MODULE 1

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Computer network/data network: A network can be defined as a group of computers and
other devices connected in some way so as to be able to exchange data. A network allows nodes
to share resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each other
using connections between nodes (data links). These data links are established over cable media
such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi. Each of the devices on the
network can be thought of as a node, each node has a unique address.
Advantages of computer network:

• It enhances communication and availability of information: Networking, especially

with full access to the web, allows ways of communication that would simply be
impossible before it was developed. Instant messaging can now allow users to talk in
real time and send files to other people wherever they are in the world, which is a huge
boon for businesses. Also, it allows access to a vast amount of useful information,
including traditional reference materials and timely facts, such as news and current
events.

• It allows for more convenient resource sharing: This benefit is very important,
particularly for larger companies that really need to produce huge numbers of resources
to be shared to all the people. Since the technology involves computer-based work, it is
assured that the resources they wanted to get across would be completely shared by
connecting to a computer network which their audienceis also using.

• It makes file sharing easier : Computer networking allows easier accessibility for
people to share their files, which greatly helps them with saving more time and
effort, since they could do filesharing more accordingly and effectively.

• It is highly flexible. This technology is known to be very flexible, as it gives users the
opportunity to explore everything about essential things, such as software without
affecting their functionality. Plus, people will have the accessibility to all information
they need to get and share.

• It is an inexpensive system. Installing networking software on your device would not

cost too much, as you are assured that it lasts and can effectively share information to
your peers. Also, there is no need to change the software regularly, as mostly it is not
required to do so.

• It increases cost efficiency. With computer networking, you can use a lot of software
products available on the market which can just be stored or installed in your system or
server and can then be used by various workstations.

• It boosts storage capacity. Since you are going to share information, files and resources
to other people, you have to ensure all data and content are properly stored in the

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 system. With this networking technology, you can do all of this without any hassle,
while having all the space you need for storage.

Disadvantages of computer network

• It lacks independence. Computer networking involves a process that is operated using

computers, so people will be relying more of computer work, instead of exerting an
effort for their tasks at hand. Aside from this, they will be dependent on the main file
server, which means that, if it breaks down, the system would become useless, making
users idle.
• It poses security difficulties. Because there would be a huge number of people who
would be using a computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a
certain user’s security would be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that
would occur, which you need to be careful about and aware of.

• It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware. There would be
instances that stored files are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus, network
administrators should conduct regular check-ups on the system, and the stored files at
the same time.
• Its light policing usage promotes negative acts. It has been observed that providing
users with internet connectivity has fostered undesirable behaviour among them.
Considering that the web is a minefield of distractions—online games, humor sites. The
huge network of machines could also encourage them to engage in illicit practices, such
as instant messaging and file sharing, instead of working on work-related matters.
While many organizations draw up certain policies on this, they have proven difficult
to enforce and even engendered resentment from employees.
• It requires an efficient handler. A computer network to work efficiently and
optimally, it requires high technical skills and know-how of its operations and
administration. A person just having basic skills cannot do this job. Take note that the
responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions and passwords
can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration and connection is very tedious and
cannot be doneby an average technician who does not have advanced knowledge.
• It requires an expensive set-up. Though computer networks are said to be an
inexpensive system when it is already running, its initial set up cost can still be high
depending on the number of computers to be connected. Expensive devices, such as
routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the cost. Aside from these, it would also
need network interface cards (NICs) for workstations in case they are not built in.
• It lacks robustness. If a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire
system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking
server that fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill. To deal with these
problems, huge networks should have a powerful computer to serve as file server to
make setting up and maintaining the network easier.

USES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

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Business Applications: Many companies have a substantial number of computers. For
example, a company may have separate computers to monitor production, keep track of
inventories, and do the payroll. Initially, each of these computers may have worked in isolation
from the others, but at some point, management may have decided to connect them to be able to
extract and correlate information about the entire company. The issue here is resource sharing,
and the goal is to make all programs, equipment, and especially data available to anyone on the
network without regard to the physical location of the resource and theuser.
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among employees.
A third goal for increasingly many companies is doing business electronically with other
companies, especially suppliers and customers.
A fourth goal that is starting to become more important is doing business with consumers over
the Internet. Airlines, bookstores, and music vendors have discovered that many customers
like the convenience of shopping from home.

