INTRODUCTION TO

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
 BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

- THE BRANCH OF PSYCHOLOGY THAT STUDIES THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR,

EMOTIONS, AND MENTAL PROCESSES (PICKETT, 2000)

- EMPHASIZES THAT THE GOAL IS TO RELATE BIOLOGY TO ISSUES OF PSYCHOLOGY.

- IT HOLD THAT THE PROPER WAY TO UNDERSTAND BEHAVIOR IS IN TERMS OF HOW IT EVOLVED
AND HOW THE FUNCTIONING OF THE BRAIN AND OTHER ORGANS CONTROLS BEHAVIOR.
 HISTORICAL HIGHLIGHTS IN BIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
• 7000 YEARS AGO – PEOPLE TRIED DRILLING HOLES IN THE SKULL (TREPHINING OR TREPANATION)
EITHER HOPED TO RELEASE DEMONS OR RELIEVE FEELINGS OF PRESSURE (CLOWER & FINGER, 2001)

• EDWIN SMITH SURGICAL PAPYRUS, 5000 YEARS OLD – EGYPTIANS DID NOT SEEM TO VIEW THE
BRAIN AS AN IMPORTANT STRUCTURE.
• PARALYSIS AND LACK OF SENSATION IN THE BODY RESULTED FROM NERVOUS SYSTEM DAMAGE AND IS
USUALLY CLASSIFIED AS “AN AILMENT NOT TO BE TREATED”

• GREEKS SCHOLARS (4TH CENTURY BC) – PROPOSED THAT THE BRAIN WAS THE ORGAN OF
SENSATION, BUILDING ON THE KNOWLEDGE TAKEN FROM ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
• HIPPOCRATES (460 – 379 BC) – SUGGESTED THAT THE BRAIN WAS THE SOURCE OF INTELLIGENCE.
HE CORRECTLY IDENTIFIED EPILEPSY AS ORIGINATING IN THE BRAINS

• ARISTOTLE – THE HEART WAS THE SOURCE OF INTELLECT

• HEROPHILUS – THE FATHER OF ANATOMY, BELIEVED THAT THE VENTRICLES (THE FLUID-FILLED CAVITIES
IN THE BRAIN) PLAYED THIS IMPORTANT ROLE.

• GALEN (130 – 200 CE) – BELIEVED THAT THE VENTRICLES PLAYED AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN
TRANSMITTING MESSAGES TO AND FROM THE BRAIN. FLUIDS FLOWING WITHIN THE VENTRICLES
WERE BELIEVED TO BE CONTINUOUS WITH FLUIDS

• RENE DESCARTES (1596 – 1650) – SUPPORTS THE MIND-BODY DUALISM, THE BODIES OF BOTH
HUMANS AND ANIMALS WORKED MECHANICALLY. FOR HIM, THE MIND IS NOT ACCESSIBLE TO STUDY
THROUGH THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
• MODERN NEUROSCIENCES ARE BASED ON MONISM, IT PROPOSES THAT THE MIND IS

THE RESULT OF ACTIVITY IN THE BRAIN, WHICH CAN BE STUDIED SCIENTIFICALLY

• 1500 – 1800 – PROGRESS IN DESCRIBING THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NS

• 1674 – ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK DISCOVERED MICROSCOPE

• BENJAMIN FRANKLIN – HIS BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF ELECTRICITY DISCARDED THE GALEN-

DESCARTES NOTION OF CONTROL VIA THE MOVEMENT OF FLUIDS

• LUIGI GALVANI AND EMIL DU BOIS-REYMOND – ESTABLISHED ELECTRICITY AS THE MODE OF

COMMUNICATION USED BY THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

• FRANZ JOSEPH GALL (ELABORATED BY JOHANN
CASPER SPURZHEIM) – PROPOSED THE NOTION
THAT CERTAIN BODY FUNCTIONS ARE CONTROLLED
BY CERTAIN AREAS OF THE BRAIN, CALLED
LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTIONS

• PHRENOLOGY – STRUCTURE OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S SKULL

COULD BE CORRELATED WITH HIS/HER INDIVIDUAL
PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND ABILITIES.
MAJOR ISSUES IN BIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY

