320 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

7.7 MAGNETIC SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS

We recall that some electrostatic field problems were simplified by relating the electric
potential V to the electric field intensity E 1 E 5 2=V 2 . Similarly, we can define a potential
associated with magnetostatic field B. In fact, the magnetic potential could be scalar Vm or
vector A. To define Vm and A involves recalling two important identities (see Example 3.10
and Practice Exercise 3.10):

= 3 1 =V 2 5 0 (7.35a)
= # 1= 3 A2 5 0 (7.35b)

which must always hold for any scalar field V and vector field A.
Just as E 5 2=V , we define the magnetic scalar potential Vm (in amperes) as related
to H according to
H 5 2=Vm if J 5 0 (7.36)

The condition attached to this equation is important and will be explained. Combining
eq. (7.36) and eq. (7.19) gives

J 5 = 3 H 5 = 3 1 2=Vm 2 5 0 (7.37)

since Vm must satisfy the condition in eq. (7.35a). Thus the magnetic scalar potential Vm is
only defined in a region where J 5 0 as in eq. (7.36). We should also note that Vm satisfies
Laplace’s equation just as V does for electrostatic fields; hence,

=2Vm 5 0, 1J 5 02 (7.38)

We know that for a magnetostatic field, = # B 5 0 as stated in eq. (7.34). To satisfy

eqs. (7.34) and (7.35b) simultaneously, we can define the magnetic vector potential A (in
Wb/m) such that

B5=3A (7.39)

Just as we defined

dQ
V53 (7.40)
4peoR

we can define

moI dl
A53 for line current (7.41)
L 4pR

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 320 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 7.7 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials 321

moK dS
A53 for surface current (7.42)
S 4pR

moJ dv
A53 for volume current (7.43)
v 4pR

Rather than obtaining eqs. (7.41) to (7.43) from eq. (7.40), an alternative approach
would be to obtain eqs. (7.41) to (7.43) from eqs. (7.6) to (7.8). For example, we can derive
eq. (7.41) from eq. (7.6) in conjunction with eq. (7.39). To do this, we write eq. (7.6) as

mo I dlr 3 R
B5 (7.44)
4p 3L R3

where R is the distance vector from the line element dl at the source point 1 xr, yr, zr 2 to
the field point 1 x, y, z 2 as shown in Figure 7.19 and R 5 0 R 0 , that is,

R 5 0 r 2 r9 0 5 3 1 x 2 xr 2 2 1 1 y 2 yr 2 2 1 1 z 2 zr 2 2 4 1/2 (7.45)

Hence,

1 1 x 2 xr 2 ax 1 1 y 2 yr 2 ay 1 1 z 2 zr 2 az R
=a b 5 2 2 2 2 3/2
52 3
R 3 1 x 2 xr 2 1 1 y 2 yr 2 1 1 z 2 zr 2 4 R

or

R 1 aR
3 5 2=a b a5 b (7.46)
R R R2

where the differentiation is with respect to x, y, and z. Substituting this into eq. (7.44), we
obtain

mo 1
B52 3 I dlr 3 =a b (7.47)
4p L R

FIGURE 7.19 Illustration of the source point

(x!, y!, z!) and the field point (x, y, z).

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 321 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 322 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

We apply the vector identity

= 3 1 f F 2 5 f = 3 F 1 1 =f 2 3 F (7.48)

where f is a scalar field and F is a vector field. Taking f 5 1/R and F 5 dlr, we have

1 1 dlr
dlr 3 =a b 5 = 3 dlr 2 = 3 a b
R R R

Since operates with respect to 1 x, y, z 2 while dl is a function of 1 xr, yr, zr 2 , = 3 dlr 5 0.

Hence,

1 dlr
dlr 3 =a b 5 2= 3 (7.49)
R R

With this equation, eq. (7.47) reduces to

moI dlr
B5=33 (7.50)
L 4pR

Comparing eq. (7.50) with eq. (7.39) shows that

moI dlr
A53
L 4pR

verifying eq. (7.41).