Home Applications
Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
• Access to remote information.
• Person-to-person communication.
• Interactive entertainment.
• Electronic commerce.

NETWORK HARDWARE

Mobile computers, such as notebook computers and personal digital assistants (PDAs), are one
of the fastest growing segments of the computer industry.
There are two types of transmission technology that are in widespread use. They are as
follows:
Broadcast links.
Point to point links.

Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on
the network.packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.Address filed within
the packet specifies intended recipient. upon receiving machine checks address fields.If the
packet is intended for receiving machine it processses the packet else ignore it.

Broadcasting
Possibility of addressing the packet to all destinations by using special code in address field.It
is received and processsed by every machine on the network.
Multicasting
source node wants to send messages to some subset of other nodes, but not all of them. An
example of wireless network WIFI point-point network consists of many connections between

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individual pairs of machines. To go from source to destination, packet have to visit one or
more intermediate machines.
smaller, gepgraphically localized network tend to use broadcasting whereas larger networks
usually are point-point.
unicasting
Point-point transmission with one sender and one receiver.
Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of machines.
To go from the source to the destination, a packet on this type of network may have to first visit
one or more intermediate machines. Machine are received by all the others.

Types of computer network

• Personal Area Network (PAN)
The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a
computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building.
These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences and are managed by
one person or organization from a single device.
Eg : wireless computers ,keyboard &Mouse Bluetooth
embedded headphones

• Local Area Network (LAN)

Privately owned networks within single building. They are widely used to connect PC and
workstations in company offices and factories to share resources and exchanges information.
LANS are distunguished from other kinds of network bby three characeteristics:
1. Size 2. Transmission technology 3. Topology
• Lans are restricted in size. This simplifies network amanagement.
• Also called enterprise network
• Two broadcast network-bus and ring

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LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices together across short distances
(within a building or between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each
other) to share information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and maintain LANs

LAN (Local Area Network) links the devices in local areas such as in your campus, building
etc. It provides useful way of sharing resourcessuch as printer &scanner, sharing of file server.

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such as Wi-Fi.
Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs, these types of networks don’t
require thatdevices rely on physical cables to connect to the network.
• Campus Area Network (CAN)
Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs, explained below),
these types of networks are typically seen in universities, large K-12 school districts or small
businesses. They can be spread across several buildings that are fairly close to each other so
users can share resources.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs
– and incorporate elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area
(typically a town or city, but sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by
either a single person or company (a local council, a large company, etc.).
MAN covers a particular tower or large city. It exceeds to 32 to 40 km or 20 to 25 miles.
Multiple LAN connected to form LAN. MAN provides uplink for LAN to WAN. They provide
faster communication using optic cable. The backbone of MAN is high capacity &high- speed
fibre optics.

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• Wide Area Network (WAN)
Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer
physical distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected
to each other over one large network to communicate even when they’re miles apart. WAN
covers a particular country. A WAN connects small network LAN & MAN.A computer user
in one location can communicate with computer user in other location. It connects more than
one LAN’S. It is used for large geographical area. It is active larger than 30miles.

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INTERNETWORKS
Many networks exist in the world, often with different hardware and software. People
connected to one network often want to communicate with people attached to a different one.
The fulfilment of this desire requires that different, and frequently incompatible networks, be
connected, sometimes by means of machines called gateways to make the connection and
provide the necessary translation, both in terms of hardware and software. A collection of
interconnected networks is called an internetwork or internet. An internetwork is formed when
distinct networks are interconnected. Internetworking is the practice of connecting a computer
thhrough the use of gateways that provide a common method of routing information packets
between the networks. The resulting system of interconnected networks is called an
internetwork. The most notable example of internetworking is the internet, a network of
networks based on many underlying hardware technologies, but unified by an internetworking
protocol standard, the internet protocol suite, often also referred to as TCP/IP.