• THE MIND-BODY RELATIONSHIP

• THE GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR
• THE USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH
 THE MIND-BODY RELATIONSHIP
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF BEHAVIOR:
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION – RELATES A BEHAVIOR TO THE ACTIVITY OF THE
BRAIN AND OTHER ORGANS. EX. THE CHEMICAL REACTION THAT ENABLE
HORMONES TO INFLUENCE BRAIN ACTIVITY AND THE ROUTES BY WHICH BRAIN
ACTIVITY CONTROLS MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS.
2. ONTOGENETIC EXPLANATION – (DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY) DESCRIBES HOW A
STRUCTURE OR BEHAVIOR DEVELOPS, INCLUDING THE INFLUENCES OF GENES,
NUTRITION, EXPERIENCES, AND THEIR INTERACTIONS. EX. THE ABILITY TO INHIBIT
IMPULSES DEVELOPS GRADUALLY FROM INFANCY THROUGH THE TEENAGE YEARS,
REFLECTING GRADUAL MATURATION OF THE FRONTAL PARTS OF THE BRAIN.
3. E VO L U T I O N A RY E X P L A N AT I O N – R E C O N S T R U C T S T H E
EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF A STRUCTURE OR BEHAVIOR. EX.
GOOSEBUMPS, THE BEHAVIOR EVOLVED IN OUR REMOTE
ANCESTORS, AND WE INHERITED THE MECHANISM.

4. FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION – DESCRIBES WHY THE STRUCTURE

OR BEHAVIOR EVOLVED AS IT DID. WITHIN A SMALL, ISOLATED
POPULATION, A GENE CAN SPREAD BY ACCIDENT THROUGH A
PROCESS CALLED GENETIC DRIFT.
 THE BRAIN AND CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE

BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF BEHAVIOR RAISE THE MIND-BODY OR MIND-

BRAIN PROBLEM: WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MIND AND THE
BRAIN?
DUALISM – THE BELIEF THAT MIND AND BODY ARE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
SUBSTANCE THAT EXIST INDEPENDENTLY
MONISM – THE BELIEF THAT THE UNIVERSE CONSISTS OF ONLY ONE KIND OF
SUBSTANCE.
 FORMS OF MONISM
1. MATERIALISM (ELIMINATIVE MATERIALISM) – MENTAL EVENTS DON’T EXIST AT ALL. IN
OTHER WORDS, OUR MINDS ARE FIGMENTS OF OUR IMAGINATION.
a) A MORE PLAUSIBLE VERSION IS THAT WE WILL EVENTUALLY FIND A WAY TO EXPLAIN ALL
PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIENCES IN PURELY PHYSICAL TERMS.

2. MENTALISM – THE VIEW THAT ONLY THE MIND REALLY EXIST, AND THAT THE PHYSICAL
WORLD COULD NOT EXIST UNLESS SOME MIND WERE AWARE OF IT.

3. IDENTITY POSITIONING – THE VIEW THAT MENTAL PROCESSES AND CERTAIN KINDS OF
BRAIN PROCESSES ARE THE SAME THING, DESCRIBED IN DIFFERENT TERMS.
 THE GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR
GENES – UNITS OF HEREDITY THAT MAINTAIN THEIR STRUCTURAL IDENTITY FROM ONE
GENERATION TO ANOTHER.
- A PORTION OF A CHROMOSOME AND IS COMPOSED OF DOUBLE-STRANDED MOLECULE
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

CHROMOSOMES – STRANDS OF GENES WHICH ALSO COMES IN PAIRS.

HOMOZYGOUS – ANYONE WITH AN IDENTICAL PAIR OF GENE.
HETEROZYGOUS – UNMATCHED PAIR OF GENES
DOMINANT GENES – SHOWS STRONG EFFECT IN EITHER THE HOMOZYGOUS OR
HETEROZYGOUS CONDITION
RECESSIVE GENE – SHOWS ITS EFFECTS ONLY IN THE HOMOZYGOUS CONDITION
 THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR
EVOLUTION – IS A CHANGE OVER GENERATIONS IN THE FREQUENCIES OF VARIOUS GENES IN A
POPULATION.

HOW DO WE EVOLVE? HOW THE PROCESS WORKS?