By substituting eq. (7.39) into eq. (7.32) and applying Stokes’s theorem, we obtain

! 5 3 B # dS 5 3 1 = 3 A 2 # dS 5 C A # dl
S S L

or

! 5 C A # dl (7.51)
L

Thus the magnetic flux through a given area can be found by using either eq. (7.32)
or (7.51). Also, the magnetic field can be determined by using either Vm or A; the
choice is dictated by the nature of the given problem except that Vm can be used only
in a source-free region. The use of the magnetic vector potential provides a powerful,
elegant approach to solving EM problems, particularly those relating to antennas. As we
shall notice in Chapter 13, it is more convenient to find B by first finding A in antenna
problems.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 322 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 7.7 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials 323

EXAMPLE 7.7 Given the magnetic vector potential A 5 2r2 /4 az Wb/m, calculate the total magnetic flux
crossing the surface f 5 p/2, 1 # r # 2 m, 0 # z # 5 m.
Solution:
We can solve this problem in two different ways: using eq. (7.32) or eq. (7.51).
Method 1:

'Az r
B5=3A52 af 5 af, dS 5 dr dz af
'r 2

Hence,

! 5 3 B # dS 5 3 3 r dr dz 5 r2 ` 1 5 2 5
5 2 1
1 1 15
S 2 z50 r51 4 2 4

! 5 3.75 Wb

Method 2:
We use

! 5 C A # dl 5 !1 1 !2 1 !3 1 !4
L

where L is the path bounding surface S; Ψ1, Ψ2, Ψ3, and Ψ4 are, respectively, the evalua-
tions of eLA # dl along the segments of L labeled 1 to 4 in Figure 7.20. Since A has only a
z-component,

!1 5 0 5 !3

FIGURE 7.20 For Example 7.7.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 323 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 324 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

That is,

! 5 !2 1 !4 5 2 c 1 1 2 2 3 dz 1 1 2 2 2 3 dzd
5 0
1
4 0 5

1 15
5 2 11 2 42 152 5
4 4
5 3.75 Wb

as obtained by Method 1. Note that the direction of the path L must agree with that of dS.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 7.7

A current distribution gives rise to the vector magnetic potential A 5 x2yax 1

y2x ay 2 4xyz az Wb/m. Calculate the following:

(a) B at 1 21, 2, 5 2
(b) The flux through the surface defined by z 5 1, 0 # x # 1, 21 # y # 4

Answer: (a) 20ax 1 40ay 1 3az Wb/m2, (b) 20 Wb.

If plane z 5 0 carries uniform current K 5 Kyay,

EXAMPLE 7.8
1/2 Kyax, z.0
H5 e
21/2 Kyax, z,0

This was obtained in Section 7.4 by using Ampère’s law. Obtain this by using the concept
of vector magnetic potential.

Solution:
Consider the current sheet as in Figure 7.21. From eq. (7.42),

moK dS
dA 5
4pR

In this problem, K 5 Kyay, dS 5 dxr dyr, and for z . 0,

R 5 0 R 0 5 0 1 0, 0, z 2 2 1 xr, yr, 0 2 0
(7.8.1)
5 3 1 xr 2 2 1 1 yr 2 2 1 z2 4 1/2

where the primed coordinates are for the source point while the unprimed coordinates
are for the field point. It is necessary (and customary) to distinguish between the two
points to avoid confusion (see Figure 7.19). Hence

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 324 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 7.7 Magnetic Scalar and Vector Potentials 325

FIGURE 7.21 For Example 7.8: infi-

nite current sheet.

moKy dxr dyr ay

dA 5
4p 3 1 xr 2 2 1 1 yr 2 2 1 z2 4 1/2
'
dB 5 = 3 dA 5 2 d Ay ax
'z
moKyz dxr dyr ax
5
4p 3 1 xr 2 2 1 1 yr 2 2 1 z2 4 3/2
moKyzax ` `
dxr dyr
B5 3 3 (7.8.2)
4p 2` 2`
2
3 1 xr 2 1 1 yr 2 2 1 z2 4 3/2

