a Change in Width

a). Subcritical Flow in a Width Constriction

Consider a frictionless horizontal channel of width B1 carrying a discharge Q at a depth y1 as in Fig. (3.5). At a section 2 channel width
has been constricted to B2 by a smooth transition. Since there are no losses involved and since the bed elevations at sections 1 and 2
are the same, the specific energy at section1 is equal to the specific energy at section2.

V12 Q2
E 1 = y1 + = y1 +
2g 2 gB 12 y 12

V 22 Q2
E2 = y2 + = y2 +
2g 2 gB 22 y 22

Figure 3.5. Transition with width constriction

It is convenient to analyze the flow in terms of the discharge intensity q = Q/B. At section 1, q1 = Q/B1 and at section 2, q2 = Q/B. since
B2 < B1, q2 > q1. In the specific energy diagram (Fig.3.6) drawn with the discharge intensity, point P on the curve q1 corresponds to
depth y1 and specific energy E1. Since at section 2, E2 = E1 and q = q2, point P will move vertically downward to point R on the curve
q2 to reach the depth y2.

Thus, in subcritical flow the depth is y2 < y1. If B2 is made smaller, then q2 will increase and y2 will decrease. The limit of the
contracted width B2 = B2min is reached when corresponding to E1, the discharge intensity q2 = q2max, i.e. the maximum discharge
intensity for a given specific energy (critical flow condition) will prevail.

By Belete B. AAiT Department of Civil Engineering October 2011

 Lecture Note for Open Channel Hydraulics
At the minimum width, y2=ycm= Critical depth
Q2
E 1 = E C min = y cm +
2 g ( B 2 min ) 2 y cm
2

2
For a rectangular channel at critical flow y c = Ec
3
Since E1= Ecmin
2 2
y 2 = y cm = E C min = E 1
3 3
1 / 3
 Q 2  Q 2
y c =  2
 ⇒ B 2 min = 3
 B 2 min g  gy cm

3
Q 2  3  27 Q 2
B 2 min = X   = 3
Figure 3.6: Specific energy diagram for Fig. (3.5)
g  2 E 1  8 gE 1

If B2 < B2min, the discharge intensity q2 will be larger than qmax, the maximum discharge intensity consistent E1. The flow will not,
therefore, be possible with the given upstream conditions. The upstream depth will have to increase to y1’. The new specific energy will

Q2
E = y + '
1
'
1
2 g ( B12 y1' 2 )
be formed which will be sufficient to cause critical flow at section2. It may be noted that the new critical depth at section 2 for a
rectangular channel is,
1/3 1/3
 Q2   q2 
y c 2 =  2  =   b). Supercritical Flow in a Width Constriction
 B2 g   g  If the upstream depth y1 is in the supercritical flow regime, a
V c22 reduction of the flow width and hence an increase in the
Ec2 = yc2 + = 1 .5 y c 2 discharge intensity cause a rise in depth y2. In Fig. (3.6), point
2g P` corresponds to y1 and point R` to y2 . As the width B2 is
Since B2 < B2min , yc2 will be larger than ycm , yc2 > ycm . Thus decreased, R` moves up till it becomes critical at B2 = B2min.
even though critical flow prevails for all B2 < B2min, the depth Any further reduction in B2 causes the upstream depth to
section 2 is not constant as in the hump case but increases as decrease to y1` so that E1 rises to E1`. At section2, critical depth
y1`and hence E1` rises. The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2 /B1 yc` corresponding to the new specific energy E1` will prevail.
is shown schematically in Fig.3.7. The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2 /B1 in supercritical flow
regime is indicated in Fig. (5.21).

Figure 3.7. Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow in a width constriction

Figure 3.8: Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow in a width
constriction

3.3.3 Choking

In the case of a channel with a hump, and also in the case of a width constriction, it is observed that the upstream water surface
elevation is not affected by the conditions at section 2 till a critical stage is first achieved. Thus in the case of a hump for all
∆ Z ≤ ∆Zmax , the upstream water depth is constant and for all ∆Z > ∆Zmax the upstream depth is different from y1. Similarly, in the
case of the width constriction, for B2 ≥ B2min, the upstream depth y1 is constant; while for all B2 < B2min, the upstream depth undergoes
a change. This onset of critical condition at section 2 is a prerequisite to choking. Thus all cases with ∆ Z > ∆Zmax or B2 < B2min are
known as choked conditions . Obviously, choked conditions are undesirable and need to be watched in the design of culverts and other
surface drainage features involving channel transitions.

Example 3.5: A rectangular channel is 3.50 m wide conveys a discharge of 15.0 m /sec at a depth of 2.0 m. It is proposed to reduce
the width of the channel at a hydraulic structure. Assuming the transition to be horizontal and the flow to be frictionless determine the
water surface elevations upstream and downstream of the constriction when the constricted width is
a) 2.50 m and b) 2.20 m.

3.3.4. General Transition

A transition in general form may have a change of channel shape, provision of a hump or a depression, contraction or expansion of
channel width, in any combination. In addition, there may be various degrees of loss of energy at various components. However, the
basic dependence of the depths of flow on the channel geometry and specific energy of flow will remain the same. Many complicated
transition situations can be analyzed by using the principles of specific energy and critical depth.

In subcritical flow transitions the emphasis is essentially to provide smooth and gradual changes in the boundary to prevent flow
separation and consequent energy losses. The transitions in supercritical flow are different and involve suppression of shock waves
related disturbances.

Example 3.6: A discharge of 16.0 m /sec flows with a depth of 2.0 m in a rectangular channel 4.0 m wide. At a downstream section
the width is reduced to 3.50 m and the channel bed is raised by ∆Z. Analyze the water surface elevations in the transitions when
a) ∆Z = 0.20 m and b) ∆Z = 0.35 m.

By Belete B. AAiT Department of Civil Engineering October 2011