1. OFFSPRING RESEMBLES PARENTS
2. MUTATIONS OF GENES (MAY HELP OR HARM THE INDIVIDUAL)
3. ANY GENE THAT IS CONSISTENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS WILL BECOME
MORE PREVALENT IN LATER GENERATION

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION – BREEDERS CHOOSING INDIVIDUALS WITH A DESIRED TRAIT AND MAKE THEM
THE PARENTS OF THE NEXT GENERATION
 COMMON MISUNDERSTANDING ABOUT
EVOLUTION

1. DOES THE USE OR DISUSE OF SOME STRUCTURE OR BEHAVIOR CAUSE AN EVOLUTIONARY

INCREASE OR DECREASE IN THE FEATURE?
LAMARCKIAN EVOLUTION – ACCORDING TO THIS IDEA, IF YOU EXERCISE YOUR ARM MUSCLES, YOUR
CHILDREN WILL BE BORN WITH BIGGER ARM MUSCLES, AND IF YOU FAIL TO USE YOUR LITTLE TOES,
YOUR CHILDREN’S LITTLE TOES WILL BE SMALLER THAN YOURS.

ANSWER: THIS IS POSSIBLE ONLY IF THE GENES FOR A CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS HAVE AN
ADVANTAGE OVER OTHER PEOPLE AND MANAGE TO OUT REPRODUCE THEM.
 2. HAVE HUMANS STOPPED EVOLVING?

BECAUSE MODERN MEDICINE CAN KEEP ALMOST ANYONE ALIVE, SOME PEOPLE ASSERT THAT
HUMANS ARE NO LONGER SUBJECT TO THE PRINCIPLE OF “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST”.
THEREFORE, HUMAN EVOLUTION HAS SLOWED OR STOPPED.

ANSWER: THE KEY TO EVOLUTION IS NOT SURVIVAL BUT REPRODUCTION. IF PEOPLE WITH
CERTAIN GENES HAVE MORE THAN THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF CHILDREN, THEIR GENES WILL
SPREAD IN THE POPULATION.
 3. DOES “EVOLUTION” MEAN “IMPROVEMENT”?

BY DEFINITION, EVOLUTION IMPROVES THE AVERAGE FITNESS OF THE POPULATION

FITNESS – THE NUMBER OF COPIES OF ONE’S GENES THAT ENDURE IN LATER GENERATION
4. DOES EVOLUTION BENEFIT THE INDIVIDUAL OR
THE SPECIES?

ANSWER: NEITHER. IT BENEFITS THE GENES. YOU DO NOT USE YOUR GENES TO REPRODUCE
YOURSELF. RATHER, YOUR GENES USE YOU TO REPRODUCE THEMSELVES

MOTHERS HAVE A GENE THAT CAUSES THEM TO RISK THEIR LIVES TO PROTECT THEIR CHILDREN.
 THE USE OF ANIMALS IN RESEARCH
REASON FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH
1. THE UNDERLYING MECHANISMS OF BEHAVIOR ARE SIMILAR ACROSS SPECIES AND
SOMETIMES EASIER TO STUDY IN NONHUMAN SPECIES.

2. WE ARE INTERESTED IN ANIMALS FOR THEIR OWN SAKE

3. WHAT WE LEARN ABOUT ANIMALS, SHEDS LIGHT ON HUMAN

4. CERTAIN EXPERIMENTS CANNOT USE HUMANS BECAUSE OF LEGAL OR ETHICAL

RESTRICTIONS.
 THE ETHICAL DEBATE

• SOME RESEARCH SIMPLY OBSERVE ANIMALS IN NATURE

• IN OTHER EXPERIMENTS, ANIMALS HAVE BEEN SUBJECTED TO BRAIN

DAMAGE, ELECTRODE IMPLANTATION, INJECTIONS OF DRUGS OR
HORMONES, AND SO FORTH

• MANY LABORATORY ANIMALS DO UNDERGO PAINFUL OR DEBILITATING

PROCEDURES THAT ARE ADMITTEDLY NOT FOR THEIR OWN BENEFIT.
• EXPERIMENTATION WITH ANIMALS HAS BEEN CRITICAL TO THE MEDICAL RESEARCH
THAT LED TO METHODS FOR THE PREVENTION OR TREATMENT OF POLIO, DIABETES,
MEASLES, SMALLPOX, MASSIVE BURNS, HEART DISEASE, AND OTHER SERIOUS
CONDITION.