In the integrand, we may change coordinates from Cartesian to cylindrical for convenience
so that

moKyzax ` 2p
rr dfr drr
B5 3 3
4p rr50 fr50 3 1 rr 2 2 1 z2 4 3/2
moKyzax `
5 2p 3 3 1 rr 2 2 1 z2 4 23/2 1/2 d 3 1 rr 2 2 4
4p 0

moKyzax 21 `
5 `
2 3 1 rr 2 2 1 z2 4 1/2 rr50
moKyax
5
2

Hence
B Ky
H5 5 a, for z . 0
mo 2 x

By simply replacing z by 2z in eq. (7.8.2) and following the same procedure, we obtain

Ky
H52 ax, for z , 0
2

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 325 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 326 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

PRACTICE EXERCISE 7.8

Repeat Example 7.8 by using Biot–Savart’s law to determine H at points 1 0, 0, h 2 and

1 0, 0, 2h 2 .

†
7.8 DERIVATION OF BIOT–SAVART’S LAW AND AMPÈRE’S LAW

Both Biot–Savart’s law and Ampère’s law may be derived by using the concept of magnetic
vector potential. The derivation will involve the use of the vector identities in eq. (7.48) and

= 3 = 3 A 5 = 1 = # A 2 2 =2A (7.52)

Since Biot–Savart’s law as given in eq. (7.4) is defined in terms of line current, we begin our
derivation with eqs. (7.39) and (7.41); that is,

moI dlr moI 1

B5=3 C 5 C = 3 dlr (7.53)
L 4pR 4p L R

where R is as defined in eq. (7.45). If the vector identity in eq. (7.48) is applied by letting
F 5 dlr and f 5 1/R, eq. (7.53) becomes

moI 1 1
B5 C c = 3 dlr 1 a= b 3 dlr d (7.54)
4p L R R

Since operates with respect to 1 x, y, z 2 and d l is a function of 1 xr, yr, zr 2 , = 3 dlr 5 0.

Also
1
5 3 1 x 2 xr 2 2 1 1 y 2 yr 2 2 1 1 z 2 zr 2 2 4 21/2 (7.55)
R
1 1 x 2 xr 2 ax 1 1 y 2 yr 2 ay 1 1 z 2 zr 2 az aR
=c d 5 2 2 2 2 3/2
52 2 (7.56)
R 3 1 x 2 xr 2 1 1 y 2 yr 2 1 1 z 2 zr 2 4 R

where aR is a unit vector from the source point to the field point. Thus eq. (7.54) (upon
dropping the prime in d l ) becomes

moI dl 3 aR
B5 (7.57)
4p CL R2
which is Biot–Savart’s law.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 326 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 7.8 Derivation of Biot–Savart’s Law and Ampère’s Law 327

Using the identity in eq. (7.52) with eq. (7.39), we obtain

= 3 B 5 = 1 = # A 2 2 =2A (7.58)

For reasons that will be obvious in Chapter 9, we choose

=#A50 (7.59)

which is called Coulomb’s gauge. Upon replacing B with moH and using eq. (7.19),
eq. (7.58) becomes

=2A 5 2mo= 3 H

or

=2A 5 2moJ (7.60)

which is called the vector Poisson equation. It is similar to Poisson’s equation 1 =2V 5 2rv /e 2
in electrostatics. In Cartesian coordinates, eq. (7.60) may be decomposed into three scalar
equations:

=2Ax 5 2moJx
=2Ay 5 2moJy (7.61)
=2Az 5 2moJz

which may be regarded as the scalar Poisson equations.

It can also be shown that Ampère’s circuit law is consistent with our definition of the
magnetic vector potential. From Stokes’s theorem and eq. (7.39),

# #
C H dl 5 3 = 3 H dS
L S
(7.62)
1
5 = 3 1 = 3 A 2 # dS
mo 3S

From eqs. (7.52), (7.59), and (7.60),

= 3 = 3 A 5 2=2 A 5 moJ

Substituting this into eq. (7.62) yields

# #
C H dl 5 3 J dS 5 I
L S

which is Ampère’s circuit law.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 327 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 328 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

†
7.9 APPLICATION NOTE—LIGHTNING

Lightning is the discharge of static electricity generated in clouds by natural processes.

