Genetics 2

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Government Islamia College, Gujranwala

BS-Chemistry 1st Semester


Zoology Invertebrates Animals (ZOOL-101)
Professor Imran
Important Short Questions
State law of segregation.
The Law of Segregation, also known as Mendel's first law of genetics, is a
fundamental principle in genetics it states that
“During the formation of gametes
(sperm or egg cells), the two alleles (or alternative forms of a gene) that control a
particular trait separate from each other so that each gamete receives only one of the
two alleles.”
This means that when two gametes combine during fertilization, the resulting
offspring will have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent.

State law of independent assortment.


The Law of independent assortment, also known as Mendel's second law of
genetics and states that:
“During the production of gametes (eggs or
sperm) in a heterozygous individual (having two different alleles for a particular
gene), the segregation of one allele into a gamete is independent of the segregation of
another allele for a different gene.
This means that the separation of traits during gamete formation is random and
independent, and the resulting offspring will inherit a random combination of alleles
for each trait from their parents.

What are molecular bases of inheritance?


The molecular basis of inheritance refers to the mechanisms by which genetic
information is passed from one generation to the next. This process is primarily
controlled by DNA, which carries the genetic information needed or the development,
function, and reproduction of living organisms. Genetic information is transcribed
from DNA into RNA and translated into proteins, which are the functional molecules
of the cell. Genetic variation arises from mutations in the DNA sequence and genetic
recombination, during sexual reproduction. Genetic recombination shuffles genetic
information, leading to new combinations of genes and further genetic variation.

Define central dogma?


Central dogma: Genetic information flows from DNA (the genetic material) to RNA
(which carries the genetic information) to protein (which carries out the functions)..
The process by which this occurs:
1. DNA is transcribed into RNA by RNA polymerase, which reads the DNA code
and synthesizes an RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template.
2. RNA is then translated into protein by ribosomes, which use the genetic code to
assemble amino acids into a protein chain.

Describe inheritance pattern in animals.


Drosophila melanogaster, commonly known as the fruit fly, has been extensively
studied to understand inheritance patterns in animals. Due to its short lifespan and
ability to produce many offspring, Drosophila is a valuable model organism for
genetic research.

Generation Cross Offspring


Red-eyed
female x white-
P (parental) eyed male All red-eyed offspring (F1 generation)
Red-eyed F1
F1 (first female x red- 3:1 ratio of red-eyed to white-eyed offspring (F2
filial) eyed F1 male generation)

Red-eyed F2 9:3:3:1 ratio of red-eyed to white-eyed offspring,


F2 (second female x red- with other variations possible depending on the genes
filial) eyed F2 male being studied

In the F1 generation, all offspring have red eyes since red is the dominant trait and
white is recessive. In the F2 generation, a 3:1 ratio of red-eyed to white-eyed
offspring is expected due to the segregation of the dominant and recessive alleles. The
F3 generation refers to the offspring resulting from the cross of two F2 individuals.

Brief note on stages of meiosis:


Definition: Meiosis is a type of cell division that results in four genetically diverse
daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Its phases are as:
Prophase I - Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic information
through crossing over.
Metaphase I - Homologous pairs of chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I - Homologous chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles of
the cell.
Telophase I - Chromosomes arrive at the poles, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis,
resulting in two haploid daughter cells.
Prophase II - Chromosomes condense and spindle fibers form.
Metaphase II - Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase II – Sister-chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles of the
cells.
Telophase II - Chromosomes arrive at the poles, and the cell undergoes cytokinesis,
resulting in four haploid daughter cells.

Define Over-Dominance?
Definition: Over dominance is a genetic phenomenon where the heterozygous
condition for a particular gene is more advantageous than either of the two
homozygous conditions. This can result in the maintenance of both alleles in a
population, even though they may have negative effects when present in a
homozygous state.
For example: Sickle cell anemia is an example of over dominance. Individuals who
are homozygous for the mutated allele have sickle cell disease and suffer from its
effects, while individuals who are homozygous for the normal allele do not have the
disease. However, individuals who are heterozygous for the sickle cell allele have
some resistance to malaria, which is advantageous in regions where malaria is
prevalent.

Define dominant and recessive allele?

Dominant Allele Recessive Allele

Masks the expression of the recessive Is only expressed when two copies are
allele present

Produces a functional protein Produces a non-functional protein

Represented by a capital letter (e.g., Represented by a lower-case letter (e.g.,


"D") "d")

Does not determine the physical


Determines the physical appearance or appearance or trait in a heterozygous
trait in a heterozygous individual individual

Can be homozygous dominant (DD) or


heterozygous (Dd) Can only be homozygous recessive (dd)

Define erythroblastosis fetalis?


Erythroblastosis fetalis is a condition that can occur during pregnancy when the
mother's immune system produces antibodies against the developing fetus's red blood
cells. This happens when the mother and fetus have incompatible blood types.
For example: When a Rh-negative mother carries a Rh-positive fetus. The mother's
immune system sees the fetus's Rh factor as foreign and produces antibodies that can
harm the fetus.
Cause: The condition can lead to severe anemia, jaundice, brain damage, or death of
the fetus or newborn. Rh immune globulin can prevent the development of
erythroblastosis fetalis in Rh-negative mothers during pregnancy by blocking the
production of antibodies against the Rh factor.
Difference between genotype and phenotype?