• MOST NOBLE PRIZES ON PHYSIOLOGY OR MEDICINE HAVE BEEN AWARDED FOR

RESEARCH CONDUCTED ON NONHUMAN ANIMALS.

• MANY KINDS OF RESEARCH IN BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY COULD NOT PROGRESS

AT ALL WITHOUT ANIMALS, AND MANY OTHERS WOULD PROGRESS VERY SLOWLY.
 DEGREES OF OPPOSITION
“MINIMALISTS”
• TOLERATE ANIMAL RESEARCH UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS
• THEY PROHIBIT OTHERS DEPENDING ON THE PROBABLE VALUE OF THE RESEARCH, THE AMOUNT OF
DISTRESS TO ANIMALS, AND THE TYPE OF ANIMAL
“ABOLITIONISTS”
• ALL ANIMALS HAVE THE SAME RIGHTS AS HUMANS
• THEY REGARD KILLING AN ANIMAL AS MURDER, WHETHER THE INTENTION IS TO EAT IT, USE ITS FUR,
OR GAIN SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
• THEIR MORAL IMPERATIVE IS THAT PEOPLE HAVE NO RIGHT TO USE ANIMALS, EVEN IF THE RESEARCH
IS USEFUL AND EVEN IF IT IS PAINLESS.
 “NEVER KNOWINGLY HARM AN INNOCENT”
VS.
“SOMETIMES A LITTLE HARM LEADS TO A GREATER GOOD”
 POSSIBLE COMPROMISE

• THEY AGREE THAT THEY SHOULD USE FEWER ANIMALS AND DO AS MUCH AS THEY CAN TO
MINIMIZE PAIN WHENEVER POSSIBLE.
THE LEGAL STANDARD EMPHASIZES “THE THREE R’S”
1. REDUCTION OF ANIMAL NUMBERS
2. REPLACEMENT – USING COMPUTER MODELS OR OTHER SUBSTITUTES FOR ANIMALS WHEN
POSSIBLE
3. REFINEMENT – MODIFYING THE PROCEDURES TO REDUCE PAIN AND DISCOMFORT
 RESEARCH METHODS IN BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY
• HISTOLOGY – REFERS TO THE STUDY OF MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES AND TISSUES. IT PROVIDE MEANS FOR OBSERVING
THE STRUCTURE, ORGANIZATION, AND CONNECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL CELLS.
• AUTOPSY – EXAMINATION OF THE BODY FOLLOWING DEATH.
• IMAGING – WE CAN WATCH THE LIVING BRAIN AS IT ENGAGES IN PROCESSES SUCH AS READING OR EMOTIONAL
RESPONSE.
• RECORDING – RECORDS THE ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC OUTPUT FROM THE BRAIN.
• BRAIN STIMULATION – ARTIFICIALLY STIMULATING THE AREA IN QUESTION AND WATCHING FOR RESULTING BEHAVIOR.
• LESION – INJURY TO THE NEURAL TISSUE AND CAN BE EITHER NATURALLY OCCURRING OR DELIBERATELY PRODUCED.
THIS IS TO ASSESS THE PROBABLE FUNCTION OF AN AREA.
• BIOCHEMICAL METHODS – IDENTIFYING PARTICULAR CHEMICALS IN A VERY SMALL LOCATION.
• GENETIC METHODS – IDENTIFY THE RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF HEREDITARY AND ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES ON A
PARTICULAR BEHAVIOR.
• STEM CELLS
 1. HISTOLOGY
REFERS TO THE STUDY OF MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES AND TISSUES. IT PROVIDE MEANS FOR
OBSERVING THE STRUCTURE, ORGANIZATION, AND CONNECTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL CELLS.
STEPS:
1. FREEZING THE TISSUE OR BY TREATING IT WITH FORMALIN
2. SLICED IN A SPECIAL MACHINE KNOWN AS A MICROTOME. IF USING A LIGHT MICROSCOPE, THE
TISSUE MUST BE SLICED BETWEEN 10 TO 80 MICROMETERS
3. USE APPROPRIATE STAINS:
• GOLGI SILVER STAIN – TO MAKE A DETAILED STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A SMALL NUMBER OF
SINGLE CELLS
• NISSL STAIN – IF YOU ARE INTERESTED IN IDENTIFYING CLUSTERS OF CELL BODIES., THE MAJOR BULK
OF THE NERVE CELL, WITHIN A SAMPLE OF TISSUE; CELL SIZES AND NUMBER OF CELLS
• MYELIN STAIN – ALLOWS YOU TO FOLLOW PATHWAYS CARRYING INFORMATION FROM ONE PART
OF THE BRAIN TO ANOTHER BY STAINING THE INSULATING MATERIAL THAT COVERS MANY NERVE
FIBERS
• HORSERADISH PEROXIDASE – IF YOU KNOW WHERE A PATHWAY ENDS BUT WOULD LIKE TO
DISCOVER ITS POINT OF ORIGIN.
4. IT CAN BE VIEWED UNDER EITHER LIGHT OR ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (DEVELOPED IN
GERMANY IN 1930S)
2. AUTOPSY– EXAMINATION OF THE BODY FOLLOWING DEATH.
3. IMAGING – WE CAN WATCH THE LIVING BRAIN AS IT ENGAGES IN PROCESSES SUCH AS
READING OR EMOTIONAL RESPONSE.

A. COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY (CT)

• WILHELM RONTGEN DISCOVERED X-RAYS IN 1896.
• CT SCAN WAS INVENTED IN 1972 BY GODFREY HOUNSFIELD AND ALLAN CORMAK.
• ALLOWS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHLY DETAILED THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGES AND
ALLOWS EXCELLENT STRUCTURAL INFORMATION BUT CANNOT DISTINGUISH BETWEEN A LIVING
BRAIN AND A DEAD ONE.

•
B. POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) – ALLOWS RESEARCHERS TO OBSERVE BRAIN
ACTIVITY.
• RED AND YELLOW – AREAS OF HIGH ACTIVITY
• GREEN, BLUE, AND BLACK – AREAS OF LOW ACTIVITY
c. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) – PROVIDES VERY HIGH RESOLUTION STRUCTURAL
IMAGES.
• RAYMOND DAMADIAN, LARRY MINKOFF, AND MICHAEL GOLDSMITH PRODUCED THE FIRST
MRI IMAGE IN 1977
• HAS BECOME A STANDARD MEDICAL DIAGNOSTIC TOOL AND A VALUABLE RESEARCH
ASSET
• IT CAN PROVIDE IMAGES TAKEN AT ANY ANGLE WITHOUT ANY MOVEMENT OF THE
INDIVIDUAL.
FUNCTIONAL MRI (FMRI)

- USE TO ASSESS BRAIN ACTIVITY. TRACKS THE CEREBRAL BLOOD FLOW

- THE FIRST FMRI OF THE BRAIN WAS CONDUCTED BY BELLIVEAU ET AL. (1991)
- IT TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE FACT THAT ACTIVE NEURONS REQUIRE MORE OXYGEN THAN LESS
ACTIVE NEURONS, AND THAT VARIATIONS IN BLOOD FLOW TO A PARTICULAR AREA WILL
REFLECT THIS NEED.
- IN TRACKING BRAIN ACTIVITY, FMRI IS CONSIDERED SUPERIOR IN BOTH SPATIAL AND
TEMPORAL RESOLUTION TO PET SCANS.
 4. RECORDING
RECORDS THE ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC OUTPUT FROM THE BRAIN.

a. THE ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)