Lightning may also be regarded as a transient, high-current electric discharge. It is a major

natural source of electromagnetic radiation that interferes with modern electronics and
communication systems. Lightning strikes somewhere on the surface of the earth about 100
times every second. Lightning, the thunderbolt from mythology, has long been feared as an
atmospheric flash of supernatural origins: the great weapon of the gods. Today, scientific
rather than mystical techniques are used to explain lightning, with experimental procedures
replacing intuitive concepts. Yet, we remain in awe of lightning, which still shines with its
mystery, and rightly so. Deaths and injuries to livestock and other animals, thousands of
forest and brush fires, and millions of dollars in damage to buildings, communications sys-
tems, power lines, and electrical systems are among the results of lightning.
Since lightning can reach from clouds to the ground or to other clouds, lightning may
be classified into two types: (1) cloud-to-cloud and (2) cloud-to-ground. A typical cloud-to-
ground lighting is shown in Figure 7.22. The cloud-to-cloud discharge is more common and
is important for aircraft in flight. However, cloud-to-ground lightning has been studied more
extensively because of its practical interest (e.g., as the cause of injuries and death or disturbanc-
es in power and communication systems). A typical cloud-to-ground lightning carries about 10
C to 20 C at an average height of 5 km above the ground. The portion of the cloud-to-ground
discharge that produces physical damage at ground level by virtue of its high current is called
the return stroke. The current in a return stroke is typically 10 kA but can be as high as 200 kA.
Under good weather conditions, an electric field of the order 100 V/m exists near
the earth’s surface. Movements inside a cloud cause the cloud to become an electric
dipole, with negative charges in the lower part and positive charges in the upper part.

FIGURE 7.22 A cloud-to-ground lightning.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 328 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 7.10 Application Note—Polywells 329

The approach of the negatively charged particles to the ground induces more positive
charges, especially on tall, sharp structures. A lightning bolt follows the path of least
resistance at the moment of initiation; this is rarely a straight line, and it is unique for
each strike. However, if we assume that lightning strokes arrive in the vertical direction,
we can estimate the striking distance as a function of the amplitude of the current of the
return stroke. The base striking distance D in meters, and the current I, in kiloamperes,
are related as

D 5 10I 0.65 (7.63)

Humans and animals within the striking distance may be hurt.

A common way to protect people, buildings, and other structures from lightning is to
use lightning rods. Originally developed by Benjamin Franklin, a lightning rod is a pointed
metal rod attached to the roof of a building. It is connected to a copper or aluminum wire,
and the wire is connected to a conductive grid buried in the ground nearby. Lightning rods
provide a low-resistance path to ground that can be used to conduct the enormous electrical
currents when lightning strikes occur. When lightning strikes, the system attempts to carry
the harmful electrical current away from the structure and safely to ground.

7.10 APPLICATION NOTE—POLYWELLS

A polywell is a polyhedral group of metal rings; inside each ring is a coil, which produces
a magnetic field. As schematically illustrated in Figure 7.23, the position of each of the
rings and the direction of current flow in each coil are set to create a null magnetic field at