NETWORK SOFTWARE

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The first computer networks were designed with the hardware as the main concern and the
software as an afterthought. This strategy no longer works. Network software is now highly
structured.

PROTOCOL
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity
is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply
send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the
entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is
communicated.The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

PROTOCOL HIERARCHIES

To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers or levels,
each one built upon the one below it. The number of layers, the name of each layer, the
contents of each layer, and the function of each layer differ from network to network. The
purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers
from the details of how the offered services are actually implemented. Layer n on one machine
carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The rules and conventions used in
this conversation are collectively known as the layer n protocol.

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In order to understand how the actual communication is achieved between two remote hosts
connected to the same network, a general network diagram is shown above divided into a
series of layers. As it seen later on the on the course the actual number as well as their function
of each layer differs from network to network.
Each layer passes data and control information to the layer below It. As soon as the data
are collected form the next layer, some functions are performed there and the data are
upgraded and passed to the next layer.This continues until the lowest layer is reached.Actual
communication occurs when the information passes layer 1 and reaches the Physical medium.
This is shown with the solid lines on the diagram.
Theoretically layer n on one machine maintains a conversation with the same layer in
the other machine. The way this conversation is achieved is by the protocol of each layer.
Protocol is collection of rules and conventions as agreement between the communication
parties on how communication is to proceed. The latter is known as virtual communication and
is indicated with the dotted lines on the diagram above.
Layer n of one machine carries a conversion with the layer n of another machine. The rules and
conversion are collectively known as protocol. Entities comprising layers of different machine
is called peer process.
The data and information is passed by each layer to the lower layer. When the lower layer is
reached it is passed to the physical medium which actual communication occurs. Between the
pair of adjacent layer their lies the interface. The interface defines which type of services the
lower layer offers to the upper layer.
Protocols are together called protocol stack or set of protocols.
As far as the above diagram is concerned another important issue to be discussed is the interface
between each layer. It defines the services and operation the lower layer offers to the one above
It. When a network is built decisions are made to decide how many layers to be included and
what each layer should do. So each layer performs a different function and as a result the
amount of information past from layer to layer is minimized.

Design issues for a layer

• Every layer has a mechanism of connection establishment.

Since a network has many computers, some having multiple process. A machine has to specify
with whom it has to establish connection. Because of having consequence of multiple
destination, the addressingis needed in order to specify the specific destination.
• Another set of design decisions concerns the rules for data transfer.

In some data transfer take place in one direction and in some other it travel in both direction
but not simultaneously. And there are situations were data transfer takes place simultaneously.
Protocol determines howmany logical channels are needed per connection.
• Error control: The physical communication circuits are not perfect. There are error
detecting and error correcting codes. Both ends of the connection should agree which one

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 is being used. The receiver must someway tell the sender which message is have been
correctly received and which is not.
• Speed of sender is greater than the receiver.There will be some kind of access from the
receiver to the senderdirectly & indirectly about the receiver current situation.
• Inability of process to accept long message.
• Very expensive to set up connection for each communicationprocess.
• Reliability: It is a design issue of making a network that operates correctly even when it
is made up of unreliable components.
• Addressing: There are multiple processes running on one machine. Every layer needs
a mechanism to identify senders andreceivers.
• Error Control: It is an important issue because physical communication circuits are
not perfect. Many error detecting and error correcting codes are available. Both sending
and receiving ends must agree to use any one code.
• Flow Control : If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then
there must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow receivers.
There are several mechanisms used for flow control such as increasing buffer size at
receivers, slow down the fast sender, and so on. Some process will not be in position to
accept arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to mechanisms for disassembling,
transmitting andthe reassembling messages.
• Multiplexing and De-multiplexing : If the data has to be transmitted on transmission
media separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate connection for each
pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the physical layer at
sender end and de-multiplexing is need at the receiver end.
• Scalability : When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is important
so that network can continue to work wellwhen it gets large.
• Routing : When there are multiple paths between source and destination, only one
route must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing algorithms,
which chooses optimized route to the destination.
• Confidentiality and Integrity: Network security is the most factor.Mechanism that
provide confidentiality defend against threats like eavesdropping. Mechanisms for
integrityprevent faulty changes to messages.