• HANS BERGER, 1924 – FIRST RECORDINGS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN’S ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY,
MEASURED THROUGH ELECTRODES PLACED ON THE SCALP.
• THE RECORDINGS VARIED DURING WAKEFULNESS, SLEEP, ANESTHESIA, AND EPILEPSY
• IT MEASURES THE ACTIVITY OF LARGE NUMBERS OF CELLS, KNOWN AS A FIELD POTENTIAL.
• EEG DID NOT CHANGE MUCH AND DID NOT OFFER ANYTHING FURTHER TO OUR
UNDERSTANDING OF BRAIN FUNCTIONS. HOWEVER, COMPUTERIZED EEG BRAIN
TOMOGRAPHY CAN BE USED TO GENERATE MAPS OF ACTIVITY, MAKING IT POSSIBLE TO
PINPOINT THE SOURCE OF ABNORMAL ACTIVITY
B. MAGNETOENCEPHALOGRAPHY (MEG)
• ALLOWS RESEARCHERS TO RECORD THE BRAIN’S MAGNETIC ACTIVITY
• THE ADVANTAGE OF RECORDING MAGNETISM RATHER THAN ELECTRICAL
ACTIVITY FROM THE BRAIN RELATES TO THE INTERFERENCE OF THE SKULL
BONES AND OTHER TISSUES SEPARATING THE BRAIN FROM THE
ELECTRODES.
• MEG UTILIZES SENSORS KNOWN AS SUPERCONDUCTING QUANTUM
INTERFERENCE DEVICES (SQUID) THAT CONVERT MAGNETIC ENERGY
INTO ELECTRICAL IMPULSES THAT CAN BE RECORDED AND ANALYZED.
C. SINGLE-CELL RECORDINGS
• BOTH EXTRACELLULAR AND INTRACELLULAR EVENTS FROM A SINGLE NEURON
CAN BE ASSESSED USING TINY MICROELECTRODES SURGICALLY IMPLANTED IN
THE AREA OF INTEREST.
• THESE ELECTRODES CAN IDENTIFY THE OCCURRENCE OF ELECTRICAL SIGNALS
WITHIN A SINGLE NEURON WITHOUT CONTAMINATION OF ACTIVITY FROM
ADJACENT CELLS.
• ELECTRODES CAN BE PERMANENTLY IMPLANTED, ALLOWING ANIMALS FREE
RANGE OF MOVEMENT DURING STIMULATION.
 5. BRAIN STIMULATION

• ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE BRAIN CAN BE APPLIED DURING NEUROSURGERY. MOST

NEUROSURGERY IS CONDUCTED UNDER LOCAL, AS OPPOSED TO GENERAL ANESTHESIA.
• ONCE THE BONE AND THE TISSUES COVERING THE BRAIN ARE ANESTHETIZED, THE SURGEON
CAN WORK ON THE BRAIN OF THE CONSCIOUS PATIENT WITHOUT CAUSING PAIN.
• BY STIMULATING THE AREA IN QUESTION WITH A SMALL AMOUNT OF ELECTRICITY AND
ASSESSING ANY CHANGES IN BEHAVIOR, THE SURGEON CAN IDENTIFY WHETHER THE AREA
PARTICIPATES IN A PARTICULAR TYPE OF BEHAVIOR.
• FOR ETHICAL REASONS, MOST STIMULATION RESEARCH HAS BEEN CONDUCTED WITH
LABORATORY ANIMALS RATHER THAN HUMANS.
• NOT ALL AREAS OF THE BRAIN PRODUCE PLEASANT SENSATIONS WHEN STIMULATED. FEAR,
ANXIETY, RAGE, OR OTHER NEGATIVE RESPONSES ARE ALSO ELICITED BY ELECTRICAL
STIMULATION.
a. REPEATED TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (RTMS) –
• CONSISTS OF MAGNETIC PULSES DELIVERED THROUGH A SINGLE COIL OF WIRE ENCASED IN
PLASTIC THAT IS PLACED ON THE SCALP.
• LOW FREQUENCY RTMS (ABOUT ONE PULSE PER SECOND) PROVIDES AN INTERESTING
TECHNIQUE FOR TEMPORARILY CHANGING BRAIN ACTIVITY IMMEDIATELY BELOW THE
STIMULATION SITE.
• IN SOME CASES, RTMS WILL INHIBIT A CERTAIN FUNCTION, SUCH AS “HEARING VOICES”
AMONG SOME PATIENTS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA
 6. LESION