FIGURE 7.23 Coils in a polywell.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 329 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 330 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

the center of the cube. On two opposing sides of the cube a stream of electrons is injected
through the rings. These injected electrons are pushed by the magnetic field toward the
(magnetically null) center of the cube, forming a cloud of electrons. When this cloud of
electrons is large enough, it will create what is known as an electrostatic potential well.
The polywell’s name comes from its polyhedral shape and the electrostatic potential well
produces.
In a nuclear fusion reactor two lighter atomic particles fuse together to form a heavier
particle, releasing large amounts of energy. The normal activity inside a nuclear fusion
reactor is as follows: Two spherically concentric, gridded electrodes create a radial electric
field that acts as an electrostatic potential well. Then the radial electric field accelerates ions
to fusion-revelant energies and confines them in the central grid region.
The fusion reactor system, however, suffers from substantial energy loss due to colli-
sions between the grid itself and the ions. The polywell overcomes this problem by replac-
ing the physical cathode with a virtual cathode, the electron cloud. In the polywell the ion
streams are injected into the polyhedron through the remaining four rings. These ions are
attracted to the electron cloud and are accelerated to the energy at which fusion can occur.
All these parts—the polywell and the electron and ion guns—are encapsulated in a
collection sphere, with all of this inside a vacuum chamber. This collection sphere captures
the energy released from the fusion process in the form of alpha particles, which come
from the fusion, inside the electron cloud, of boron and hydrogen ions. The use of boron
and hydrogen in nuclear fusion is becoming more popular than the use of deuterium
and tritium as fuel. Unlike the fusion of deuterium and tritium, the fusion of boron and
hydrogen produces little to no radiation and, since the only by-product is helium, there is
no radioactive waste.

MATLAB 7.1 y

y = x2

P(–0.5, 0.5, 0)
I

Suppose a 0.5 mA segment of current travels along the parabola y 5 x2 between a 5 1 0, 0, 0 2 and
b 5 1 1, 1, 0 2 cm. Using the Biot–Savart law, determine the magnetic field at point P(–0.5, 0.5, 0) due
to the segment.

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 330 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 7.10 Application Note—Polywells 331

We will find the general solution and evaluate at the observation point. We use the Biot–Savart law
to obtain the magnetic field at point P:
Idl 3 aR
H53 2
L 4pR

The unit vector from the incremental current filament at 1 xr, yr, 0 2 to the observation point P
(x, y, z) is

1 x 2 xr 2 ax 1 1 y 2 yr 2 ay 1 zaz
aR 5
R

R 5 " 1 x 2 xr 2 2 1 1 y 2 yr 2 2 1 z2

The incremental current element is given by

IdL 5 I 1 dxrax 1 dyray 2

The cross product is
1 x 2 xr 2 ax 1 1 y 2 yr 2 ay 1 zaz
IdL 3 aR 5 I 1 dxray 1 dyray 2 3
" 1 x 2 xr 2 2 1 1 y 2 yr 2 2 1 1 z 2 zr 2 2

Thus
b 3 1 y 2 yr 2 dxr 2 1 x 2 xr 2 dyr 4 a 2 z dxra 1 z dyra
IdL 3 aR I z y x
H53 2 5 3 2 2 2 1.5
L 4pR 4p a 3 1 x 2 xr 1 y 2 yr 1 z
2 1 2 4

This integral is numerically evaluated as 0.85I; thus the magnetic field at P is given by:
mA
H 5 1.9437az
m
clear
I=0.5e-3; % the current value
% prompt for observation point

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 331 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 332 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

% in space
"

end

MATLAB 7.2

%
%

clear
% prompt user for input materials

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 332 23/09/17 2:38 PM

 Summary 333

% the distance from the current

% the unit vector in the phi direction

% fill matrices which contain the vector

end
end

figure

SUMMARY
1. The basic laws (Biot–Savart’s and Ampère’s) that govern magnetostatic fields are discussed.
Biot–Savart’s law, which is similar to Coulomb’s law, states that the magnetic field intensity
dH at r due to current element I dl at r is

I dl 3 R
dH 5 (in A/m)
4pR3

where R 5 r 2 rr and R 5 0 R 0 . For surface or volume current distribution, we replace

I dl with K dS or J dv, respectively; that is,

I dl ; K dS ; J dv

2. Ampère’s circuit law, which is similar to Gauss’s law, states that the circulation of H
around a closed path is equal to the current enclosed by the path; that is,

# #
C H dl 5 Ienc 5 3 J dS
L S

07_Sadiku_Ch07.indd 333 23/09/17 2:38 PM