Service Primitives : Each protocol which communicates in a layered architecture

communicates in a peer to peer manner with its remote protocol entity. Communication
between adjacent protocol layers (i.e. within the same communications node) are managed by
calling functions, called Primitives, between the layers. A service is formally specified by a set
of primitives (operations) available to a user process to access the service. These primitives tell
the service to perform someaction or report on an action taken by a peer .

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 • There are
various types of actions that may be performed by primitives. Examples of primitives
include: Connect, Data, FlowControl, and Disconnect.

Some of the services are:

Each primitive specifies the action to be performed or advises the result of a previously requested
action. A primitive may also carry the parameters needed to perform its functions. One
parameter is the packet to be sent/received to the layer above/below (or, more accurately,
includes a pointer to data structures containing a packet, often called a "buffer").
There are four types of primitive used for communicating data. The four basic types of
primitive are :
Request : A primitive sent by layer (N + 1 ) to layer N to request a service. It invokes the
service and passes any required parameters. Indication : A primitive returned to layer (N +
l) from layer N to advise of activation of a requested service or of an action initiated by the
layer N service.
Response : A primitive provided by layer (N + 1) in reply to an indication primitive. It
may acknowledge or complete an action previously invoked by an indication
primitive.

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Confirm : A primitive returned to the requesting (N + l)st layer by the Nth layer to
acknowledge or complete an action previously invoked bya request primitive.
To send Data, the sender invokes a Data. Request specifying the packet to be sent, and the
Service Access Point (SAP) of the layer below. At the receiver, a Data. Indication primitive is
passed up to the corresponding layer, presenting the received packet to the peer protocolentity.

REFERENCE MODELS
• OSI MODEL 2. TCP/IP MODEL
OSI REFERENCE MODEL
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has 7-layers and attempts to abstract
common features common to all approaches to data communications, and organize
them into layers so that each layer only worries about the one above it and the one
directlybelow it.

Although the actual data transmission is vertical, starting from the Application layer of the
clients’ computer all the way to the Application layer of the destination computer, each layer is
programmed as though the data transmission were horizontal. This can be observed by above
figure. In this figure peers are entities comprising the corresponding layers on each machine
meaning that the peers that communicate using the protocol. In reality, as I stated above, no data
are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to the corresponding layer on another
machine.
Physical Layer

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 The physical layer has as a main function to transmit bits over a communication channel as
well as to establish and terminate a connection to a communications medium. It is also
responsible to make sure that when one side sends a '1' bit the other side will receive '1' bit and
not '0' bit. The physical layer is combination of 1s and 0s.it is concerned with transmitting raw
bits over a communication channel. Voltage needs for transfer.

Data Link Layer

Data link layer provides means to transfer data between network entities. At the source machine,
it takes the bit streams of data from the Network Layer breaks into frames and passes them to
the physical layer. At the receiving end data link layer detects and possibly corrects the errors that
may occur during the transmission and passes the correct stream to the network layer. It's also
concerned with flow control techniques. It controls the flow of transmission, and error detection.
That is the main task of this layer is to take raw transmission facility and transform it into a line
that appears free of transmission errors to the network layer. It accomplishes the task by having
the sender break the input data up into data frames, transmit the data sequentially and process the
acknowledgement frames sent back to the receiver. The data link layer creates and recognize the
frame boundaries. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns at the beginning and
endof the frame.
Network Layer
This layer performs network routing, flow control and error control functions. Network routing
simply means the way packets are routed from source to destination and flow control. prevents
the possibility of congestion between packets which are present in the subnet simultaneously
and form bottlenecks. The main task of this layer is to decide the path from multiple paths.
That is the key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
They are highly dynamic.
If too many packets are present in a subnet at the same time they will get in each other’s way
forming bottlenecks. The control of such congestion also belongs to this layer. When a packet
has to travel from one network layer to its destination, many problems may arise. The
addressing used by the second network may be different from the first one. The second packet
may not accept the packet because it is too large. The protocols may differ. It is up to the
network layer toovercome all these problems to allow heterogenous networks interconnected.