- IS AN INJURY TO NEUTRAL TISSUE AND CAN BE EITHER NATURALLY OCCURRING OR

DELIBERATELY PRODUCED.
- THE PURPOSE IS TO ASSESS THE PROBABLE FUNCTION OF AN AREA.
- BEHAVIOR OBSERVED PRIOR TO THE LESION CAN BE COMPARED WITH BEHAVIOR OCCURRING
AFTER THE LESION, WITH CHANGES ATTRIBUTED TO THE AREA THAT WAS DAMAGED.
- LESIONS NOT ONLY DAMAGE A PARTICULAR AREA OF THE BRAIN BUT ALSO DAMAGE ANY
NERVE FIBERS PASSING THROUGH THAT AREA.
• NEUROPSYCHOLOGISTS EVALUATE NATURALLY OCCURRING LESIONS THAT RESULT FROM
INJURY OR DISEASE, GAINING A GREAT DEAL OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE FUNCTION OF
THE BRAIN.
• DELIBERATE LESIONS ARE GENERALLY PERFORMED IN RESEARCH USING LABORATORY ANIMALS,
AS OPPOSED TO HUMAN PARTICIPANTS.
• LESIONS ARE OCCASIONALLY USED TO TREAT CASES OF EPILEPSY THAT DO NOT RESPOND TO
MEDICATION.
• ABLATION – LARGE AREAS OF BRAIN TISSUE ARE SURGICALLY REMOVED.
 7. BIOCHEMICAL METHODS

• DIFFERENT METHODS USED TO ADMINISTER DRUGS TO A SUBJECT INCLUDE EATING, INHALING,

CHEWING, AND INJECTING THE DRUGS. THESE METHODS RESULT IN THE DELIVERY OF VERY
DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS OF A DRUG INTO THE BLOOD SUPPLY WITHIN A GIVEN PERIOD.
• CHEMICALS CAN BE DIRECTLY ADMINISTERED TO THE BRAIN THROUGH THE SURGICAL
IMPLANTATION OF MICROPIPETTES. THIS TECHNIQUE ALLOWS RESEARCHERS TO OBSERVE THE
EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS ADMINISTERED IN AN AWAKE, FREELY MOVING ANIMAL.
 8. GENETIC METHOD

a. TWIN STUDIES
• ONE APPROACH TO THE QUESTION OF HEREDITY VERSUS ENVIRONMENT IS TO COMPARE THE VARIABLE OF
INTEREST BY USING IDENTICAL (MONOZYGOTIC) AND FRATERNAL (DIZYGOTIC) TWINS.
• THIS NATURAL COMPARISON PROVIDES A FAIR AMOUNT OF CONTROL BECAUSE WE CAN ASSUME THAT TWINS
ENJOY SIMILAR PRENATAL AND POSTNATAL ENVIRONMENTS.
• COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE TWO TYPES OF TWINS PROVIDE A SENSE OF THE EXTENT OF GENETIC
INFLUENCE ON A TRAIT OF INTEREST.
• PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS SUCH AS BIPOLAR DISORDER AND SCHIZOPHRENIA, ARE SIGNIFICANTLY
INFLUENCED BY HEREDITY. OTHERS, SUCH AS MDD, SHOW SOME EVIDENCE OF GENETIC VULNERABILITY BUT
ARE ALSO HEAVILY INFLUENCED BY ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES.
B. ADOPTION STUDIES
- COMPARING THE SIMILARITIES OF AN ADOPTED INDIVIDUAL TO HIS OR HER BIOLOGICAL AND
ADOPTIVE PARENTS.
- SIMILARITIES TO THE BIOLOGICAL PARENTS SUGGEST A ROLE OF HEREDITY, WHEREAS
SIMILARITIES TO THE ADOPTIVE PARENTS SUGGEST A ROLE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
 9. STEM CELLS

• AN UNDIFFERENTIATED CELL THAT CAN DIVIDE AND DIFFERENTIATE INTO OTHER TYPES OF CELLS.
• ONE OF THE MOST PROMISING APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF REPAIRING BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
DAMAGE.
• VARIOUS TYPES OF STEM CELLS OFFER DIFFERENT SETS OF ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
a. EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS – USUALLY OBTAINED FROM EMBRYOS IN THE BLASTOCYST STAGE, OR
ABOUT 5 DAYS AFTER CONCEPTION IN HUMANS. THEY ARE VIRTUALLY IMMORTAL AS THEY CAN
DIVIDE ENDLESSLY IN THE LABORATORY.
b. B. ADULT STEM CELLS – RETRIEVED FROM BLOOD, NERVE CELLS, MUSCLE, THE CORNEA AND RETINA
OF THE EYE, SOME INTERNAL ORGANS, AND SKIN. THESE CELLS ARE LESS FLEXIBLE AND CAN ONLY
DIFFERENTIATE INTO CELLS SIMILAR TO THEIR SOURCE.