Genotype Phenotype

Phenotype is the result of the interaction


Genotype refers to an individual's genetic between an individual's genotype and
code environmental factors

Observed traits that result from the


It determines the potential traits of an interaction between genotype and
individual environment

Phenotype can vary due to


environmental factors or interactions
Variations in the phenotype may occur between different genes

What are polygenes? Give their function.


Polygenes: Polygenes are genes that control complex traits such as height, weight,
intelligence, and susceptibility to certain diseases. Polygenic traits are controlled by
the multiple genes, each of which may have a small additive effect on the other
trait.
Functions: The function of polygenes is to contribute to the variation and diversity of
traits within a population. And the interaction between these factors determines the
overall phenotype.
Difference between heterozygous and homozygous.

Heterozygous Homozygous

Two different alleles for a trait. Two identical alleles for a trait.
Definition Example: Bb Example: BB or bb.

One dominant and one recessive Two dominant or two recessive


Alleles allele alleles

Expression of Dominant allele expressed in Recessive allele only expressed


trait phenotype in phenotype

Inheritance Can pass on either dominant or Always passes on the same


pattern recessive allele to offspring allele to offspring

Heterozygous for hair color, eye Homozygous for sickle cell


Examples color, blood type anemia, Huntington's disease

What is linkage group?


Definition: A linkage group is a group of genes located on the same chromosome
that tend to be inherited together because they are physically close to each other.
Importance: The importance of linkage groups is that they provide a mechanism for
geneticists to map the location of genes on chromosomes and to study patterns of
inheritance of these genes. In addition, linkage groups are also important for
understanding the evolutionary history of organisms, as they provide insights into the
patterns of genetic diversity and gene flow within and between populations.

What do you know about SRY?


SRY stands for "Sex-determining Region” and “Y” is a gene located on the Y
chromosome in mammals, including humans. The SRY gene is responsible for
triggering the development of male characteristics during embryonic development.
In humans, the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome triggers the
development of male gonads (testes), this leads to the production of male hormones
(such as testosterone) and the development of male reproductive organs and secondary
sex characteristics.

What do you know about universal donor and universal acceptor?


The universal donor blood type is a blood type that is compatible with any other
blood type in a transfusion. In other words, it can be donated to anyone without
causing an adverse reaction due to differences in blood type. The universal donor
blood type is O negative (O-), which does not have the A or B antigens on the surface
of its red blood cells, and is also Rh-negative.
The universal recipient blood type, on the other hand, is a blood type that can receive
blood from any other blood type in a transfusion without causing an adverse reaction.
The universal recipient blood type is AB positive (AB+), which has both the A and B
antigens on the surface of its red blood cells and is also Rh-positive.

What is Rh factor?
The Rh factor is a protein found on the surface of red blood cells in some individuals,
which determines their Rh blood type. It was first discovered by Karl Landsteiner in
1940 from Rhesus monkeys.
When an Rh-negative person receives Rh-positive blood, their immune system can
react to the Rh factor as if it were a foreign invader, leading to the production of
antibodies against the Rh factor, when a Rh-negative mother carries a Rh-positive
fetus. The mother's immune system sees the fetus's Rh factor as foreign and produces
antibodies that can harm the fetus.
This lead to hemolytic disease to newborn. Therefore, Rh-negative mothers during
pregnancy often given Rh immune globulin for blocking the production of antibodies
against the Rh factor.

Sources of variations?
Sources of variations in organisms can be classified into two main categories:
1. Genetic variation: This refers to differences in DNA sequences among
individuals of a population. It can arise from several mechanisms, including
mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, and recombination during sexual reproduction.
2. Environmental variation: This refers to differences in the environment
experienced by individuals of a population, which can influence their phenotype.
Environmental variation can include factors such as temperature, humidity, light,
nutrients, and social interactions.

Describe ABO blood group in detail?


The ABO blood group system is a classification system for human blood that is
based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
The ABO system is named after the A and B antigens, which are two of the main
antigens in this system.
There are four main blood types in the ABO system: A, B, AB, and O. These blood
types are determined by the presence or absence of two antigens A and B, on the
surface of red blood cells, and the presence or absence of antibodies against these
antigens in the plasma.
Blood type A has the A antigen on the surface of red blood cells, and contains anti-B
antibodies in the plasma. Blood type B has the B antigen on the surface of red blood
cells, and contains anti-A antibodies in the plasma. Blood type AB has both the A and
B antigens on the surface of red blood cells, and does not contain any antibodies
against these antigens in the plasma. Blood type O does not have either A or B
antigens on the surface of red blood cells, and contains both anti-A and anti-B
antibodies in the plasma.
The ABO blood group system is important in blood transfusions, as transfusion of
incompatible blood types can lead to hemolysis, which is the destruction of red blood
cells.
It has also been used in studies of human evolution and population genetics.

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