Transport Layer
The Transport Layer has as a main task to accept data from the Session layer, split them up into
smaller units an passes them to the Network layer making sure that all the pieces arrive
correctly to the destination. It is the first end-to-end layer all the way from source machine to
destination machine unlike the first three layers which are chained having their protocols
between each machine. This is shown clearly in the diagram above. This layer will ensure that
the data reached to receiver without any error. And the basic function of this layer is to accept
data from the session layer, split it up to smaller units if need be, pass to the network layer and
ensure that all pieces arrive correctly at the other end. Also the transport layer creates a distinct
network connections for each transport connection required by the session layer. If the transport
connection requires high throughput the transport layer might create multiple network

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connections dividing the data among the network connections to improve throughput. Transport
layer might multiplex several transport connections on to the same network connection in
order to reduce the cost.
Session Layer
Session layer is responsible for controlling exchange information and for synchronization.
This layer is for creating a session dialog control and which allows the user on different
machines to establish sessions between them. session layer has the total management f
synchronization .also allow a user to log into a time sharing system.one of the services of the
session layer is to manage the dialogue box.

Presentation Layer
It is responsible to translate different data formats from the representation used inside the
computer (ASCII) to the network standard representation and back. Computers use different
codes for representing character strings so a standard encoding must be used and is handled by
the presentation layer. Generally, in a few words this layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information transmitted. The presentation layer performs encapsulation,
description, compression and decompression. Also certain functions that are requested
sufficiently often to warrant finding a general solution for them. The presentation layer is also
concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.

Application layer
The upper layer of this model performs common application service for the application processes
meaning that software programs are written in the application layer to handle the many
different terminal types that exist and map the virtual terminal software onto the real terminal.
It contains a variety of protocols and is concerned with file transfer as well as electronic mail,
remote job entry and various other services of general interest. This layer has a particular
application. It contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed. Another application
of this layer is file transfer. Different file system has different file naming conventions, different
ways of representing text lines and on.

TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

TCP/IP reference model was named after its two main protocols: TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol). This model has the ability to connect multiple networks
together in a way so that data transferred from a program in one computer are delivered safely
to a similar program on another computer.

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Host-to-Network Layer
It translates data and addresses information into format appropriate for an Ethernet net wo rk
o n T o ken r ing net wo r k. It uses a pr ot oco l specified due to lack of information
concerned with this layer) in order for the host to connect to the network. Through this layer
communication is achieved with physical links such as twisted pair or fibre optics carrying 1's
and 0's. The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens here,
except to point out that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can
send IP packets to it. This protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to
network.

Internet Layer
This layer is a connectionless internetwork layer and defines a connectionless protocol called
IP. Its concerned with delivering packets from source to destination. These packets travel
independently each taking a different route so may arrive in a different order than they were send.
Internet layer does not care about the order the packets arrive at the destination as this job
belongs to higher layers. This layer, called the internet layer, is the linchpin that holds the
whole architecture together. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and
have they travel independently to the destination (potentially on a different network). They
may even arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which case it is the job of higher
layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. Note that ''internet'' is used here in a
generic sense, even though this layer is present in the Internet.
The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).
The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. Packet
routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion. For these reasons, it is
reasonable to say that the TCP/IP internet layer is similar in functionality to the OSI network
layer. Fig. shows this correspondence.

Transport Layer
It contains two end-to-end protocols. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol and is responsible
for keeping track of the order in which packets are sent and reassemble arriving packets in the

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 correct order. It also ensures that a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered
without error on any other machine on the internet. The incoming byte stream is fragmented
into discrete messages and is passed to the internet layer. With an inverse process, at the
destination,an output stream is produced by reassembling the received massage.
UDP is the second protocol in this layer and it stands for User Datagram Protocol. In contrast to
TCP, UDP is a connectionless protocol used for applications operating on its own flow control
independently from TCP. It is also an unreliable protocol and is widely used for applications
where prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery. such as transmitting speech
or video. The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the
transport layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry
on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer. Two end-to- end transport protocols have
been defined here. The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable
connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be
delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. It fragments the incoming byte
stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer. At the destination,
the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output stream. TCP also
handles flow control 26 to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more
messages than it can handle.

Application Layer
It is the upper layer of the model and contains different kinds of protocols used for many
applications It includes virtual terminal TELNET for remote accessing on a distance machine,
File Transfer Protocol FTP and e-mail (SMTP). It also contains protocols like HTTP for fetching
pages on the www and others. The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. On
top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The
early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP),
as shown in Fig.6.2. The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto a
distant machine and work there. The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently
from one machine to another. Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a
specialized protocol (SMTP) was developed for it. Many other protocols have been added to
these over the years: the Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host names onto their
network addresses, protocols for moving USENET news articles around, and HTTP, the protocol
for fetching pages on theWorld Wide Web, and many others.

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DATA COMMUNICATIONS

When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can be local or remote.
Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance. The term telecommunication, which includes
telephony, telegraphy, and television, means communication at a distance (teleis Greek for
"far").
The word data refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur,
the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data
communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy,
timeliness, and jitter.

I. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been
altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

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3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as
they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This
kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4.Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets
are sent every 3D ms. Ifsome of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with
4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

COMPONENTS

A data communications system has five components

I. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4.Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which
a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media
include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two
devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French
cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Data Flow(Modes of Communication)

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as

shown in Figure 1

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Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure 1.2a). Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the
monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to
send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex mode is like a
one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are traveling in one direction,
cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a
channel is taken over by whichever of
the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both
half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
direction at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for
each direction.

Full-Duplex
In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure 1.2c).
The full-duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same
time. In full-duplex mode, signals s going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must
contain two physically separate transmisssion paths one for sending and the other for receiving;
or the capacity of the channel is divided

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between signals traveling in both directions. One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network.
When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.

Physical Topology

The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.: Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring

Mesh

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the devices it connects. To find
the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider
that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes,
node 2 must be connected to n - 1 nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes.
We need n(n - 1) physical links. However, if each physical link allows communication in both
directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say
that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links.

To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n - 1
input/output (VO) ports to be connected to the other n - 1 stations.

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A mesh offers several advantages over other network topologies.

• First, the use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data
load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by
multiple devices.
• Second, a mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate
the entire system.
• Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users
from gaining access to messages.
• Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can
be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network
manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and
solution.

The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling and the number of I/O
ports required.
First, because every device must be connected to every other device, installation and
reconnection are difficult. Second, the sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available
space (in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
Finally, the hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive. For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for
example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include
several other topologies.

One practical example of a mesh topology is the connection of telephone regional

offices in which each regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.

Star Topology

• In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike
a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The
controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it sends the
data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected device .
• A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it
easy to install and reconfigure.
• Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault
isolation.
• One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

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 • Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central
hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies
(such as ring or bus).
• High-speed LANs often use a star topology with a central hub.

Bus Topology

• A bus topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to
link all the devices in a network.
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices
into the main cable. As a signal travels along the backbone, some ofits energy is
transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and
farther. Forthis reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the
distance between those taps.
• Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation.
• Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually
designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new
devices. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.

Ring Topology

• In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended
for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

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• A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only
itsimmediate neighbors.
• To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
• However, unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring
(such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.

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